FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

LABORATORY REPORT 1

Course Code: SBF 3033

Semester 2 Session 2019/2020

ID NUMBER AND NAME

1. SITI AISYAH BT SHA’ARI (D20171078204)
2. AIN SUFIZA BT NORMAN ZAIRI (D20171078202)
3. FARAH
4. SITI AISYAH

LECTURER PROFESOR MADYA DR. SYAKIRAH BINTI SAMSUDIN

TITLE DEMONSTRATION OF HUMAN REFLEXES AND HUMAN

SENSES

DATE 17 MARCH 2020

 LABORATORY EXERCISE 1
Title:
Demonstration of Human Reflexes and Human Senses
Introduction:
A. REFLEX FUNCTION
Reflex is an action consisting of comparatively simple segments of behaviour that usually
occur as direct and immediate responses to particular stimuli uniquely correlated with them.
Humans also exhibit a variety of innate reflexes, which are involved with
the adjustment of the musculature for optimum performance of the distance receptors (eye
and ear), with the orientation of parts of the body in spatial relation to the head, and with the
management of the complicated acts involved in ingesting food. Among the innate reflexes
involving just the eyes, for example, are: pupillary reflex and accommodation reflex.
Exercise involving the spinal is a patellar reflex which it is a simple reflex that causes the
contraction of the quadriceps muscle when the patellar tendon is stretched. Ciliospinal reflex
(pupillary-skin reflex) consists of dilation of the ipsilateral pupil in response to pain applied
to the neck, face, and upper trunk. Plantar and Babinski’s reflex are where the reflex can take
one of two forms. In healthy adults, the plantar reflex causes a downward response of the
hallux (flexion). An upward response (extension) of the hallux is known as
the Babinski response or Babinski sign.

B. ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM II

A sense is a physiological capacity of organisms that provides data for perception. The
senses and their operation, classification, and theory are overlapping topics studied by a
variety of fields, most notably neuroscience, cognitive psychology (or cognitive science), and
philosophy of perception. The nervous system has a specific sensory nervous system, and a
sense organ, dedicated to each sense.
Humans have a multitude of senses. Sight (vision), hearing (audition), taste (gustation),
smell (olfaction), and touch (somatosensation) are the five traditionally recognized senses.
The ability to detect other stimuli beyond those governed by these most broadly recognized
senses also exists, and these sensory modalities include temperature (thermoception),
kinesthetic sense (proprioception), pain (nociception), balance (equilibrioception), vibration
(mechanoreception), and various internal stimuli (e.g. the different chemoreceptors for
detecting salt and carbon dioxide concentrations in the blood). However, what constitutes a
sense is a matter of some debate, leading to difficulties in defining what exactly a distinct
sense is, and where the borders between responses to related stimuli lay. This process is
called sensory transduction.
 There are two broad types of cellular systems that perform sensory transduction. In one, a
neuron works with a sensory receptor, a cell, or cell process that is specialized to engage with
and detect a specific stimulus. Stimulation of the sensory receptor activates the associated
afferent neuron, which carries information about the stimulus to the central nervous system.
In the second type of sensory transduction, a sensory nerve ending responds to a stimulus in
the internal or external environment: this neuron constitutes the sensory receptor itself. Free
nerve endings can be stimulated by several different stimuli, thus showing little receptor
specificity. For example, pain receptors in your gums and teeth may be stimulated by
temperature changes, chemical stimulation, or pressure.

Materials and Methods

A. REFLEX FUNCTION

1. Work in a group of four students.

2. Using a torchlight, a light is flashing into one eye and observe the papillary responses.
Observe the diameter of the pupils in a given light. Without changing either the light
intensity or the focus, place a hand over one eye.
3. Observe the size of pupils when the eyes are focused on a distant object using the
torchlight along the ruler with 20m, 40m and 50m.
4. Next, have your partner sit in a chair with legs crossed. Gently tapped the patellar
tendon of the crossed leg with a reflex mallet and note the response.
5. Pinch the skin on one side of the nape of neck and note the dilation of the pupil of the
eye on the ipsilateral side.
6. Last but not least, scratch or stroke sharply the sole of your foot near the inner side,
using a blunt probe and observe the reflexes on the big toe.

B. ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM II

Station 1: Taste ability
1. In this experiment we were needed to taste and smell natural flavours, NaCl and a
chemical called 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), which was placed in cups or bottles at
each of the lab desks.
2. Basically, the solutions each was sip and spit out, with or without nose clips in place,
and was rated each on intensity on specially constructed scales.
3. For the smell portion bottles of the solutions was sniffed, and the intensity was rated
as well. We did not make the observations out loud until the experiment is over. We
may influenced our colleagues’ answers. We aware that it is perfectly normal to had
reactions to these taste that differed from other people’s reactions. People differ in
their ability to taste PROP.
4. This ability depends primarily of the number of taste buds a person had. Because the
taste buds carried on the fungiform papillae of the tongue, the more papillae we have
the stronger the sensation from this chemical.
 5. At the end of this experiment we were demonstrated the fungiform papillae on the
tongues of people who are classified as non-tasters [of PROP], medium, and super-
tasters. The differences among these tongues was observed.

Station 2: Two Point Discrimination

1- There were three coins of different sizes (1 cent, 5 cent and 10 cent). My eyes were
closed and one of the coins was placed on the back of my forearm by my partner. And I
guessed which coin it is.

2- Then, the coin was placed in the palm of my 5 hand by my partner. And I guessed
which coin it is.

3- Next, with my eyes closed, either one or two pins was gently touched on my forearm
by my partner. I guessed how many pins were used by my partner. This step was done for
several times, with difference distance between the pins, which done by my partner.

4- The same experiment was repeated on the tip of my finger and the palm of my hand.

The observation was recorded.

Station 3: Smell
1. Detection: At this station I was asked to sniff a series of vials of a chemical, alpha-
androstenone, and indicate the intensity of smell that I perceive.
2. The coffee beans was smelled in between each concentration, to be sure to clear my
nose. Certain people can smell this chemical at very low concentrations whereas
others cannot smell it at all—the reasons for this difference are unknown.
3. Identification: At this station a series of vials containing difference smells was found.
the experimental protocol was carefully read and see how many of the smells I can
identified.
4. For my first attempt at identifying the smells, my group member will not be
identified for me. My group member will let me sniff while I close my eyes. How
many can I identified correctly?
5. For second attempt, I will have a list of the possible smells. Does my identification
ability improve? Why do I think this is? Can I explain this on a structural basis?

Station 4: Hot and Cold

1. Adaptation: A warm (but not hot) water bath, a cold water bath, and a bath that is at
approximately the same temperature as our skin were prepared for us.
2. One hand was placed in the warm bath, and one in the cold bath. Each hand adapted
to the water temperature individually, so the baths did not feel either cold or warm.
3. Lastly, both hands were placed in the skin temperature bath.
Station 5: Hearing
1. Hearing acuity and tone discrimination: At this station we will find a set of tuning
forks. Which parts of the auditory system are used in hearing through air? Through
bone? What kinds of problems would we expect if we heard the tuning fork more
strongly on one site of the head than on the other when applying a tuning fork to the
middle of the forehead? If we just finished listening to your Walkman at high
volume, what kinds of problems would we expect with these tests? What would the
dependence on the frequency of the Walkman sound be?
2. Directional hearing: Be sure to wipe off the tubes with alcohol swabs before and after
carried out this experiment. One end of the tube was putted in one ear, and the other
in the other. Have my partner tap the tube with a pencil or pen, starting at one ear and
going towards the other. I will not that the sound appears to be coming first from one
direction and then the other. What do I think causes this auditory illusion?
3. Directional hearing and selective attention: For this exercise i needed 2 other people
of the same sex. Have my 2 helper positions themselves about 3 meters from me and
2 meters from each other. Next, with my eyes closed, have my 2 helpers speak the
same short sentences to my, one at a time. Can I easily tell which one of my helpers
was speaking first? The same arrangement with a doorway separating you from
“direct line of hearing” from your helpers.
Results
A. Reflex functions
Exercises Result

Light Intensity Response (Size of Pupils)

Pupillary Reflex

Mild (dilate) Smaller (constrict)

Eye Reflex

Distance (m) Response (Size of Pupils)

Accommodation
Reflex  50  small
 40  smaller
 20  smallest

Knee Response

Right Has response

Spinal
Reflex Patellar Reflex

Left Has response

Response

Ciliospinal
Reflex
Bigger in size (Dilation)
 Tick [] for the respondent’s response and describe.

