Answers

13. What are the major geological process and the resulting landforms of Ethiopia and the horn in
Mesozoic and Paleozoic Era?

The geology of Ethiopia includes rocks of the Neoproterozoic East African Orogeny, Jurassic marine

sediments and Quaternary rift-related volcanism. Events that greatly shaped Ethiopian geology is the
assembly and break-up of Gondwana and the present-day rifting of Africa.

Rocks formed by the East African Orogeny 880 to 550 million years ago make up the oldest geological
units in Ethiopia. The orogeny caused the closure of the ancient Mozambique Ocean. Rocks of Ethiopia
formed concurrently with the Mozambique Belt and the Arabian-Nubian Shield[1] forming a large north-
south (predent-day coordinates) mountain chain called the Transgondwanan Supermountain. Erosion of
this mountain may have played a role in triggering the Cambrian explosion. Erosion of the orogen and
mountain was such that by the early Paleozoic a planation surface extended across Ethiopia. Sedimentary
rocks of Ordovician age cover this surface making it largely an unconformity. At parts the unconformity
of the Precambrian basement has glacial striations, rôche moutonnées and chatter marks formed likely
during the Karoo Ice Age. The Paleozoic sedimentary cover above the unconformity is of fluvial and
glacial origin (Enticho Sandstone, Edaga Arbi Glacials).

Early Jurassic marine sediments cover much of the older sediments including a planation surface
of Triassic age. These sediments deposited as result of a regional marine transgression swept over
the Horn of Africa during the initial break-up of Gondwana. Resultant rocks
include sandstone, limestone, shale, marls and evaporites (Adigrat Sandstone, Antalo Limestone, Amba
Aradam Formation). A third major plantion surface and unformity formed in the following a tectonic
event in the Early Cretaceous that tilted carbonates in the Tigray and Dire Dawa-Harar areas.[1] On top of
this surface lies a series a fluvial sediments. Depositions of marine sediments continued in eastern
Ethiopia's Ogaden basin until the Eocene.

The Ethiopia-Yemen Continental Flood Basalts or Ethiopian traps that cover much of Ethiopia flowed
over both irregular surfaces and peneplains preserving laterite soil beneath. The flood basalts covered
initially a much larger area (>750,000 km2) just after eruption about 30 million years ago in
the Oligocene with volumes reaching 350,000 km3 (Ashangi Basalts, Alaji Basalts). Since then erosion
has reduced areal extent and volumes. The modern pattern of volcanism concentrated to the Afar
Depression and the Main Ethiopian Rift begun in Late Miocene time.[1] The area of modern volcanism
contains the bulk of Ethiopias geothermal energy resources.[4

1
The Ethiopian region records about one billion years of geological history. The first event was
the closure of the Mozambique ocean between West and East Gondwana with the development
of the Ethiopian basement ranging in age from 880 to 550 Ma. This folded and tilted Proterozoic
basement underwent intense erosion, which lasted one hundred million years, and destroyed any
relief of the Precambrian orogen. Ordovician to Silurian fluviatile sediments and Late
Carboniferous to Early Permian glacial deposits were laid down above an Early Paleozoic
planation surface. The beginning of the breakup of Gondwana gave rise to the Jurassic flooding
of the Horn of Africa with a marine transgression from the Paleotethys and the
Indian/Madagascar nascent ocean. After this Jurassic transgression and deposition of Cretaceous
continental deposits, the Ethiopian region was an exposed land for a period of about seventy
million years during which a new important peneplanation surface developed. Concomitant with
the first phase of the rifting of the Afro/Arabian plate, a prolific outpouring of the trap flood
basalts took place predominantly during the Oligocene over a peneplained land surface of
modest elevation. In the northern Ethiopian plateau, huge Miocene shield volcanoes were
superimposed on the flood basalts. Following the end of the Oligocene, the volcanism shifted
toward the Afar depression, which was experiencing a progressive stretching, and successively
moved between the southern Ethiopian plateau and the Somali plateau in correspondence with
the formation of the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER). The detachment of the Danakil block and
Arabian subcontinent from the Nubian plate resulted in steep marginal escarpments marked by
flexure and elongated sedimentary basins. Additional basins developed in the Afar depression
and MER in connection with new phases of stretching. Many of these basins have yielded human
remains crucial for reconstructing the first stages of human evolution. A full triple junction was
achieved in the Early Pliocene when the MER penetrated into the Afar region, where the Gulf of
Aden and the Red Sea rifts were already moving toward a connection via the volcanic ranges of
northern Afar. The present-day morphology of Ethiopia is linked to the formation of the Afar
depression, MER, and Ethiopian plateaus. These events are linked to the impingement of one or
more mantle plumes under the Afro-Arabian plate. The elevated topography of the Ethiopian

2
plateaus is the result of profuse volcanic accumulation and successive uplift. This new highland
structure brought about a reorganization of the East Africa river network and a drastic change in
the atmospheric circulation.

