Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Sustainable solid waste management: An integrated approach for Asian countries

Ashok V. Shekdar *
Nagpur Institute of Technology, Mahurzari, Katol Road, Nagpur 445304, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Solid waste management (SWM) has been an integral part of every human society. The approaches for
Accepted 21 August 2008 SWM should be compatible with the nature of a given society, and, in this regard, Asian countries are
Available online 9 December 2008 no exception. In keeping with global trends, the systems are being oriented to concentrate on sustainabil-
ity issues; mainly through the incorporation of 3R (reduce, reuse and recycle) technologies. However,
degree and nature of improvements toward sustainability are varying and depend on the economic status
of a country. High-income countries like Japan and South Korea can afford to spend more to incorporate
3R technologies. Most of the latest efforts focus on ‘‘Zero Waste” and/or ‘‘Zero Landfilling” which is cer-
tainly expensive for weaker economies such as those of India or Indonesia. There is a need to pragmat-
ically assess the expectations of SWM systems in Asian countries. Hence, in this paper, we analyze the
situation in different Asian countries, and explore future trends. We conceptually evaluate issues sur-
rounding the sustainability of SWM. We propose a multi-pronged integrated approach for improvement
that achieves sustainable SWM in the context of national policy and legal frameworks, institutional
arrangement, appropriate technology, operational and financial management, and public awareness
and participation. In keeping with this approach, a generic action plan has been proposed that could
be tailored to suit a situation in a particular country. Our proposed concept and action plan framework
would be useful across a variety of country-specific scenarios.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2. Situation analysis

Generation of solid waste is a natural consequence of human
life. Removal of that waste is consistent with improved quality of
life. Initially, solid waste management (SWM) techniques aimed
simply to eliminate waste from the vicinity of habitable areas as
a means of maintaining public health. After realizing the hazards
of uncontrolled disposal, measures were devised and implemented
mainly through sanitary landfilling. In recent years, a variety of
material and energy recovery technologies have been devised
and are now included in modern systems. Global efforts are now
in force to reorient SWM systems toward sustainability. Asian
countries are deeply involved in this transition. However, the de-
gree of attention paid to sustainability varies from country to coun-
try and is correlated with economic status. It is necessary to
analyze the situation and develop a plan that could help Asian
countries better manage SWM development in the context of these
changes. This paper assesses several Asian countries to identify is-
sues of relevance to SWM, and it formulates a strategy for improv-
ing Asian SWM sustainability.
* Tel.: +91 712 2285125.
E-mail address: ashok.shekdar@gmail.com
Asia is such a vast and heterogeneous region that it defies gen-
eralization. There are highly developed economies like South Korea
and Japan, as well as developing economies like India, China and
Indonesia. For the most part, solid waste is generated in cities
and is managed by the respective municipal bodies. These services
are provided to the urban population, which is exploding in most
Asian countries. It would be appropriate here to assess the urban
situation and project future trends.
2.1. Urbanization in Asia
Over the past 50 years, many Asian countries have experienced
remarkably rapid economic development and social change, and
this has significantly influenced urban life. Six of the world’s top
10 most populous countries – China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Japan are in Asia. The continent is inhabited by
3.7 billion people, or approximately three-fifths of the world’s pop-
ulation. Of these 3.7 billion people, 1.38 billion are urban residents,
and this figure constitutes around half of the world’s urban popu-
lation. Dominated by China and India, the region contains over 200
cities with 1 million or more residents and 21 cities with 5 million
or more residents. Starting from around 1.4 billion in 1950, the re-
gion’s population increased to 2.4 billion in 1975 and to around 3.7

0956-053X/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2008.08.025
 A.V. Shekdar / Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448 1439

Solid Waste Generated

from: Collection System
(House to House Transportation Landfilling
Residential areas and/or Fixed
Commercial Station)
establishments Processing Systems for
including hotels and material, energy recovery
markets and/or volume reduction
Other establishments

Fig. 1. Typical system for solid waste management.

Table 1
Sources and types of municipal solid waste.

Sources Typical waste generators Types of solid waste

Residential Single and multifamily dwellings Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, glass, metals, ashes, special wastes (bulky items,
consumer electronics, batteries, oil and tires) and household hazardous wastes
Commercial Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, office Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes
buildings
Institutional Schools, government center, hospitals, Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes
prisons
Municipal Street cleaning, landscaping, parks, beaches, Street sweepings, landscape and tree trimmings, general wastes from parks, beaches and other
services recreational areas recreational areas
Source: (http://www.unep.or.jp/Ietc/Publicati/spc/State_of_Managementwaste/index.asp)

