PHYSICAL MODELING

STRUCTURAL MODELS
• Structural model
➢ Any structural element or assembly of structural elements built to a reduced scale (in
comparison with full size structures) which is to be tested and for which the laws of
similitude must be employed to interpret test results. (similitude – likeness, similarity,
resemblance)
• Applications
➢ Buildings, bridges, dams, towers, shells, aerospace and mechanical engineering
structures, undersea structures, etc.
➢ Research studies using large scale models where similitude conditions are not applied
but designs are based upon observed behavior of these models
• Loadings and Materials
➢ Static, simulated seismic, thermal, wind effects, etc.
➢ Prototype materials may or may not be used in structural models
• Scale factors
➢ Reinforced, pre-stressed precast concrete structures: 10
➢ Block masonry structures: 3 to 5
➢ Timber and steel: 5 to 15
Model classification
• Elastic models
➢ Have direct geometric resemblance to the prototype
➢ Made of homogeneous elastic material that may or may not resemble the prototype
material
➢ Testing limited to the elastic range of prototype and hence not used to predict inelastic
behavior modes (e.g. post cracking of concrete/masonry, post yielding of steel, etc.)
➢ Plastics (Plexiglas, lacite, Perspex, PVC, wood, etc.) are commonly used to construct
elastic models
• Indirect models
➢ Special form of elastic model used to obtain influence diagrams from reactions and
internal forces (i.e. shear forces, bending moments, axial forces)
➢ Have no direct physical resemblance to the prototype e.g. a frame whose behavior is
controlled by flexural stiffness EI can be modelled by any indirect model reproducing the
relative stiffness (also structural dynamics modeled by use of springs in parallel or in
series)
• Direct models
➢ Geometrically similar to the prototype in all aspects
• Strength models (ultimate strength/realistic/replica models)
➢ Direct model made of materials similar to prototype materials
• Wind effects models
➢ Use shape or rigid models which measure either total forces or wind pressures on a
structure
➢ Also use aero-elastic models where both shape and stiffness properties of the prototype
are modelled (aeroelasticity – science of interaction between aerodynamicforces and non-
rigid structures)
• Dynamic models
➢ Used to study vibration or dynamic loading on structures using shaking tables (to study
earthquake loading effects) or wind tunnels to study aerodynamic effects
➢ Used also to study blast or impact effects
• Instructional, research and design models
➢ Instructional models - simple for demonstration of study concepts
➢ Research models – used to substantiate theories (hence accurate)
➢ Design models - used as conceptual tools to get a better idea how a proposed structure
will behave under loading or to verify calculations for large structures where failure
consequences would be extremely serious (nuclear reactor structure, stadium, etc.
• Other models
➢ Thermal models (for studying temperature gradients), photomechanical models (for
stress intensities), construction procedure models (for planning of building of complex
structures)
MOST USED MODELING TECHNIQUES IN EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

• Photo-elasticity for elastic stress analysis of complex geometries

• Deformeters for introducing deformations into indirect models and
then determine influence lines
• Mechanical and optical strain gages for measurement of surface
strains
• Electrical resistance strain gages (also used in load cells and LVDTs)
• Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT), linear
potentiometers
• Brittle coatings, moiré and interference fringe methods, photo-elastic
coatings for full field surface strain measurements
• Automated data acquisition using computer controls capable of
processing many data channels
USE OF STRUCTURAL MODELS IN DESIGN PROCESSES
• Experimental or numerical analysis procedures may be permitted
where it can be shown that such procedures provide safe basis for
design especially in complex structures of unusual sizes, shapes and
/or complexity such as:
➢Shell roofs
➢Tall structures and other wind sensitive structures
➢Complex bridge configurations
➢Nuclear reactor vessels, and reinforced and pre-stressed concrete vessels
➢Ordinary framed structures subjected to complex loading conditions (e.g.
wind and earth quake forces) or interaction of many components
➢Dams
➢Under sea and offshore structures
➢Structural slabs with unusual boundary/loading conditions or with
irregular geometry or with changing thicknesses
➢Detailing (e.g. to take care of localized large stresses)
OPTIMUM GEOMETRIC SCALE FACTORS
TYPE OF STRUCTURE ELASTIC MODEL STRENGTH MODEL

Shell roof 1:200 to 1:50 1:30 to 1:10

Highway bridge 1:25 1:20 to 1:4

Beam/slab structures 1:25 1:10 to 1:4

Dams 1:400 1:75

Wind effects 1:300 to 1:50 Not applicable

• NOTE:
➢Small model are more difficult to fabricate and instrument
➢Large model are easier to build but require heavier loading
THE MODELING PROCESS
• Define the scope of the problem (what is or is not needed?)
• Specify similitude requirements for geometry, materials, loading and
interpretation of results
• Decide on size of model required and required level of reliability or accuracy (%)
• Plan a fabrication phase
• Select instrumentation and recording equipment for strains, displacements,
forces, etc.
• Design and prepare loading equipment
• Observe the response of the model during loading, taking complete notes and
photographic records of the behavior
• Analyze the data and write the report as soon as possible while the entire test is
still fresh in the mind
REMEMBER THE THREE LAWS??
Experiments must be carefully planned, controlled and interpreted if they are to
succeed
ADVANTAGES OF MODEL ANALYSIS (OVER ANALYTICAL MODEL)
• It portrays behavior of a complete structure loaded to collapse stage
• Difficult to predict analytically the failure capacity of complex structural
systems
• Reduction in cost in conducting experiments on structures at reduced scales
(reduction in loading equipment cost due to load reduction factor e.g. A
100kN prototype will require 0.25kN on a 1:20 scale! (why?); reduction on cost
of fabrication of scaled model test structures and disposal after testing -
smaller)
LIMITATIONS OF MODEL ANALYSIS (OVER ANALYTICAL MODEL)
• More expensive and require more time
• Physical modeling not meant to replace analytical models but should be used
always in situations where mathematical analysis is inadequate or not
feasible
• Changes in prototype design resulting from results of a model study will
require new modelling to check the new design
Models play an invaluable role in improving knowledge of structural
behavior thereby paving way for new and improved design methods
ACCURACY OF STRUCTURAL MODELS
• To what degree of accuracy can a model duplicate the response of
the prototype?
• Adequate definitions of reliability and accuracy are difficult to
formulate due to inherent variability of the prototype itself (e.g.
reinforced concrete structures)
• Two supposedly identical concrete elements/structures will
normally show differences of 20% or more. This suggests that
multiple prototypes and multiple model are required for the results
to be treated statistically – more expenses
• Factors affecting model accuracy:
➢Material properties
➢Fabrication accuracy
➢Loading techniques
➢Measurement methods
➢Interpretation of results
MODEL LABORATORIES
• High quality structural modeling is best done by skilled engineers
and technician at established laboratories
• Considerable time, patience and financial resources are required
in establishing a diverse structural test laboratory
MODELING CASE STUDIES
SUMMARY
(see ref.)