14. List down the approaches of Geography?

Approaches to the Study of Geography

Geography has undergone several changes in its approach. The earlier geographers were
descriptive geographers. Later, geography came to be developed as an analytical science. Today
the discipline is not only concerned with descriptions but also with analysis as well as prediction.
There are two distinct approaches or methods to study geography. They are: Systematic approach
and 2. Regional approach

Systematic Approach:

Systematic or nomothetic approach was introduced by Alexander Von Humbolt, a German

geographer (1769-1859). In this approach a particular phenomenon is considered for detailed
understanding. The study of specific natural or human phenomenon that gives rise to certain
spatial patterns and structures on the earth surface is called systematic study. Generally,
systematic geography is divided into four main branches.

1.        Physical Geography: Study of various elements of earth systems like atmosphere (air),
hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (rock) and biosphere (life) and their distributions.

2.        Biogeography, including environmental geography: It focuses on various kinds of forests,

grasslands, distribution of flora and fauna, human-nature relationships, quality of the living
environment and its implications for human welfare.

3.        Human Geography: It describes the human culture, population, dynamic socio economic and
political aspects.

4.        Geographical methods and techniques: It is concerned with methods and techniques for field
studies, qualitative, quantitative and cartographic analysis.

Regional Approach:

It is otherwise called as ideographical approach. It was developed by Carl Ritter (1779 – 1859), a
contemporary of Humbolt. The regions could be classified based on a single factor like relief,
rainfall, vegetation, percapita income or there could also be multi-factor regions formed by the
association of two or more factors. Administrative units like states, districts and taluks can also
be treated as regions. The main sub branches of regional geography are : i) Regional studies ii)

3
Regional analysis iii) Regional development and iv) Regional planning.

Geographical Data Matrix:

The matrixis a simple method of arranging information in rows and columns for better
understanding of complex spatial problems. Brian J.L. Berry adopted this method
from anthropology for studying geography more effectively.Geographic data can be arranged in
a rectangular array or matrix. Row-wise group of variables represent the systematic or topical
branches of geography while, regions are represented by columns. Berry has explained that
regional synthesis could be derived with the help of a series of geographic matrices in correct
temporal sequence. Each time period has been taken to be equivalent to a ‘slice’ of the three-
dimensional cake. The diagram of ‘Third Dimension’ makes it possible to examine rows and
columns, cutting across time.

15. List down the natural and anthropogenic causes of climate change

Abstract We test for causality between

radiative forcing and temperature
using
multivariate time series models and
Granger causality tests that are robust
to the
non-stationary (trending) nature of
global climate data. We find that both
natural and
anthropogenic forcings cause
temperature change and also that
temperature causes
4
greenhouse gas concentration changes.
Although the effects of greenhouse
gases and
volcanic forcing are robust across
model specifications, we cannot detect
any effect
of black carbon on temperature, the
effect of changes in solar irradiance is
weak,
and the effect of anthropogenic
sulfate aerosols may be only around
half that
usually attributed to them.
1 Introduction
Despite a strengthening consensus that
the increase in anthropogenic emissions
of

5
greenhouse gases is partially
responsible for the observed increase in
global temper-
ature since the mid-20th century,
scientific debate continues on several
issues, includ-
ing the relative size of individual
causes of climate change such as
sulfate aerosols
(Kaufmann et al. 2011), the El Nino-
Southern Oscillation (Compo and
Sardeshmukh
2010; Tung and Zhou 2013), black
carbon (Bond et al. 2013), the existence
of climate
feedbacks on the global carbon cycle
(Piao et al. 2008; Barichivich et al.
2012), and

6
whether increases in carbon dioxide
precede or follow global warming
(Shakun et al.
2012; P a r r e n i n e t a l . 2013).
Here, we test for causality between
radiative forcing and
temperature using multivariate time
series models and Granger causality
tests that are
robust to the non-stationary (trending)
nature of global climate data.
One approach to detecting and
attributing climate change involves
estimating time
series models of the relation between
temperature and relevant forcing
variables (e.g.

7
Stone and Allen 2005; S t e r n 2006;
Lean and Rind 2008; Beenstock et al.
2012; C a n t y
et al. 2012). The validity of these
models depends critically on the time
series
properties of the variables and the
model residuals (Stern and Kaufmann
2000).
Climatic Change (2014) 122:257–269
DOI 10.1007/s10584-013-1007-x
D. I. Stern (*)
Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian
National University, Canberra, ACT 0200,
Australia
e-mail: david.stern@anu.edu.au
R. K. Kaufmann
Department of Earth and Environment, Boston
University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
e-mail: kaufmann@bu.edu
Man-made(anthropogenic) greenhouse gases