billion in 2002. Over the same time period, the urban population has 2.2. Solid waste management
increased more than 5.5-fold, from 244 million in 1950 to 1.38 bil-
lion. Even more striking is the fact that the most recent UN projec- Asia is well known for its mixed culture as far as climate, econ-
tions show that over 1.25 billion additional people will be added to omy, food and topography is concerned. This is reflected in SWM
Asia’s population by 2030, all of whom will reside in urban areas. systems. SWM is becoming increasingly important for a variety
By 2015, 18 of the world’s 80 largest urban agglomerations will be of reasons, including the concentration of the population in muni-
in Asia. By 2030, 54% of Asia’s population (around 2.7 billion people) cipal areas, legal interventions, the emergence of newer technolo-
is expected to be in urban areas (Cohen, 2004). This massive urban- gies and rising public awareness of the importance of hygiene and
ization is already straining almost every urban service and is ex- sanitation. A typical SWM system is shown in Fig. 1.
pected to require substantial investment (Mohan and Dasgupta,
2003). Solid waste management will be impacted by the huge
2.3. Solid waste generation
amount of solid waste to be disposed of in densely populated areas.
In the Eastern region, China is dominating with aggressive eco-
There are many different sources of solid waste in municipal
nomic growth and its huge population. China has witnessed
areas. Waste comes from the residential population, commercial
incredibly rapid urban and industrial development since 1978
establishments and public and private institutions. In many of
due to its ‘‘Open Policy” for foreign investments, and this has re-
the Asian countries, solid waste is defined in terms of certain cat-
sulted in phenomenal increases in industrial output. This has af-
egories according to legislation. However, in reality, anything and
fected every walk of life and has now led to a requirement for
everything that is discarded by the citizens ultimately has to be
better public services. Japan and South Korea have stabilized with
managed by the municipalities. In this paper, we discuss solid
high-quality public services.
wastes that are managed by the municipalities. In chapter 21.3 of
In south Asian countries, the majority of the population resides
Agenda 21, municipal solid waste (MSW) is defined as ‘‘Solid waste
in rural areas. Such countries have significantly lower GDP per ca-
includes all domestic refuse and non-hazardous wastes such as
pita than other parts of Asia. Not surprisingly, therefore, the pace of
commercial and institutional wastes, street sweepings and con-
urban change in the region has been relatively modest. Neverthe-
struction debris.1 In some countries the SWM system also handles
less, urbanization still presents enormous challenges for a region
human wastes such as night-soil, ashes from incinerators, septic
in which extreme poverty and deprivation are all too common
tank sludge and sludge from sewage treatment plants. If these
and where current levels of basic physical infrastructure and urban
wastes manifest hazardous characteristics, they should be treated
services are extremely inadequate. India is rapidly making a name
as hazardous wastes.” Table 1 highlights the main sources of MSW,
for itself with sustained technological and economic growth. How-
the waste generators, and the types of solid waste generated.
ever, it suffers from having inadequate resources to serve its ever-
The quantity of solid waste generation is mostly associated with
increasing population.
the economic status of a society. Accordingly, Table 2 shows GDP,
Many Asian cities have experienced dramatic economic growth,
together with waste generation rates and composition for some of
reflecting the fact that the region is integrating into the new global
the largest Asian countries. It can readily be seen that waste gener-
economy. The list of globalized areas includes Hong Kong, Singa-
ation rates are lower for developing economies that have lower
pore, Seoul, Taipei, Tokyo, Osaka, Bangkok, Mumbai, Delhi, Shang-
GDP.
hai and Beijing. These are sometimes termed as global cities
because of their ever-increasing participation in international
trade. In most of the countries, efforts are being made to improve 1
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=52&
infrastructure and services including SWM (Eberstadt, 2004). ArticleID=69&l=en.
1440 A.V. Shekdar / Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448

Table 2
Information on GDP, waste quantity and composition for some Asian countries.

Country GDP (PPP) per capita Waste generation Composition (% wet weight basis)
estimated for 2007 (USD) (kg/capita/day)
Biodegradable Paper Plastic Glass Metal Textile/leather Inert and other
Hong Kong 37,385 2.25 38 26 19 3 2 3 9
Japan 33,010 1.1 26 46 9 7 8 – 12
Singapore 31,165 1.1 44.4 28.3 11.8 4.1 4.8 6.6
Taiwan 31,040 0.667 31 26 22 7 4 9
South Korea 23,331 1.0 25 26 7 4 9 29
Malaysia 12,702 05–0.8 40 15 15 4 3 3 20
Thailand 9426 1.1 48.6 14.6 13.9 5.1 3.6 14.2
China 8854 0.8 35.8 3.7 3.8 2 0.3 47.5
Philippines 5409 0.3–0.7 41.6 19.5 13.8 2.5 4.8 17.9
Indonesia 5096 0.8–1 74 10 8 2 2 2 2
Sri Lanka 5047 0.2–0.9 76.4 10.6 5.7 1.3 1.3 4.7
India 3794 0.3–0.6 42 6 4 2 2 4 40
Vietnam 3502 0.55 58 4 5.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 27.5
Lao PDR 2260 0.7 54.3 3.3 7.8 8.5 3.8 22.5
Nepal 1760 0.2–0.5 80 7 2.5 3 0.5 7

In the developed economies, namely, Japan, Hong Kong, Singa-
pore, Taiwan and South Korea, reliable data on waste generation
are recorded and are available. These data are normally collected
on a daily basis and provide a rational basis for planning and exe-
cuting waste management operations. By contrast, in developing
economies the data on solid waste generation are normally col-
lected by means of surveys that are only deployed for a very short
time and may be limited to certain cities. Moreover, the data relate
to solid waste that is transported by the system, which may not be
equivalent to the quantity of waste generated. The data presented
in Table 2 have been collected from several references; however, it
should be considered mainly as a means of comparison. However,
the situation is improving in many of the cities where weighbridg-
es are now being installed for regular weighing of waste vehicles.
With the growing population and economy, solid waste gener-
ation is increasing in developing countries. Table 3 shows second-
ary data. The population estimates are from UN projections. In
Japan, South Korea and Singapore, a number of measures were ta-
ken to reduce the waste generation so that per capita waste gener-
ation can be conservatively considered to be constant. In Hong
Kong, the total quantity of MSW is estimated to rise at 3% per an-
num (Poon, 2006). For China, the World Bank estimated total waste
generation (World Bank, 2005). Annual rates of increase and per
capita waste quantities for the rest of Asia are estimated conserva-
tively in keeping with the economic status of the region and con-
sistent with the author’s experience and judgment. The main
purpose of reviewing these estimates is to understand the huge
scale of the problem in the future. High-income countries will be
minimally affected. However, for developing economies, it could
become a problem of unimaginable proportions. It is imperative
for both individual countries and international organizations to
take tough measures to manage the situation now.
Solid waste composition is also influenced by economic status.
The proportion of recyclables (paper, plastics, etc.) is high in the
developed economies, while degradable organic matter is high in
those countries that have low GDP. The low proportion of recycla-
bles in developing economies can be attributed to the market value
of recyclables. In developing economies, recycling occurs at every
stage of the system, leaving only a small portion that ultimately
reaches the landfill for disposal. In addition, street sweepings are
included in the MSW figures. Such debris includes the dust blown
from open areas, dead or decaying biomass and material from wear
and tear of roads (Shekdar, 2002).
2.4. Solid waste collection
Solid waste generated in urban areas is collected by fixed sta-
tion and/or by house-to-house collection systems. In developed
countries, in the case of the fixed station system, citizens are sup-
posed to deposit the waste at the locations specified by the munic-
ipalities on a particular day of the week by a specific time.
Alternately, in the case of house-to-house collection, transporta-
tion vehicles visit individual houses at a specific time for waste col-
lection. Public participation, awareness and cooperation are
satisfactory in the developed countries, and thus urban areas are
generally clean most of the time. In developing countries, a

