122 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. BME-26, NO.
2, FEBRUARY 1979
was the highest frequency reached in this test due to limita-
tions in the recording device (HP oscillographic recorder).
Phase-locked tracking systems are unable to track echos
from structures which exceed a certain upper velocity. The
value of this maximum velocity is a function of the wavelength
(X) of ultrasound in the transmitting media, and the repetition
rate at which the ultrasound is pulsed. The reflecting structure
cannot move by more than X/4 between consecutive pulses if
phase-lock is to be maintained. Thus, the maximum allowable
velocity of a reflecting structure is S (pulse repetition rate) e
X/4. As an example, a 5 MHz ultrasonic system (X = 0.3 mm
in tissue), pulsed at a rate of 2 kHz, would be able to track a
reflecting structure whose maximum velocity .150 mm/s.
Note that a two-transducer, send and receive system, measures
the transit time of the ultrasonic wavefront in one direction
only and can therefore tolerate transducer displacements of
X/2 mm between consecutive samples. Thus, the maximum
velocity would be 300 mm/s.
The device described above measures the distance between
two points which are defined by either two piezoelectric trans-
ducers or one transducer and a reflecting target. Its primary
use in our laboratory has been to measure muscle shortening in
the intact heart wall of anesthetized animals. This method of
tracking pulsed ultrasound would be useful where signal
strength and stability of the received ultrasonic signal is too
low to permit a simple amplitude discriminator from accurately
detecting the arrival of an echo. This tracking method could
be applied to pulsed-echo systems, where the orientation of
the reflecting structures are constantly changing, and thus
varying the returning signals' amplitude.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors express appreciation to Dr. John V. Tyberg
and the staff of the Cardiovascular Division's Research Labo-
ratory, UCSF, for their cooperation and support of this work,
and to Robert Battagin for his help in reviewing this article.
REFERENCES
1. Hokanson, D. E., D. J. Mozersky, D. S. Sumner, D. E. Strandness,
Jr. A phase-locked echo tracking system for recording arterial
diameter changes in vivo. J. Appl. Physiol. 32: 728-733. May,
1972.
Fitting of Mathematical Functions to Biomechanical Data
K. M. JACKSON
Abstract-A method is presented to decide the order a polynomial or
Fourier series best represents a set of biomechanical data points, with
regard to the calculation of the first and second derivatives of the data.
INTRODUCTION
Biomechanical analysis of human movement often entails a
computerized analysis of the mechanics of the movement in
question. Most of the data are used in digital form, either by
manual digitization of a chart record, or by feeding the infor-
Manuscript received May 16, 1977; revised March 15, 1978.
The author is with the Department of Physics, Division of Biological
Sciences, Guy's Hospital Medical School, London, England.
0018-9294/79/0200-0122$00.75 © 1979 IEEE
mation directly to a computer via an A-D converter. Four
specific sources of information are usually available:
1. Measurement of the angular position of limbs, either by
means of cinematography (1, 2) or some form of goniometry
(3,4,5).
2. Measurement of the acceleration of limbs using acceler-
ometers placed at strategic points upon the limbs (6).
3. Measurement of the external forces applied to a limb
during contact with an external surface, either using a force
platform, or other methods (7, 8).
4. An estimate of the forces produced by various muscle
groups from electromyographic signals suitably processed and
interpreted (9, 10, 1 1).
It is necessary to provide mathematical functions that
describe the information derived from the above four groups.
This provides not only a function describing the parameter in
question, but allows the smoothing of errors accumulated in
either the measurement, recording, or digitization processes.
The main functions used are polynomials (Least squares,
Minimax, Chebyshev, etc.) (2, 12, 13), Fourier series (13),
and cubic splines (13, 14, 15).
If the information is used in its original form and none of
its derivatives are needed, polynomials or Fourier series, taken
to a high order in both cases, suffice to provide an accurate
representation. The maximum order possible, to get sensible
results from either of these types of series, is equal to half the
number of data points available (12, 16). Problems occur
when derivatives of the original data are required, e.g., 2nd
derivatives of positional information. If a high order series
is used, the resulting function for the derivatives becomes
dominated by the higher order terms. This is due to the series
approximation becoming so accurate that it follows the
errors in the data points, thus, any slightly erroneous data
point produces a large change in the derivatives.
Unless an arbitrary limit is placed on the series order (usually
3rd, 4th, or 5th order) the only available methods of knowing
at what order the derivatives diverge are either by calculating
a series approximation at increasing orders and visual inspection
of the changes occurring in the derivatives, or by use of a
cubic spline function fitted to the data within a certain maxi-
mum least square error. Both methods involve arbitrary
choices about either the series order or the maximum least
squares error.
Any method of overcoming these restrictions and providing
a mathematical method of choosing a function to fit a certain
set of data points would remove arbitrariness and the necessity
for visual inspection. Thus, the level at which a function is
chosen could be built into the total computing process. If
the data are discontinuous and the derivatives are needed,
the only recourse is a cubic spline. Because of its construction
as a set of 3rd order equations interpolating between the
points, a cubic spline can follow local variations in the data
better than global functions such as polynomials or Fourier
series. However, this is at the expense of producing a set of
functions for the needed mathematical description, each valid
in a certain interval, and thus introducing complexities into
subsequent manipulation of these functions. In the majority
of cases, the data are reasonably smooth, therefore poly-
nomials or Fourier series suffice.
TECHNIQUE
The following method of choosing the order of a series to
fit a set of data points applies equally well to polynomials or
Fourier series. For many instances a Fourier series approxima-
tion is preferable, for reasons to be discussed later.
If a series is fitted to a set of data, the accuracy of fit can be
examined by looking at the residuals (the difference between
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. BME-26, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1979 123