8
Specifically, the time series for many
forcings are non-stationary, and may be
sto-
chastically trending (Stern and
Kaufmann 2000)—only the changes in
the variable are
stationary—which invalidates the naive
application of classical static regression
anal-
y s i s . H o w e v e r , i t i s
v e r y h a r d t o i d e n t i f
y t he actual data generating process,
and,
therefore, the statistical properties of
the time series, because available tests
have low
statistical power to discriminate among
alternatives, and the temperature series,
in
9
particular, are noisy due to internal
variability (Stern and Kaufmann 2000).
Alternatively, robust Granger causality
tests that do not depend on the
statistical
properties of the time series (Toda and
Yamamoto
1995) m a y o f f e r a m o r e r
e l i a b l e
approach to attributing climate change
to specific forcings. A time series
variable x
(e.g. radiative forcing) is said to
Granger cause variable y (e.g. surface
temperature) if
past values of x help predict the
current level of y given all other
relevant informa-

10
tion. This hypothesis can be tested by
estimating a multivariate time series
model,
known as a vector autoregression
(VAR), for x, y, and other relevant
variables. The
VAR models the current values of each
variable as a linear function of their
own past
values and those of the other variables.
Then we test the hypothesis that x does
not
cause y by evaluating restrictions that
exclude the past values of x from the
equation
for y and vice versa.
Granger causality tests depend on
which additional variables are
included or
11
excluded from the statistical model. If
the model omits an important causal
variable,
omitted variable bias can generate
false conclusions about Granger
causality
(Lütkepohl 1982). In particular,
interpreting a finding that a variable
Granger causes
another variable only implies actual
causation if other possible causes are
controlled
for (Granger 1988). Therefore, in this
paper, we test the effects of potential
forcings
while controlling for the effects of all
other relevant forcings. The notion of
Granger

12
causality depends on the ability of one
variable to predict another conditional
on other
relevant information. While rejection of
the null that a variable does not help
predict
the other while controlling for other
relevant causes might reasonably be
taken as an
indication of causation per se, non-
rejection of the null could be due to a
variety of
other reasons discussed in the next
section of the paper. Therefore, we
need to be
cautious in interpreting a finding of no
Granger causality as implying that
there is

13
truly no causal relationship between the
variables.
To identify causal relations between
radiative forcing and temperature and
explore
uncertainty about the effects, we
compile annual global time series data
for temper-
ature and an expanded set of radiative
forcings from 1850 to 2011, create
several
scenarios for the relative size of
uncertain forcings, and test for Granger
causality
between the radiative forcing and
temperature series using Toda and
Yamamoto’s

14
(1995) robust Granger causality test.
We find that both natural and
anthropogenic
forcings cause temperature change and
also that temperature causes
greenhouse gas
concentrations.
1
Additionally, though the effects of
greenhouse gases and volcanic
forcing are robust across model
specifications, we cannot detect any
effect of black
carbon on temperature, the effect of
changes in solar irradiance is weak, and
the effect
of anthropogenic sulfate aerosols may
be only around half that usually
attributed to
them (Boucher and Pham 2002).
15
1
Here and in the remainder of the paper we use
“cause” for “Granger cause” to make the paper
more readable.
258 Climatic Change (2
Since the start of the industrial revolution in the mid-eighteenth century, human activities have greatly
increased the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Consequently, measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are many times higher than pre-
industrial levels.

The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are:

 burning fossil fuels leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations

 farming and forestry — including land use change via agriculture and livestock
 cement manufacture
 aerosols — chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Burning fossil fuels

Global carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel burning, 1751–2006. (Boden et al., 2009) CLICK TO
ENLARGE.

Carbon dioxide levels are substantially higher now than at any time in the last 750 000 years. Beginning
with the industrial revolution in the 18th century, the combustion of fossil fuels has elevated CO 2 levels
from a concentration of approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) in the atmosphere in pre-industrial
times to around 387 ppm today.
Concentrations are increasing at a rate of about 2–3 ppm/year. These increasing concentrations are
projected to reach a range between 535 to 983 ppm in the atmosphere by the end of the 21st century.

Together with rising emissions of methane and other greenhouse gases, and the associated feedback
effects, it is suggested that these changes may possibly cause an increase of 1.4–5.6°C between 1990
and 2100. Consequently some scientists have suggested setting goals to try to limit concentrations to 450
or 500 ppm.

16
Farming and forestry
Land use change (mainly deforestation in the tropics) accounts for up to one third of man-made
CO2 emissions.

Land use change (mainly deforestation in the tropics) accounts for up to one third of total anthropogenic
CO2 emissions.
Agricultural activities such as livestock digestion, manure use, paddy rice farming, land use and wetland
changes, pipeline losses, and vented subsurface landfill emissions all lead to higher methane
atmospheric concentrations.

The use of fertilizers can also lead to higher nitrous oxide (N 2O) concentrations.

Agriculture
Prior to widespread fossil fuel use, man’s largest effect on local climate was to change land use by
activities such as irrigation, deforestation, and agriculture.

Prior to widespread fossil fuel use, man’s largest effect on local climate was to change land use by
activities such as irrigation, deforestation, and agriculture.