Table 3
Estimation of solid waste quantities.

Country/region 2005 2030

Urban population SW Annual rise SW quantity Urban population SW quantity
(in 1000s) (kg/capita/day) (% in kg/capita/day) (106 tons) (in 1000s) (106 tons)
Japan* 128,085 1.1 0 51 122,566 49
Hong Kong* 7041 3% (annual rise 6 8610 12.56
in total quantity)
Singapore* 4326 1.1 0 1.73 5265 2.1
South Korea* 46,779 1.0 0 17 49,161 18
China 531,817 – – 190 872,671 480
India 316,942 0.5 3 57.86 589,957 225.15
Indonesia 107,248 0.8 3 31.31 186,723 114.15
Rest of Asia 325,051 0.5 3 59.32 610,891 233.4
(except western region)
*
As the service is provided to the total population, population is considered for the entire country.
 A.V. Shekdar / Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448
community bin is installed or designated a fixed station, and resi-
dents in the local area are supposed to deposit their waste when
necessary (UNEP, 2002). In other areas, an improvised form of
house-to-house collection involves a worker with a handcart
who traverses each street. He rings a bell so that local residents
can hear him coming, whereupon they leave their residences and
deposit the waste in his cart. Once the handcart is full, the worker
either unloads it in a community bin or deposits it in a transport
vehicle. More often than not, public participation is limited. Conse-
quently, it is not uncommon to see waste is littered around the
community bins.
2.5. Transportation
Transportation vehicles can be categorized as collection vehi-
cles and haulage vehicles. Collection vehicles collect the waste in
areas where it is generated, and, if the processing and disposal
facilities are at a long distance away, these vehicles then transfer
their contents to haulage vehicles at designated transfer stations
for transport to the disposal facility. In developed countries, there
exist standardized designs for these vehicles, consistent with nor-
mal waste characteristics and working conditions. In developing
countries, waste from community bins is transported by various
types of vehicles, ranging from general purpose vehicles (trucks)
to highly mechanized compactors (UNEP, 2002). It has been ob-
served that the efficiency of general purpose vehicles is low for
waste transportation, mainly because the waste is a low density
material. On the other hand, there are difficulties associated with
copying the designs of highly mechanized vehicles used in the
developed-world due to differences in local waste characteristics
and operating conditions. However, in many countries, appropriate
designs are now being developed through innovative approaches,
extensive testing, and trial and error.
2.6. Processing and resource recovery
Solid waste is processed for recycling and/or to reduce its vol-
ume and pollution potential for landfill sites. The sustainability
of a recycling sector depends on its cost-effectiveness; and this is
mostly determined by the economic status of a society. In devel-
oped economies, there exists an organized method for collecting
and processing some recyclables like paper, glass and metal
through public and private participation. In the case of developing
economies, where the percentage of recyclable fractions like paper,
glass and metals is lower, their recovery and recycling has been
performed mostly by small industry in a less organized manner
(Shekdar and Tanaka, 2004).
Incineration has been established as a thermal processing
method for the combustible fractions of solid waste. The purpose
is to reduce the volume of waste requiring final disposal and to re-
cover the heat released during combustion. The process becomes
expensive due to the complex technology required for large-scale
burning and air pollution control. In developing economies, incin-
Table 4
Solid waste programs in the developed economies in Asia.
Country National program
Japan Establishing a sound material society
South Firm establishment of a sustainable and resource
Korea circulating socioeconomic foundation
Taiwan Complete recycling for zero waste
1441
eration is not feasible due to the low heat value of the wastes, as
well as the high cost of processing and difficulties in maintaining
the required operating conditions. Also, several attempts are being
made to establish composting as a meaningful processing technol-
ogy for the bulk of the degradable organic fractions, an approach
that supplements the agricultural industry with compost as a soil
conditioner and reduces the organic load of landfill operations.
Currently, private sector participation is sought for cost-effective
biological processing through semi-mechanized composting or
bio-methanation of degradable organic matter as a source of
renewable energy.
2.7. Ultimate disposal by landfilling
Solid wastes that cannot otherwise be processed, and residues
and other materials that are discarded after processing, are ulti-
mately disposed of by sanitary landfilling. In developed economies,
aggressive preventive measures isolate the deposited material
from the environment. However, these practices result in highly
expensive and technology-oriented sanitary landfilling processes.
In developing countries, although open dumping is common, there
is also a realization that this is inadequate. Efforts are underway to
control tipping or to implement sanitary landfilling in order to
minimize environmental pollution.
2.7.1. Salient features of the system in certain Asian countries
We consider the Asian countries in two groups, namely, devel-
oped and developing economies, without any clear-cut line of
demarcation for this division. One can view these as two distant
categories that represent extreme stages of development. Thus it
is quite likely that many Asian countries would lie somewhere
within these two stages. In assessing the situation, certain coun-
try-specific features are also highlighted.
Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore have been aggres-
sively improving their SWM systems with an ultimate aim of elim-
inating landfills from their systems. In these countries, with
aggressive economic growth during the final decades of the 20th
century, SWM systems have stabilized through a variety of legal
measures, supported by national funding. Reliable data are col-
lected on a regular basis and are used in SWM planning and in sys-
tem operations. There are established facilities for technical
training. Similarly, extensive literature is available on various as-
pects of SWM. A greater emphasis is given to efficient deployment
of capital equipment as a substitute for labor because of rising
costs in the service industries. For functions such as collection,
transportation, processing and disposal, technologies are well
established, and sustained funding is available to manage the sys-
tem. The citizens are highly aware of their responsibilities and
have realistic expectations of the managing authorities. Presently,
in keeping with the global trend, the system is poised to contribute
towards a sustainable society consistent with relevant legislation.
Time-lined and goal-driven national programs have been launched
in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan (Table 4). Recently, the concept
Plan period Waste Recycling rate Solid waste disposal
generation
2000–2010 Reduction Increase by 40% Reduction by 50%
by 20%
2002–2010 Reduction Increase by 53% Reduction by 22%
by 12%
Initiated in – 154 tons be recycled in 2007, 199 tons in No waste be
2003 2011 and 316 tons by 2020 landfilled in 2020
1442 A.V. Shekdar / Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448
of extended producer responsibility (EPR) has been proposed and
implemented to ensure environmentally safe disposal of consumer
commodities that might otherwise pose difficulties in terms of dis-
posal. Serious attempts are being made to increase recycling to re-
duce the load on landfills and contribute to sustainability.
In Japan, where SWM systems may be at their best, the system
