• SIZE EFFECT

➢ Specimens of smaller sizes are observed to have higher strength than prototypes
➢ Extensive theoretical studies carried out on size effects
➢ How should size effects be considered in interpreting data from models? Consult relevant Standards or Codes
• ERRORS IN STRUCTURAL MODEL STUDIES
➢ Structural model analysis may be considered as a sequence of 5 steps i.e. (a) planning, (b) fabrication, (c) loading,
(d) data recording and (e) interpretation and/or correlation to the prototype.
➢ Errors may enter into each of these stages as follows:
Stage Errors Remedies
Planning • Mistakes in dimensional analysis All variables involved in the
• Failure to recognize a relevant variable model should be accounted
• Mistake in proportioning model for adequately
• Choice of inadequate material

Fabrication • Geometrical errors – thickness, length, etc. Material properties should

• Material properties be carefully modeled
Loading • Boundary conditions All loading conditions must
• Magnitudes be reproduced as faithfully
• Directions as possible
• Time history, etc.

Instrumentation • Errors in writing down data and readings Correct instrumentation and
and data • Electrical resistance gages – errors in bonding, calibration, gage factor, recording instrument, temperature data capture
recording compensation; chemical attacks, gage stiffening, etc.
• Displacements – calibration errors, recording instrument errors, inadequate support systems for models and
recording instruments, etc.
• Pressure – inadequate calibration and/or reading of pressure gages, meniscus correction in liquid
manometers, etc.

• Errors in reducing data Accuracy on data analysis,

Interpretation • Incorrect assumptions e.g. plane strain instead of plane tress correct assumptions
TYPES OF ERRORS
Type of error Examples
Blunders • Use of incorrect logic in dimensional analysis
• Outright mistakes • Misreading of instruments
• Have no place in scientific studies • Making mistakes in dimensional units
• Eliminated by care and repletion of • Incorrect mounting of strain gages
experiments (fullness) • Mistakes in loading
Random errors • Variations inherent estimating the smallest division
• The difference between a single measured on some measuring instrument
value and the best value of a set of • The fluctuation in apparent strain due to random
measurements whose origin is random (e.g. (a) supply voltage changes in an electrical resistance
depth of a given steel section may not be equal gage circuit
to the specified nominal value as steel
manufacturing companies specify depths with
± torelances resulting in random ranges of
depths (b) the yield stresses of some specified
steel sections may vary over a range of values)
Systematic errors • Improper bonding of strain gages
• e.g. the use of an old ruler with worn out ends • Improper supports (e.g. moment resistant support
in measurements will introduce errors used when hinged support required)
• Incorrect calibration of measuring instruments
• Use of wrong E and v values when converting
strain into stress
STATISTICS OF MEASUREMENT
• Extensive statistical theories have been formulated to enable engineers
make logical quantitative statements concerning behaviours of structural
systems influenced by random fluctuations
• Although many errors in model studies may be systematic, there are
many experimental phenomena that are random and hence the need for
techniques of treatment of random phenomena
• Most common continuous probability density function in direct
measurements is the normal Gaussian density function. ( Φ 𝒕 is the
probability that a random variable x observed (deflection, strain, etc.) was
less than some value, say t)

The normal density function Area under the normal density function
ACCURACY IN MODELS
Dimensional and • Dimensional accuracy – maintain the same degree of accuracy as in
fabrication accuracy the prototype (± 5% tolerance)
Accuracy related • Model materials generally should be identical to those of the prototype
material properties generally
• However in the case of elastic models, different materials may be used
without accuracy if a certain number of similitude requirements are
met
Accuracy in testing and • Accuracy of test setup
taking measurements • Accuracy of loading techniques (may have challenges in scaling
loadings, support systems)
• Accuracy in taking measurements

Accuracy in • Accurate and reliable test results and their interpretations essential
interpretation of test • Degree of accuracy dependent on intimate knowledge of the model
results material properties
• Compare results with some available theory (in case of differences,
which is the better predictor? Adjust theory to fit experimental data or
adjust model to fit theoretical predictions
• Were there experimental errors? If no, depend on experimental work
OVERALL RELIABILITY OF MODEL RESULTS

• Usually there is no sufficient time and finances other than for a few
tests
• To guard against loss of accuracy, follow procedures which include:
➢Calibrations procedures prior to testing
➢Statics checks during and after testing, debugging of computer
programmes
➢Symmetry checks
➢Repeatability checks
➢Comparison with analytical predictions
➢Observation of trends in data generated
➢Gross behavior observations