Land use may alter the local albedo (reflectivity of the Earth’s surface) by reducing vegetation ground
cover, altering the way sunlight is absorbed or reflected. It is possible that the climate of Greece and other
Mediterranean countries was permanently changed by widespread deforestation (wood being used for
shipbuilding, construction and fuel) between 700 BC and 1 AD, with the result that the modern climate of
these countries is significantly hotter and drier than it was before.

Similarly, land in Australia was permanently altered shortly after humans arrived some 40 000 years ago
when areas of temperate rainforest were burned down to produce grasslands that favoured game that the
new inhabitants preferred to eat.

Livestock
Livestock produce natural methane gas emissions.

According to the United Nations, livestock is responsible for 18 per cent of the world’s greenhouse gas
emissions. This percentage includes the effect of deforestation in order to create grazing land, as well as
livestock natural methane gas emissions. These include nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global
warming potential of CO2) and methane (which has 23 times the global warming potential of CO 2).
In the Amazon rainforest, 70 per cent of deforestation is specifically carried out to create grazing land.

Cement manufacture
The cement industry produces around 5 per cent of global man-made CO 2 emissions.

Cement manufacture contributes CO2 to the atmosphere when calcium carbonate is heated, producing
lime and carbon dioxide. CO2 is also produced by burning the fossil fuels that provide the heat for the
cement manufacture process.
It is estimated that the cement industry produces around 5 per cent of global man-made CO 2 emissions,
of which 50 per cent is produced from the chemical process itself, and 40 per cent from burning fuel to
power that process.
The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is more than 900 kg of CO 2 for every 1000 kg of
cement produced.

17
Aerosols
Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling,
whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming.

Aerosols (particles suspended in the atmosphere), particularly sulphate aerosols from fossil fuel
combustion, exert a cooling influence by reducing sunlight.

The use of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has increased in refrigeration systems, and use of CFCs and
halons in fire suppression systems and manufacturing processes.

16. What are the major response mechanisms to climate change? Discus briefly

Climate change is one of the most complex issues facing us today. It involves many dimensions
– science, economics, society, politics and moral and ethical questions – and is a global problem,
felt on local scales, that will be around for decades and centuries to come. Carbon dioxide, the
heat-trapping greenhouse gas that has driven recent global warming, lingers in the atmosphere
for hundreds of years, and the planet (especially the oceans) takes a while to respond to warming.
So even if we stopped emitting all greenhouse gases today, global warming and climate change
will continue to affect future generations. In this way, humanity is “committed” to some level of
climate change.

How much climate change? That will be determined by how our emissions continue and
also exactly how our climate system responds to those emissions. Despite increasing awareness
of climate change, our emissions of greenhouse gases continue on a relentless rise. In 2013, the
daily level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere surpassed 400 parts per million for the first time
in human history. The last time levels were that high was about three to five million years ago,
during the Pliocene Epoch.

Because we are already committed to some level of climate change, responding to climate
change involves a two-pronged approach:

1. Reducing emissions of and stabilizing the levels of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere (“mitigation”);

2. Adapting to the climate change already in the pipeline (“adaptation”).

Mitigation and Adaptation

Credit: trekandshoot/Shutterstock.com

Mitigation – reducing climate change – involves reducing the flow of heat-trapping

greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these gases (for example,
the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat or transport) or enhancing the “sinks” that
accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests and soil). The goal of mitigation is
to avoid significant human interference with the climate system, and “stabilize greenhouse gas
levels in a timeframe sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, ensure

18
that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a
sustainable manner” (from the 2014 report on Mitigation of Climate Change from the United
Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, page 4).

Adaptation – adapting to life in a changing climate – involves adjusting to actual or

expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate
change (like sea-level encroachment, more intense extreme weather events or food insecurity). It
also encompasses making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities associated with
climate change (for example, longer growing seasons or increased yields in some regions).

Throughout history, people and societies have adjusted to and coped with changes in climate and
extremes with varying degrees of success. Climate change (drought in particular) has been at
least partly responsible for the rise and fall of civilizations. Earth’s climate has been relatively
stable for the past 12,000 years and this stability has been crucial for the development of our
modern civilization and life as we know it. Modern life is tailored to the stable climate we have
become accustomed to. As our climate changes, we will have to learn to adapt. The faster the
climate changes, the harder it could be.

While climate change is a global issue, it is felt on a local scale. Cities and municipalities are
therefore at the frontline of adaptation. In the absence of national or international climate policy
direction, cities and local communities around the world have been focusing on solving their
own climate problems. They are working to build flood defenses, plan for heatwaves and higher
temperatures, install water-permeable pavements to better deal with floods and stormwater and
improve water storage and use.

According to the 2014 report on Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (page 8)
from the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, governments at various
levels are also getting better at adaptation. Climate change is starting to be factored into a variety
of development plans: how to manage the increasingly extreme disasters we are seeing and their
associated risks, how to protect coastlines and deal with sea-level encroachment, how to best
manage land and forests, how to deal with and plan for reduced water availability, how to
develop resilient crop varieties and how to protect energy and public infrastructure.