is being improved via technological development, enhanced socie-
tal awareness and participation and new legal approaches. Ini-
tially, during the first half of the last century, SWM systems
aimed simply to maintain public health standards. During the
1970s, energy recovery became the main focus. During the
1990s, recycling was legally mandated in the systems. In the year
2000, basic laws for waste management were enacted to promote
a recycling-focused society in the context of a national drive for
sustainable development. The concept of shared responsibility
has been effectively used, i.e., citizens separate the waste into
combustibles, non-combustibles and recyclables and deposit the
sorted waste fractions at the collection centers. Municipalities col-
lect waste paper, glass, metal, etc. as recyclables that are separated
at the source for transfer to appropriate recycling facilities, while
bulky waste (such as home electric appliances or furniture) con-
taining plastics, glass, metal, etc. is crushed before recycling.
Municipalities are responsible for source-separated collection,
and manufacturers help with material recycling (Sakai, 2002). Dur-
ing 2005, around 53 million tons of solid waste was managed, of
which 19% was recycled, 68% underwent intermediate processing,
mostly by incineration, and 13% was landfilled; around 1910 bil-
lion yen was spent (120 yen = 1 USD). Presently, incineration tech-
nology is advanced and achieves 98% volume reduction with the
use of plasma arc technology for ash processing. However, this ap-
proach is very costly. SWM in Japan faces certain challenges (Yos-
hida, 2003). It is always difficult to acquire land for disposal
purposes due to public opposition and, to some extent, due to a
general shortage of available land. This has given rise to the very
significant and serious problem of illegal dumping. Japan is also
active in various international forums on the issue of SWM. At a
recent G8 Summit, the Prime Minister of Japan presented the 3R
initiative based on Japanese experiences with their 3R policy to re-
duce, reuse and recycle waste so as to minimize environmental
impacts. Presently, various activities are being pursued as part of
these programs (MoE Japan, 2006).
In South Korea, domestic waste generation was drastically re-
duced from 1.3 to 1.04 kg/cap/day with the introduction of a vol-
ume-based waste fee system (unit pricing system) in 1995
(Hong, 1999). During the period since 1995, the proportion of
waste recycled increased from 26.2% to 44.0%, while the proportion
of waste landfilled decreased from 68.3% to 41.5% (Dong, 2006).
In Taiwan, a similar unit pricing system has resulted in a reduc-
tion in waste generation from 1.135 kg/cap/day in 1996 to
0.667 kg/cap/day in 2005. In 2005, 5.49 million tons of solid waste
was produced, of which 78.7% was incinerated while the rest was
landfilled (Ma, 2006; Lu et al., 2006).
During 2005, the city of Hong Kong generated 6 million tons of
solid waste, of which 43% was recovered while the rest was dis-
posed by landfilling. Today, new strategies and solutions are being
sought to prolong the life of existing landfills, mostly through ther-
mal treatment (Poon, 2006). When compared with Guangzhou,
though, Hong Kong is a Chinese city, and the SWM systems are dif-
ferent due to variation in urban settings (Chung and Poon, 1998).
During 2000, the National Environmental Agency (NEA), Singa-
pore, formulated a range of strategies and programs like recycling
commercial and industrial wastes, promoting recycling within
community areas and schools, 3P (public, private and public, gov-
ernment) initiatives and a variety of public awareness programs. In
the subsequent 5 years, the recycling rate was increased from 40%
to 49%, and waste (domestic and non-domestic) generation was re-
duced by 8%, to 7000 tons per day in 2005. The NEA has articulated
the goals of ‘‘Towards Zero Landfill” and ‘‘Towards Zero Waste”
(Teo, 2007).
In many Asian countries, there are no specific regulations for
SWM, e.g., Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia (Terazono et al.,
2005). Moreover, in many other countries, the regulations are
made mainly to codify the responsibility and expectation associ-
ated with the managing agency, normally the municipality. There
is hardly any means for penalizing municipalities that fail to com-
ply. Thus, in spite of regulation passed by the national government,
municipalities are seldom penalized for non-compliance. In Malay-
sia, various components of solid waste management services have
been privatized (UNEP, 2002). Although open dumping is a com-
mon practice, there are attempts to shift towards sanitary landfill-
ing. Attempts are also being made to incorporate incineration into
the system (Kathirvale et al., 2003). In Indonesia, solid waste col-
lection is carried out by ‘‘community neighborhood units,” a quasi
private enterprise formed by the community. There are situations
where the city and its surrounding area are independently man-
aged by different municipalities, but landfills are shared without
any official agreement (Pasang et al., 2007). In Thailand, MSW is
covered under the ‘‘Enhancement and Conservation of National
Environment Quality Act”. Various agencies take responsibility
for policy enactment, pollution prevention and MSW system oper-
ations. Although the system is streamlined, there are some prob-
lems in using incineration due to the lower heat value and other
operating challenges (Liamsanguan and Gheewala, 2008; Vana-
pruk, 2003).
In China, the situation is alarming. Per a dedicated study by the
World Bank, in the year 2004 around 190 million tons of solid
waste was generated, the highest amount of any single country
and substantially surpassing the waste generated by the US. Under
current plans, there could be an eightfold increase in MSW budgets
between now and 2020. There is good awareness of resource
recovery-based solid waste management and sanitary landfilling
practices. The situation is improving due to a variety of measures
including enactment of a regulation streamlining waste manage-
ment (Hui et al., 2006).
In China, discarded material is imported from a number of
countries on a large scale for reuse and recycling. Since the
1950s, waste recycling has been recognized as an ongoing activity.
With the advent of globalization, a number of private agencies
have entered into the recovery and recycling industries. Today,
there are around 5000 enterprises employing about 1.4 million
people in this business, comprising 160,000 collection centers
and over 300 processing facilities. The total amount of materials
recovered, in six major categories — namely, iron and steel,
non-ferrous metals, plastics, rubber, paper, glass — reached 50 mil-
lion tons and a value of 50 billion RMB (yuan) with material recov-
ery rates of 85%, 80%, 25%, 47%, 20% and 13%, respectively. Around
400,000 vehicles have been recycled. It is expected that the mate-
rial recovery and recycling industry will grow at a rapid rate in the
near future. In order to streamline the recycling industry, the State
Environmental Protection Agency is formulating the concept of a
‘‘Renewable Resource Processing Park” where all basic facilities
like power, water and transportation would be provided. There is
a plan to establish four such ‘‘parks” throughout the country to en-
sure economically effective and environmentally safe recycling of
waste (Yang et al., 2003).
In India, it is estimated that around 50 million tons of solid
waste is collected from urban areas each year. Since 1998, a num-
ber of waste-related laws have been passed in an effort to improve
the system. Today’s system is technologically simple, as shown in
Fig. 1. There have been several attempts to compost the degradable
organic fraction. For many decades, composting has been practiced
manually in small towns. This is a time-consuming process and
 A.V. Shekdar / Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448 1443