oa 00000
°o
0 A
0
0
30 -

000
ap
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0
00
0 00
w:n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C 0:
cc 5
x
LL 20 0

o0
3
0
iL
000
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000 An
000 00 00000000 A E AA
A A A A A A A A A aAA A A

0000000o
1 10 20 30
0 50 100 SERIES ORDER
PERCENTAGE OF CYCLE Fig. 2. Average error, expressed as a percentage of the total range of the
Fig. 1. An example of flexion of the forearm at the elbow during data in Fig. 1, plotted against the series order used for reconstruction.
normal human walking at a cadence of 100 steps/min-1. The vertical
scale represents angular movement in degrees. The horizontal scale is
time measured as a percentage of the walking cycle.
4
the value of the derived function at a particular point and the
original value at that point). A visual examination is the
method commonly used (13, 15). At orders too low to pro-
duce a reasonable fit to the data, information is still present in
the residuals. The residuals become random when the data set
is approximated to a reasonable accuracy. This process is '4

not only time-consuming and prone to error, but cannot be LU)

reproduced with any suitable mathematical process in a LU

computer program. 0
2
Flexion of the forearm at the elbow joint during normal
human locomotion provides a suitable example illustrating the
process described below. The rotation of the forearm at the
elbow joint shown in Fig. 1 was recorded using an R. F. 1
goniometer attached around the elbow (5, 17). The signal
was displayed on a U.V. chart recorder (Galvanometer fre-
quency response 500 Hz) using a paper speed of 100 mm * s- 0 0
This was then manually digitized at intervals of 1 mm with a o n a 0
0
o