17. Biophysical and Socioeconomic Features of the Ethiopian Highlands

The highlands3 extending across more than one-third of Ethiopia's area (World Bank 2004) are

divided by the Great Rift Valley, running from the southwest to northeast, and surrounded by

lowlands on all sides. Nearly 85 percent of Ethiopia's population, 95 percent of its cultivated

land, and 80 percent its 35 million cattle are found in the highlands. The considerable diversity of

Ethiopia's highland areas means that many factors influencing the adoption of land management

inputs and investments are highly sensitive to the local biophysical and socioeconomic context.

19
 Biophysical characteristics

the main biophysical characteristics of the Ethiopian highlands at the

regional level. All regions are distinguished by differences in elevation, climate, and degree of

exposure to animal and livestock disease hazards. In the northem and eastern regions, annual

average temperatures range from 20-22° Centigrade (C) in lower elevations (weyna-dega zones)

to 10-12° C in higher elevations (dega zones). Rainfall patterns exhibit high temporal and spatial

variability. Rainfall is generally lower in the eastern and northern highland areas than in the

western and southwestern highlands; for example, annual rainfall ranges from about 500

millimeters in eastern Tigray to nearly 2,000 millimeters in western Oromiya. The coefficient of

variation (CV) of annual rainfall is between 20 and 30 percent in most places, with a tendency to

be lower in the higher-rainfall western and southwestern areas than in the lower-rainfall north and

east. Not surprisingly, the length of the growing period also varies from the northeast to

southwest, from less than three months in parts of Tigray to more than six month in high-rainfall

areas of western Oromiya and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region (SNNPR)

(Tefera et al. 2002).

Highland soils are diverse, and their distribution is influenced greatly by physiographic and

geological conditions. The shallow, stony soils of the mountainous areas differ greatly from the

deep soils of the gently rolling hills, with their dark-red to brown color.

Socioeconomic characteristics
The main socioeconomic characteristics of the Ethiopian highlands. Total
population was about 22 million in 2003, with generally higher densities in the
higher-rainfall zones, especially in southem SNNPR (World Bank 2004). The average
population density ranges from 30 people per square kilometer in western
Tigray to more than 500 people per square kilometer in some areas of SNN PR.
The holding of an average rural household can range from 0.3 hectares in the densely
populated areas of SNNPR to slightly more than 1.0 hectare in the less densely populated
parts of Oromiya and Amhara.

Average livestock holdings generally also vary inversely with population density and
rainfall, from as little as 0.2 tropical livestock units (TLU) per household in some areas of
SNNPR to 1.3 TLU per household in western Tigray.4

20
Agriculture in the highlands is dominated by rainfed, mixed crop-livestock
farming. In lower- and medium-rainfall areas, cereals and cattle dominate the
farming system (Hagos, Pender, and Gebreselassie 1999; Desta et al. 2001). In
high-rainfall areas, perennial crops such as coffee, enset ("false banana"), and chat
are important in the farming system, as well as various annuals and livestock (Tefera
et al. 2002). The wide variety of field crops planted in the highlands includes
several cereals (teff, sorghum, maize, barley, wheat, millet, and oats) and
legumes (horsebeans, faba beans, haricot beans, field peas, chickpeas, lentils, and
others). Root crops such as taro, yams, and sweet potatoes are also common in higher-
rainfall areas (Tefera et al. 2002).

18. Explain briefly the physiographic characteristics of the southeastern highlands

and lowlands.

The South-Eastern Highlands and Lowlands

This physiographic region is the second largest in terms of area. It accounts for 37% of the
area of Ethiopia. The highlands make up 46% of the physiographic division while the rest is
lowland. In the west and north, the eastern escarpment of the Rift Valley makes the western
and northern limit. The land gradually descends southeastward into the southeastern
lowlands and then to the plains of Somalia. These are further subdivided into two units of
highlands and two units of extensive lowlands. These are briefly discussed as follows.

The Southeastern Highlands

The Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands

These highlands are found to the east of the Lakes Region. They are located in the south
western section of the physiographic region. The Arsi Highlands are made up of flat rolling uplands
and dissected mountains. The well-known mountains in this area are Mount Kaka (4,180 m.a.s.l),
Mount Bada (4,139 m.a.s.l) and Mount Chilalo (4,036 m.a.s.l).

The Bale highlands are separated from the Arsi highlands by the head and main stream of
Wabishebelle. They consist of a platform looking basaltic plateau in the north-central part
and high mountain massif to the south. The highest mountain peaks in this region are Tulu-Demtu
(4,377 m.a.s.l) and Mount Batu (4,307 m.a.s.l). The Arsi-Bale Highlands are important grain
producing areas with high potential.

The Sidama Highlands are separated from the Bale Highlands by the Ghenale river valley.
They occupy the southwestern corner of this region. The prominent feature here is the Jemjem
plateau, an important coffee growing area.