requires a sizable area, which is becoming increasingly scarce in
cities in India. During the 1980s, mechanical waste processing
plants were set up in seven major Indian cities. At these plants,
waste was processed mechanically and aerobically composted in
windrows. For various reasons, these facilities were never used
to their design capacity, thereby increasing the unit cost of produc-
tion and negatively impacting the marketability of the compost.
Most of the mechanical composting plants have since been shut
down. In a critical evaluation of these facilities, Shekdar and Bhide
(1982) pointed out that the failure of these plants could be attrib-
uted to the following:
 Inadequate collection of solid waste with the desired
composition.
 Incompatibility of plant design with the characteristics of the
solid waste.
 Inadequate market survey prior to construction of the facilities.
 Inadequate monitoring of the quality and quantity of the com-
post being produced.
 Lack of attention by the marketing organization to the distribu-
tion of the compost and to consumer feedback.
Given this experience, composting is today being revitalized by
means of privatization efforts at several different locations across
India. A semi-mechanical process is being used to reduce capital
investment. However, composting is yet to be established as a
mass-processing technology for municipal solid waste. Today, at-
tempts are being made to develop bio-methanation of the degrad-
able organic fraction of MSW as a renewable energy source for
India (Ambulkar and Shekdar, 2004).
In most of the developing economies, waste fractions such as a
paper, plastics or metals are recycled as a commercial activity.
Large numbers of waste sorters retrieve the recyclable materials
from collection and/or disposal areas or accept them through trad-
ers who purchase them from individual households at a low price.
The recyclables collected in this way are processed in small facili-
ties to create low quality products. The manner in which all three
types of waste materials are recycled is shown schematically in
Fig. 2. It is very difficult to quantify the efficacy of this recycling
process. It is estimated that such recycling reduces the quantity
of solid waste requiring disposal by around 15–20% (Pappu et al.,
2007). After removing most of the recyclable materials by means
of waste sorters, the municipalities are rarely able to recycle the
remaining waste (UNEP, 2002; Shekdar, 2002).
However, in all these developing economies, the systems face
multiple challenges.
2.8. Coverage area for solid waste service
With sharp increases in urban populations, municipalities find
themselves unable to provide regular service to all urban residents.
This results in the accumulation of solid waste in many areas. At
times, the accumulated waste is pushed inside the drains and sew-
er lines, causing blockages and other problems.
2.9. Solid waste disposal
The prevailing method of open dumping is a major source
of environmental pollution. Moreover, it has become increasingly
difficult to identify new sites for disposal due to public opposi-
tion, cost of land and lack of appropriate land area. Attempts
to adopt sanitary landfilling techniques have been unsuccessful,
probably because of inappropriate designs and poor operational
management. However, the problem is now being acknowledged

Fresh Input

Commodities
Community
dust bins

Hand sorting by pickers

of plastics, papers,
Sale to hawkers of HC Users glass, etc.
WS papers, note books,
magazines, unbroken
bottles, etc.