D-Mac digitizer which had an inherent accuracy of ±0.1 mm. I 10 20 30

Fig. 1 is an average of 3 consecutive cycles taken from a subject
walking at a cadence of -100 steps/min-'. These 3 cycles,
each containing 120 digitized points, then averaged
using a computer program to produce a set of 64 data points
representing the cyclic data.
From Fig. 2 it can be seen that as a higher order approxi-
mation is used, above a certain level, an increase in series order
produces no appreciable decrease in the average error. The
point at which this occurs is also the point at which an accept-
able fit to the original data occurs. The location of this 'knee'
point in Fig. 2 can be found by inspection of the absolute
value of the 2nd derivative of this curve, calculated by linear
interpolation of the data in Fig. 2 to produce the first deriva-
tive, and linear interpolation between the first derivative points
to produce the second derivative. This second derivative
settles down to a small value as soon as the 'knee' of Fig. 2 is
passed, and the curve is nearly linear (Fig. 3).
A computer program to calculate the average value of the
residuals and linearly interpolate the second derivative is
simple to construct. If the absolute value of the second deriva-
tive has been less than a prescribed level for three consecutive
orders of approximation the 'knee' point is deemed to have
occurred, and from here onwards extra harmonics will follow
errors, and not the original function. The prescribed level
mentioned, beneath which a logical choice is made, is simple
to decide upon because of the discontinuous nature of Fig. 3.
In the example shown in Figs. 1-3 the program made a choice
that a Fourier series up to the 5th harmonic provided a good
representation of the original data.
SERIES ORDER
were
Fig. 3. The second derivative (interpolated) of Fig. 2 plotted against
the series order used for reconstruction.
This method has been used with data encompassing higher
harmonics than the curve shown in Fig. 1, with similar success.
Acceleration, both vertical and horizontal, of the shoulder
during normal walking in man provides complex curves (18).
These were measured using accelerometers attached to the
acromion and digitized as above. The computing routine
decided that a Fourier series provided a faithful representation
of the data with a maximum number of harmonics some-
where in the region 6-10, the exact number being decided for
each particular case.
DISCUSSION
The previously described method can also be used for poly-
nomials. Fourier series weie used in preference to polynomials
in the above examples because the original data were cyclic in
nature. A major use of reconstructed data curves is in the
solution of differential equations pertinent to the specific
human motion under study. It is often worthwhile to allow
the computed solution of the differential equation to 'run'
for a few cycles in order that any initial transients can die
away. A Fourier series reconstruction is eminently suitable
for this purpose as it is valid outside its range of construction
(recurrent at intervals of 27r). A polynomial is only valid
within its range of construction. A check at increasing series
124 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. BME-26, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1979
orders requires calculation of the series coefficients at each
order in the case of a polynomial. A Fourier series requires the
coefficients to be calculated only once, since reconstruction
takes place using increasing numbers of these coefficients.
Thus the amount of computing time needed to determine
the series order by the above process is far greater when using
a polynomial rather than a Fourier series approximation.
If derivatives of the constructed function are necessary a
polynomial approximation becomes erroneous when derivatives
are calculated near the extremes of the original range of con-
struction. (Cubic splines are similar in this respect.) This is
due to the polynomial having no knowledge of what direction
the curve would take outside the range of construction. A
Fourier series is inherently cyclic in nature and as long as the
initial and final data points are matched (a self-fulfilling
criterion with cyclic data) the derivatives will be representative
even when the series is used across the original boundaries of
construction.
In place of the average error of reconstruction, the maximum
error could be used to calculate the series order necessary.
Using this parameter gives curves similar to Fig. 2 with larger
values for the error. The danger in using this is that any large
scale error occurring in the data will be fitted by the series
reconstruction. However, in certain circumstances the accurate
reconstruction of a sharp peak in the data may be the primary
aim. Thus, usage of the maximum error as the deciding factor
in determining the series order to be used is then justified. No
doubt the criterion of having the second derivative of Fig. 2
remains below a specified level is not the only method of de-
ciding the order of series to be used. Other methods involving
a combination of average and maximum error or similar
processes combined with a restriction that the error must be
below some prescribed value can be used, and must be decided
upon with respect to the particular problem under scrutiny.
REFERENCES
1. M. P. Murray, "Gait as a total pattern of movement," Am. J. Phys.
Med., vol. 46, pp. 290-333, 1967.
2. S. Plagenhoef, "Patterns of Human Motion: a cinematographic anal-
ysis." Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1971.
3. F. R. Findlay, P. V. Karpovich, "Electrogoniometric analysis of
normal and pathological gaits," Res. Q. Am. Assoc. Health. Phys.
Educ., vol. 35, pp. 379-384, 1964.
4. D. W. Grieve, "A device called Polgon," J. Physiol. ,vol. 201, p. 70P,
1969.
5. S. A. G. Chandler, J. M. Nightingale, E. M. Sedgwick, "A multi-
channel R.F. goniometer,"J. Physiol., vol. 226, pp. 1 lP-12P, 1972.
6. J. R. W. Morris, "Accelerometry-A technique for the measurement
of human body movements,"J Biomech. vol. 6,pp. 729-736,1973.
7. B. Bresler, J. P. Frankel, "The forces and moments in the leg during
level walking." Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. vol. 72, pp. 27-36,
1950.
8. J. W. Gersten, W. Orr, A. W. Saxton, D. Okin, "External work in
level walking," J. Appl. Physiol. vol. 26, pp. 286-289, 1969.
9. B. Bigland, 0. C. J. Lippold, "The relation between force, velocity
and integrated electrical activity in human muscles," J. Physiol.
vol. 123, pp. 214-224, 1954.
10. A. Gydikov, N. Tankov. "Impulse interference in the summated
electromyogram," Acta. Physiol. Pharmacol. Bulg., vol. 2, pp. 18--
27, 1974.
11. S. Milner-Brown, R. B. Stein, "The relation between the surface
electromyogram and muscular force,"J. Physiol. vol. 246, pp. 549-
569, 1975.
12. G. E. Forsyth, "Generation and the use of orthogonal polynomials
for data fitting with a digital computer." J. Soc. Indust. Appl.
Math., vol. 5, pp. 74-88, 1957.
13. B. Camahan, H. A. Luther, J. 0. Wilkes,Applied Numerical Meth-
ods, J. Wiley and Sons, 1969.
14. S. Wold, "Spline functions in data analysis," Technometrics, vol.
16,pp.1-11,1974.
15. R. F. Zernicke, G. Caldwell, E. M. Roberts, "Fitting biomechanical
data with cubic spline functions," Res. Q. Am. Assoc. Health. Phys.
Educ., vol. 47, pp. 9-19, 1976.
16. A. R. Stokes, "A numerical Fourier-analysis method for the correc-
tion of widths and shapes of lines on X-ray powder photographs."
Proc. Phys. Soc.,vol. 61,pp. 382-391, 1948.
17. K. M. Jackson, "The linearity of radio-frequency transducers,"
Med. and Biol. Eng. and Comput., vol. 15, pp. 97-106, 1977.
18. B. K. N. Rao, B. Jones, "Some studies on the measurement of head
and shoulder vibration during walking," Ergonomics, vol. 18,
pp. 555-566, 1975.