Rivers Wabishebelle and Ghenale along with their tributaries have dissected this physiographic
region. Specially, Weyb River, tributary of Ghenale, has cut an underground passage (Sof Omar

21
cave). The cave is found near Bale Mountains. It is one of the World’s most spectacular and
extensive underground caverns creating a magnificent view.

The Hararghe Plateau

This plateau is a north-easterly extension of the south-eastern highlands. It extends from the
Chercher highlands in the south-west to Jigjiga in the east. It has the smallest proportion of upper
highland (>2,000 meters). The highest mountain here is Mount Gara-Muleta (3,381 m.a.s.l).

The Southeastern Lowlands

The Southeastern lowlands are located in the southeastern part of the country and they are the
most extensive lowlands in Ethiopia. They make up 54% of the area of the physiographic region
and around one-fifth of the country. This region is divided into Wabishebelle plain (60%) and the
Ghenale Plain (40%). They include the plains of Ogaden, Elkere, and Borena. They are sparsely
inhabited by pastoral and semi-pastoral communities. The economic potential includes animal
husbandry, irrigation, agriculture and perhaps exploitation of petroleum and natural gas.

19. Explain briefly the characteristics of Ethiopian rivers

Major Rivers of Ethiopia

Water resources

Ethiopia has nine major rivers and twelve big lakes. Lake Tana, for example, in the north is the
source of the Blue Nile. However, apart from the big rivers and major tributaries, there is hardly
any perennial flow in areas below 1,500 m. While the country’s annual renewable freshwater
potential is 122 billion m3, only 3 percent of this amount remains in the country. It is estimated
that 54.4 billion m3 of surface runoff and 2.6 billion m3 of groundwater can be developed for
utilization. Currently less than 5 percent of surface water potential is used for consumptive
purposes.

The Blue Nile River

Blue Nile makes about 80% by volume of the Great Nile River. The Blue Nile from Ethiopia
originating form Lake Tana and the White Nile that originated form Lake Victoria merge into the
Great Nile River at Khartoum, the Sudan capital to form the longest river of the world draining
to the Mediterranean Sea.The Blue Nile Falls is one of the most popular tourist destination sites
along the historic route. The Blue Nile Falls is situated near Tis-Abay town, 30 kms to the east of
Bahir Dar, which is 20-30 minutes walk from the little town of Tiss Abey.

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The Blue Nile flows generally south from Lake Tana and then west across Ethiopia and
northwest into Sudan. Within 30 kilometres (19 mi) of its source at Lake Tana, the river enters a
canyon about 400 kilometres (250 mi) long. This gorge is a tremendous obstacle for travel and
communication from the north half of Ethiopia to the southern half. The power of the Blue Nile
may best be appreciated at Tis Issat Falls, which are 45 metres (148 ft) high, located about 40
kilometres (25 mi) downstream of Lake Tana.

The distance from its source to its confluence is variously reported as 1,460 and 1,600 kilometres
(907 and 1,000 miles). The uncertainty over its length might partially result from the fact that it
flows through a series of virtually impenetrable gorges cut in the Ethiopian Highlands to a depth
of some 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) - a depth comparable to that of the Grand Canyon of the
Colorado River in the United States.

Although there are several feeder streams that flow into Lake Tana, the sacred source of the river
is generally considered to be a small spring at Gish Abbai, situated at an altitude of
approximately 2,744 metres (9,003 ft). This stream, known as the Lesser Abay, flows north into
Lake Tana. Other affluents of this lake include, in clockwise order from Gorgora, the Magech,
the Northern Gumara, the Reb, the Southern Gumara and the Kilte. Lake Tana's outflow then
flows some 30 kilometres before plunging over the Tis Issat Falls. The river then loops across
northwest Ethiopia through a series of deep valleys and canyons into Sudan, by which point it is
only known as the Blue Nile.

The Omo River

The Omo River tumbles its 350 -kilometer way through a steep inaccessible valley before
slowing its pace as it nears the lowlands and then meanders through flat, semi-desert bush
eventually running into Lake Turkana. Since 1973, the river has proved a major attraction for
white-water rafters. The river passes varied scenery, including an open gallery forest of
tamarinds and figs, alive with colobus monkeys. Under the canopy along the riverbanks may be
seen many colorful birds. Goliath herons, blue breasted kingfishers, white-cheeked turacos,
emerald-spotted wood doves and red-fronted bee-eaters are all rewarding sights while monitor
lizards may glimpse scuttling into the undergrowth. Beyond the forest, hippos graze on the
savannah slopes against the mountain walls, and waterbuck, bushbuck and Abyssinian ground
hornbills are sometimes to be seen.

The Baro River

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The Baro River is a river in southwestern Ethiopia, which defines part of Ethiopia's border with
South Sudan. The Baro river is created by the confluence of the Birbir and Gebba Rivers, east of
Metu in the Illubabor Zone of the Oromia Region. From its source in the Ethiopian Highlands it
flows west for 306 kilometres (190 mi) to join the Pibor River. The Baro-Pibor confluence marks
the beginning of the Sobat River, a tributary of the White Nile.