Plastic Glass Paper

Waste
Papers Quasazines as
packing materials in Sub Sub Sub
grocery shop Damaged dealers dealers dealers
plastic
articles
Cottage Broken Paper
Unbroken bottles to sub industry glass & board
dealers for mill
manufactu
re of low
quality Bed
Reuse as containers manufacture
products

PRI M ARY RECYCLE SECON D ARY RECYCLE

Fig. 2. Recycling of Waste Papers, Plastics and Glass.
1444 A.V. Shekdar / Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448

and taken seriously by many governments. Systems are evolving
both financially and technically to better meet local require-
ments.
2.10. Problems associated with plastic waste
Over the past several years, plastics have become a part of
everyday life. Plastic wastes, especially from packaging materials
and thin-film plastic bags, have become a major problem for
MSW management.
Stronger economies face multiple challenges:
2.11. Scarcity of land for waste disposal
In developed countries, there is an acute shortage of available
land. Moreover, many communities oppose the construction of dis-
posal facilities in their areas. This leads to illegal dumping.
2.12. Cost-effectiveness
Most solid waste operations are extremely expensive. Because
the economy is strong in these countries, system managers are
most concerned with promoting convenience and achieving good
public approval ratings. They pay little attention to the cost-effec-
tiveness of waste management operations.
2.13. Excessive use of packaging
Solid waste generally includes an unnecessarily high proportion
of plastic, paper and cardboard. This is generally recognized as a
problem by governments.
2.14. Factors responsible for poor performance in developing
economies
2.14.1. Increases in the number of areas to be served and increasing
quantities of waste
The amount of solid waste generated in urban centers is
increasing due to population increases and higher waste genera-
tion rates. This puts a strain on existing SWM systems.
2.14.2. Inadequate resources
Solid waste management is given a low priority by local govern-
ment officials, with the result that it receives inadequate funds. In
some cases, there is a common budget for collection and treatment
of sewage and for solid waste management, and the latter receives
a small share of the total available funding. The inadequacy of
human resources is mainly due to the absence of suitably trained
staff.
2.14.3. Inappropriate technology
The equipment and machinery currently used in the system are
usually designed and developed for general purposes or are
adopted from other industry. The use of such equipment for solid
waste results in underutilization and in a reduction in efficiency.
The handling and treatment technologies established in other
countries are often not of great use, since both the solid waste
characteristics and local conditions are markedly different.
2.14.4. Societal and management apathy
The operational efficiency of solid waste management depends
on the active participation of the municipal agency and of citizens.
Since the social status of solid waste management is low, there is
apathy towards it. Symptoms of this fact include uncollected waste
in many areas and the deterioration of aesthetic and environmen-
tal quality at the uncontrolled disposal sites.
2.15. Factors of relevance in developed economies
2.15.1. Strategic town planning
The existing practices of town planning are inadequate because
they do not allocate space for waste disposal. Moreover, in the ab-
sence of properly defined criteria, the sites are chosen inconsis-
tently on a case-by-case basis.
2.15.2. Higher economic standards
This gives rise to a focus on convenience in place of cost-effec-
tiveness. This factor is also responsible for higher rates of waste
generation and excessive use of plastic and paper in everyday life.
2.15.3. Sustainable solid waste management
Globally, there is a drive for sustainability and efforts to reduce
material consumption. Accordingly, 3R initiatives have been intro-
duced to reduce, reuse and recycle waste materials, thereby reduc-
ing the final volume of waste that enters landfill sites (MoE Japan,
2006). Affluent countries provide substantial financial and regula-
tory resources for recycling waste fractions such as glass, metals,
paper and plastics. These countries can afford such ventures even
if there is no resale value for the recyclable materials. By contrast,
in developing economies, recyclable fractions can often be sold for
profit, and recycling is an economic activity for certain sectors of

System
Production & Consumption of Commodities Boundary
During Different Human Activities

Waste Generation
Reduce
Resource Supply Reuse Collection &
Recycle Transportation
The wastes
Processing and Disposal

Environment

Fig. 3. System for sustainable solid waste management.

 A.V. Shekdar / Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448
society. Moreover, it may not be possible to spend money on
expensive recycling systems, even if there is growing awareness
of the need for sustainable development. As far as SWM systems
are concerned, there is always a dilemma as to whether it is neces-
sary to develop ‘‘SWM for a sustainable society” or ‘‘sustainable
SWM” in itself. The author is of the opinion that sustainable
SWM is generally preferable. Environmental standards and
enforcement mechanisms can be determined to be consistent with
society’s expectations for waste handling performance. Technolog-
ical developments and operating conditions would determine the
types of systems that can be installed. Financial capacity and soci-
etal affordability are two factors that must be balanced in selecting
a SWM solution. Public awareness also plays a significant role. This
is more so as SWM is always at the receiving end of the social sys-
tem. This could also cover the situation in high-income countries
as the expensive 3R initiatives are sustainable due to the high in-
come of the society. As shown in Fig. 3, the environment is both
a source for the resources and a sink for discarded material. A sys-
tem for sustainable solid waste management should be within the
societal capacity on various issues such as financial affordability or
availability of technology as also assimilative capacity of the
adjoining environment. Such a system would be pragmatic and
would provide a realistic approach for improvement.
3. Integrated approach for sustainable solid waste management
SWM can be thought of as a large materials handling system
that is distributed over an entire city for collection of solid waste
and subsequent transport to the outskirts for processing and dis-
posal. Moreover, the system provides services to the public, em-
ploys a sizable number of people and requires significant
resources in various forms. Over the years, it has been realized that
it is necessary to design an integrated system as a whole rather
than selecting individual component subsystems that may not
work well together. The concept of integrated solid waste manage-
ment systems have gained acceptance. Under this paradigm, all the
component systems are selected simultaneously to allow for ra-
tional planning and effective execution. The resulting system con-
figuration ensures mutual compatibility of the components,
thereby improving overall performance. Integrated solid waste
management has also been defined as the selection and application
of suitable techniques, technologies and management approaches
to achieve specific objectives and goals.
However, the author is of the opinion that MSW management is
not just a technological system facilitating the handling and dis-
posal of MSW. MSW management deals with many other factors
such as socio-economic conditions, operating environment and ac-
tions of the municipal government. In the previous section, a num-
ber of issues were discussed with respect to sustainable SWM.
Those types of issues must be considered in the design of every ele-
ment of the system. To achieve this, it is necessary to streamline
functionality by integrating many elements that govern perfor-
mance within the system (see Fig. 4) as discussed below.
3.1. Policy and legal framework
Every nation should have a policy on integrated sustainable so-
lid waste management (ISSWM) that covers aspects such as clean-
liness, maintenance of public health standards, preservation of
environmental quality and sustained provision of financing. The
policy should address sustainability in respect of availability of
landfill space for future generations. To achieve this, it may be nec-
essary to make financial provisions and attempt technological
intervention. In developed economies, policy initiatives may ad-
dress cost-effectiveness, while in developing economies, lawmak-
1445
Collection Transportation
Policy & Institutional
Legal Framework Arranegment
Integrated
Public Approach for Operations
Participation Sustainable Management
Solid Waste
Management
Financial Appropriate
Management Technology
Processing Disposal
Fig. 4. Integrated sustainable solid waste management system.
ers should address cleanliness and environmental quality. It is
also necessary to have a legal framework in keeping with national
policy. It has been observed that legal documents are often formu-
lated only as a means of assigning responsibility. It is necessary to
broaden the scope of these documents. The legal framework should
ensure that the targets defined in the policy documents are met
within specified timeframes. The framework should also facilitate
the planning and operation of the system, e.g., the definition of
the term ‘‘solid waste” should not simply assign responsibility
but should also provide information that may be useful to address
technological issues with respect to selecting waste management
systems. The legal framework must include stipulations that allow
for effective enforcement of the rules.
3.2. Institutional arrangement
ISSWM management is a municipal responsibility and thus be-
comes an essential part of local government operations. The na-
tional (central) government and prefecture (state) government
also have responsibilities as far as financial and institutional sup-
port is concerned. Furthermore, in order to improve the efficiency
of the system, private sector participation should also be inte-
grated where possible. Thus, appropriate institutional arrange-
ments have to be arrived at by identifying the roles of all
agencies within the system.
3.3. Appropriate technology
ISSWM has to be designed in accordance with waste character-
istics and quantities, and it must be compatible with prevailing
operating conditions. Various handling equipment like vehicles
for transportation, machinery for processing and disposal equip-
ment has to be appropriately designed in accordance with the
waste characteristics. For example, the waste generated in affluent
countries has a low density that requires the use of compactors.
Furthermore, in low income countries where the waste is of low
calorific value, thermal processing may not be appropriate. Tech-
nology should be developed in keeping with local conditions. San-
itary landfilling technology should be much more widely adopted
so that available landfill space can be utilized for longer periods
and so that reclamation can become more cost-effective. In general
it may be necessary to broaden research and development efforts
to better address sustainability issues.
1446 A.V. Shekdar / Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448