The Baro and its tributaries drain a watershed 41,400 km2 (16,000 sq mi) in size. The river's
mean annual discharge at its mouth is 241 m³/s (8,510 ft³/s).[2]

The only navigable river in Ethiopia. The Baro River area, accessibly by land or air through the
western Ethiopia town of Gambela, remains a place of adventure and challenge.

Awash River

The Awash River is a major river of Ethiopia. Its course is entirely contained within the
boundaries of Ethiopia, and empties into a chain of interconnected lakes that begin with Lake
Gargori and end with Lake Abbe on the border with Djibouti, some 100 kilometers (60 or 70
miles) from the head of the Gulf of Tadjoura. It is the principal stream of an endorheic drainage
basin covering parts of the Amhara, Oromia and Somali Regions, as well as the southern half of
the Afar Region.

The Awash rises south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa in the woreda of Dandi, close to
the town of Ginchi, Mirab (West) Shewa Zone, Oromia. Thence the Awash flows south to loop
around Mount Zuqualla in an easterly then northeasterly direction, passing the Awash National
Park, and joined on its left bank by its chief affluent, the Germama (or Kasam) River, before
turning completely east to reach lake Gargori.

According to materials published by the Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency, the Awash River
is 1200 kilometers long.

Tekeze River

The Tekeze River, is a major river of Ethiopia. For part of its course it forms a section the
westernmost border of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The river is also known as the Setit in Eritrea,
western Ethiopia, and eastern Sudan. According to materials published by the Ethiopian Central
Statistical Agency, the Tekezé River is 608 kilometers (378 mi) long. The canyon which it has
created is the deepest in Africa and one of the deepest in the world, at some points having a
depth of over 2000 meters (6,562 feet).

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The Tekeze River rises in the central Ethiopian Highlands near Mount Qachen within Lasta,
from where it flows west, north, then west again, forming the westernmost border of Ethiopia
and Eritrea from the confluence of the Tomsa with the Tekeze to the tri-point between the two
countries and Sudan. After entering northeastern Sudan, the Tekeze joins the Atbarah River, the
lower course of which is a tributary of the Nile. The Tekeze is perhaps the true upper course of
the Atbarah, as the former follows the longer course prior to the confluence of the two rivers.

 The names of its main tributaries in Ethiopia from its source are: on the right bank Tahali, Meri,
Tellare, Sullo, Arekwa, Gheoa, Wari, Firafira, Tocoro and Gumalo Rivers; on the left bank Nili,
Balagas, Saha, Bembea, Ataba, Zarima, and Kwalema Rivers.

Shebelle River

The Shebelle River, also known as Webi Shabeelle river, begins in the highlands of Ethiopia,
and then flows southeast into Somalia towards Mogadishu. Near Mogadishu, it turns sharply
southwest, where it follows the coast. Below Mogadishu, the river becomes seasonal. During
most years, the river dries up near the mouth of the Jubba River, while in seasons of heavy
rainfall, the river actually reaches the Jubba and thus the Indian Ocean.

The Shebelle river is 1130 kilometers long, extending for 1000 km inside Ethiopia and 130 km
inside Somalia.

Angereb River

The Angereb also known as the Bahr as-Salam is a river of Ethiopia and eastern Sudan, and one
of the sources of the Nile. It rises near Daqwa, north of Gondar in the Amhara Region, flowing
west to join the Atbarah River.

Mereb River

The Mereb River (or Gash River), is a river flowing out of central Eritrea. Its chief importance
is defining part of the boundary between Eritrea and Ethiopia. the Mereb River is 440 kilometres
(270 mi) long. The Ethiopian Ministry of Water Resources reports its Ethiopian catchment area
as 5,700 square kilometres (2,200 sq mi), with an annual runoff of 0.26 billion cubic meters.
Other sources talking about a catchmant of 21,000 square kilometres (8,100 sq mi) to 44,000
square kilometres (17,000 sq mi) over all, and a discharge of 21.6 cubic metres per second
(760 cu ft/s) in average over the year, and 870 cubic metres per second (31,000 cu ft/s) in peaks.
Its headwaters rise south-west of Asmara in central Eritrea. It flows south, bordering Ethiopia,

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then west through western Eritrea to reach the Sudanese plains near Kassala. Unlike the Setit or
Takazze rivers, which flow out of Ethiopia and also forms a natural border with Eritrea, the
waters of the Mareb do usually not reach the Nile but dissipate in the sands of the eastern
Sudanese plains.

The Mareb is dry for much of the year, but like the Takazze is subject to sudden floods during
the rainy season; only the left bank of the upper course of the Mareb is in Ethiopian territory. Its
main tributaries are the Obel River on the right bank (in Eritrea) and the Sarana, Balasa, Mai
Shawesh, and 'Engweya Rivers on the left (in Ethiopia).
20. What is the difference between weather and climate?

Weather reflects short-term conditions of the atmosphere while climate is the average daily
weather for an extended period of time at a certain location.

A storm darkens the sky at the mouth of the Russian River, north of Bodega Bay, Calif. Weather
can change from minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate, is
the average of weather over time and space.

We hear about weather and climate all of the time. Most of us check the local weather forecast to
plan our days. And climate change is certainly a “hot” topic in the news. There is, however, still
a lot of confusion over the difference between the two.

Think about it this way: Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get.

Weather is what you see outside on any particular day. So, for example, it may be 75°
degrees and sunny or it could be 20° degrees with heavy snow. That’s the weather.

Climate is the average of that weather. For example, you can expect snow in the Northeast in
January or for it to be hot and humid in the Southeast in July. This is climate. The climate record
also includes extreme values such as record high temperatures or record amounts of rainfall. If you’ve
ever heard your local weather person say “today we hit a record high for this day,” she is talking about
climate records.

So when we are talking about climate change, we are talking about changes in long-term averages of
daily weather. In most places, weather can change from minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and
season-to-season. Climate, however, is the average of weather over time and space.

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21. Ethiopia is said to be the water tower of Africa, but the country is still suffering from shortage of
water. Why? Explain it

Similar to many African countries, parts of Ethiopia face water shortages, poor sanitation, and a lack of
access to clean water sources. Ethiopia is located in Africa's Horn where drought and politics are two
leading causes of water shortage. In a study conducted by Water.org they found that "42% of the
population has access to a clean water supply" and only "11% of that number has access to adequate
sanitation services". In rural areas of the country, these figures drop even lower, resulting in health
problems in the villagers as well as their animals.

In the past twenty years, droughts have affected several areas of the country, leading to ponds, wells,
streams and lakes drying up or becoming extremely shallow. Many people living outside of the cities
collect water from these shallow water sources, which are often contaminated with human and animal
waste, worms, or disease. During months and sometimes years of drought, disease runs rampant through
small villages and towns. Frequently there is not enough water for people to bathe, leading to infections
and sickness in children. Water borne illnesses, such as cholera or diarrhea, are the leading cause of death
in children under five years old in Ethiopia.

In addition to illness, many Ethiopian children, especially girls, face problems with school. Statistically
only 45% of kids attend primary school. The others are put to work collecting water each morning and
helping their families earn money.

However, not all children face these dire circumstances. In an interview with an Ethiopian Israeli named
Liat, she described her experiences as a child and young teenager growing up in one of Ethiopia's small
villages as comfortable and joyful. Her and her family lived in Ethiopia until she was 15 and then they
immigrated to Israel; now she is 23 years old and has yet to go back. While in Ethiopia, Liat would go
every morning with her mother to collect water from the nearby stream. Unlike some Ethiopian families,
no one in her family ever got sick from the water they were drinking. "We lived in a natural
environment," said Liat, "we never thought about diseases in the water, we just lived off the land." Unlike
eight years ago when Liat last lived in Ethiopia, many more families are now affected by the looming
water shortages. Additionally, Liat lived without running water, electricity, a toilet or shower. The first
time she saw these things and experienced an indoor bathroom was when she immigrated to Israel.
Although Liat would never move back to Ethiopia, she wants to visit and experience her roots and see
where her family came from.

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Kali Shebi, an Ethiopian student at George Mason University, told a different yet similar story about
living in Ethiopia. Born and raised in Ethiopia, Kali lived with her family in the capital, Addis Ababa,
until she was 15. In the city, she had a very comfortable and comparable life to the one she lives today in
Arlington, Virginia. She never had to worry about the cleanliness of the water she was drinking or if her
family was going to have enough water for the day. Outside of the city though, Kali's grandmother lived
more traditionally. "Each morning, Kali said, "my grandmother would go and collect water from the
stream." Then her grandmother would boil the water to purify it, before using it for other uses besides
drinking. In Kali's situation, she did not encounter many water scarcity issues, but she saw water
collecting processes when she visited her grandmother outside of the city.

Another major concern in Ethiopia is how politics affect the locals. During Colonial times, the Nile River
and its tributaries were split up between the nations surrounding it. However today, some Ethiopian
farmers are finding themselves without access to water for irrigation because of the way the river was
divided hundreds of years ago. As the rainy season becomes shorter due to global warming, the fields are
becoming more sandy and dry, making it harder for Ethiopian farmers to survive. The situation in
Somalia, which borders Ethiopia, is making water scarcity issues even more exacerbated because of the
fighting in and around Somalia. Additionally, almost 66% of Africa's 60 river basins are shared by more
than one country. As a result, as Africa faces more problems with water, there could potentially be more
fighting over how those river basins should be divided.

Ethiopia is a nation full of beauty and culture. However it is being severely affected by water shortages.
Fields are drying up and farmers are fighting over irrigation resources. Also, children in villages are
losing out on education and instead are spending their days collecting water for their families. In the
coming years, outside organizations will be of great need to help alleviate the country's water shortages.

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