Table 5
Action plan for improvement towards ISSWM

Issues related to policy and legal framework Remarks

 Formulation of national policy quantifying the targets to be achieved with time frame  Policy should cover various types of solid wastes and should
 Timely review and updating the policy be in line with the overall environmental policy
 Identification of responsibility and role of different stake holders like citizens, NGOS, private sector  Legal enactment for different waste streams should be mutu-
etc., in the system ally compatible
 Promote formulation of stakeholders in different sections of society covering professionals, academi-
cians, political groups etc.
 National policy-based legal structure for different streams like municipal, health care, hazardous etc
 Prohibition of mixing of hazardous industrial waste and infectious solid waste with MSW
 Simple and transparent enforcement mechanism
 Establish a simple system for financial penalty for the defaulters
 Time review and amendments to the legal framework in keeping with the feedback and dynamic
social system
Issues related to institutional arrangement
 Identification of nodal Ministry at the national and state (prefecture) level Institutional arrangement should be based on the organizational
 Creation of independent MSW management department at municipal level interests of different stakeholders
 Formulate work norms, incentive schemes and welfare activities for the staff at different levels
 Inbuilt mechanism for work audit
 Preparation of strategic long-term plan to develop and maintain ISWM system
 Institutionalization of activities of informal sector
 Promote and develop private sector participation
 Establishment of research, development and training facility at the national level
 Community participation in decision making
Issues related to appropriate technology
 Design and development of appropriate technology addressing The technology for waste management should be developed in
 Waste minimization and waste avoidance technologies keeping with the waste characteristics and working conditions at
 Promote minimal, reusable/recyclable packaging the local level
 Minimize use of plastics in packaging
 Source specific collection system
 Standardize containers and collection systems for different categories of waste sources like house-
holds, commercial and other sources
 Promote source-separated collection of waste
 Location specific transportation system
 Design and development of transportation vehicle in accordance with waste density, operation and
maintenance conditions
 Maximize vehicle utilization through appropriate deployment, scheduling and maintenance
 Cost-effective selection of vehicles
 Market specific processing technology
 Commercially viable packages for different types of processing like composting or recovery
recyclables
 Incorporate incineration only on small scale to help establish the process where it is being
introduced
 Site specific landfilling technology
 Environment evaluation of closed dumps so as to minimize the environmental pollution of the adjoin
area and better use of reclaimed site
 Conversion of existing dumps in to nearly sanitary landfills
 Design and development of new sanitary landfill in keeping with the latest techniques of site selec-
tion, planning, construction, operation and closure
Operational management
 Design, monitoring and control of various operations to improve system’s productivity addressing Basically operational management deals with the tactical
issues like planning for carrying out actual operations. Hence it should
 Collection efficiency (percentage of waste generated to waste collected) consider demand for the service on weekly, monthly, seasonally
 Transportation efficiency (regular removal of wastes from the collection area) and on specific occasions such as festivals
 Recycling efficiency (percentage of wastes recycling)
 Disposal efficiency (Environmental friendly use of space available at landfills)
 Regular reporting mechanism that should also work as feedback for next day
 Setting up indices in terms of quantity of waste handled for different level and location of workers,
vehicles and other machinery, quantify the performance for continuous improvement
 Development of PC-based management information (MIS) system
 Use of PC and, communication and database through internet should be treated as the need of the
hour.
Issues related to financial management
 Increased allocation of funds from municipal budget It would be necessary to make the provision on the basis of work
 Developing tariff structure on ‘no profit no loss’ basis load rather than on ad-hoc basis in keeping with past trend
 Tax exemption for MSW related activities
 Financial support from national (central) and prefecture (state) govt. to augment the municipal
resources
 Charge recovery system for specific occupation groups
Issues related to public participation and awareness
 Mounting sustained education and awareness campaigns using all sources of media such as T.V., Every single waste generator should be aware about his role,
Radio networks, newspapers, etc. responsibility and expectation for the SWM system. This is
 Introduction of relevant topics in the school curricula necessary for the success of the system
 Source separation schemes through NGO’s and CBO’s
 Complaints cell at ward level
 Community participation in decision making and monitoring
 A.V. Shekdar / Waste Management 29 (2009) 1438–1448
3.4. Operations management
Operational systems include material handling and treatment
processes by which the waste generated from different sources is
collected, transported, processed and disposed of regularly. The
procedures and practices for each component system need to be
defined clearly, and there must be integrated mechanisms to mon-
itor and control operations.
3.5. Financial management
ISSWM is a large, ongoing vital system that requires resources
in the form of manpower, vehicles, machinery and land. The sys-
tem must be adequately financed in respect to capital investment
and recurring expenditure. This is a critical issue in developing
countries, where a number of municipal agencies attribute low
standards to lack of funding. MSW systems are mostly operated
without due consideration of the long-term impacts on the envi-
ronment. Budgeting procedures need to consider sustainability is-
sues, especially by including subsidies to improve the commercial
viability of technologies to enable resource recovery.
3.6. Public participation and awareness
ISSWM is meant for the public, and, without the public’s coop-
eration, the system cannot be operated or maintained appropri-
ately. Hence, it is necessary to make the public aware of ISSWM
through active participation in the system. In practice, system effi-
ciency is directly proportional to the number of participating citi-
zens for ISSWM systems. Without public participation, it may be
difficult to maintain cleanliness in a city, and resource recovery
systems may become less effective if wastes are poorly separated
at the source.
3.7. Action plan for improvement
In keeping with these issues, an action plan is proposed for both
short- and long-term improvements (see Table 5).
4. Conclusion
‘‘Sustainability” is a popular word today. Everyone – from com-
modity manufacturers and service providers to international policy
makers – is using the term in one context or another. It is unclear
whether all of these stakeholders understand the term ‘‘sustain-
able development” to mean the same thing. It has been estimated
that current rates of resource extraction are ten thousand times
higher than rates of natural resource generation. In the foreseeable
future, there is a little chance that this proportion would change
significantly. Moreover, it is unclear whether SWM can contribute
in a meaningful way. Accordingly, it would be best to develop sus-
tainable SWM rather SWM for sustainable society. The SWM sys-
tem should be compatible with both the financial capacity of a
given society and with the assimilative capacity of its adjoining
environment.
The Asian continent is a mixture of complex cultures, a mix that
is truly reflected in the MSW systems. Countries like Japan show-
case a sustainable approach through MSW management. Mean-
while, countries like China strive to meet new demands arising
from aggressive development. For every nation, solid waste man-
agement is a vital, ongoing and significant public service system
that needs to be efficiently delivered to the community to maintain
aesthetic and public health standards. Municipal agencies must
plan and operate the system in keeping with increasing urbaniza-
tion and population growth. Today, Asian countries have the po-
1447
tential to demonstrate sustainable SWM systems through an
integrated approach. A systematic effort is necessary to improve
various factors, including policy and legal frameworks, institu-
tional arrangements, financial provisions, technology, operations
management, human resource development, and public participa-
tion and awareness of ISSWM systems.
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