Plantar
Reflex Toes going downward
[✔]
Plantar
Reflex and
Babinski’s
Reflex

Babinski’s
Reflex Toes going upward
[ ✔]
 B. ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM II

Exercises Results

Sample Response

Sugar Sweet
Station #1: Taste
ability
Salt Salty taste

PTC Bitter

Response

Coins – Correct response

Station #2. Two Point
Discrimination Toothpick

3 mm : Only one toothpick

6 mm : Only one toothpick
9 mm : Two toothpick

Sample Response

Coffee Correct

Strawberry Correct

Station #3. Smell Vanilla Correct

Banana Correct

Orange Correct

Pandan Correct

Onion Correct
 Response
Station #4. Hot and
Cold – Numb
Cold
Hot – No change

Response
I- Hearing acuity and
tone discrimination: Correct response

II- Directional hearing:

Station #5. Hearing
The nearer the source of
sound to the ear, the louder
the sound
III- Directional hearing
and selective Inside the class – Voice of left
attention: helper heard first (Correct
response)

Helpers outside the class –

Voice of left helper heard first
(Correct response)

Discussions
 A. Reflex Function
On the lightness, the diameters of pupils become smaller/constrict, whereas on the
darkness, the diameter of pupil become bigger/dilate. It happens because the pupillary light
reflex regulates the intensity of light entering the eye. Light shone into one eye will cause the
both pupils to constrict. For eye accommodation reflex, diameter of pupils become
smaller/constrict. More nearest of object, pupils size become smallest. It’s happen because a
near object appears large in the field of vision, and the eye receives light from wide angles.
When moving focus from a distant to a near object, the eye converge. The ciliary muscle
constricts making the lens thicker, shortening its focal length. The pupils constrict in order to
prevent strongly diverging light rays hitting the periphery of the cornea and the lens from
entering the eye and creating a blurred image. In the eye reflex, retina of the eye is the
receptor, the optic nerve holds the afferent fibers, the oculomotor nerve contains the efferent
fibers, and the smooth muscle of the iris is the effector organ.

Patellar reflex is one of the spinal reflex. Based on experiment, right and left knee
have kick response. It’s mean it have normal reflex or normal knee-jerk. The normal knee-
jerk or, “patellar jerk,” reflex is elicited when the knee is tapped at patella. Sensors that detect
stretching of the tendon of this area send electrical impulses back to the spinal cord. The
spinal cord automatically sends a signal back along a nerve to muscles of the front of the
thigh. This muscle are then activated to contract, causing a kick. The brain is never involved
in the reflex.

The ciliospinal reflex (pupillary-skin-reflex) consist of dilation of the ipsilateral pupil

in response to pain applied to the neck, face and upper trunk. Based on our experiment, we
get positive response which is the pupil was dilated when we pinched the skin on one side of
the nape of neck. Based on our reading, if the right side of the neck is subjected to a painful
stimulus, the right pupil dilates (increases in size 1-2mm from baseline). This reflex is absent
in Horner’s syndrome and lesions involving the cervical sympathetic fibers.

Based on our experiment for plantar reflex and Babinski reflex, we get positive result
which is downward response for plantar reflex and upward response for Babinski reflex. We
can say we get positive result for this reflex because based on our reading, the plantar reflex
is a reflex elicited when the sole of the foot is stimulated with a blunt instrument. In healthy
adults, the plantar reflex causes a downward response of the hallux (flexion). An upward
response of the hallux is known as the Babinski response, named after the neurologist Joseph
Babinski. The presence of the Babinski sign can identify disease of the spinal cord and brain
in adults, and also exist as a primitive reflex in infants.

B. ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM II

Only a few recognized submodalities exist within the sense of taste, or gustation. Until
recently, only four tastes were recognized: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. Gustation is the
special sense associated with the tongue. The tongue is covered with small bumps, called
papillae, which contain taste buds that are sensitive to chemicals in ingested food or drink.
Different types of papillae are found in different regions of the tongue. The taste buds contain
specialized gustatory receptor cells that respond to chemical stimuli dissolved in the saliva.
These receptor cells activate sensory neurons that are part of the facial and glossopharyngeal
nerves.

1. Taste ability

Based on our experiment, we were needed to taste a few sample. Those samples are
sugar, salt and PTC. One of the group members was decided to do this part. She tasted the
three samples and give her response of what taste is it. The first sample is sugar. The
response that she gives was she taste was sweet taste. What she guess was right it is sugar and
it tastes sweet. The sweet taste is the sensitivity of gustatory cells to the presence of glucose
dissolved in the saliva. Other monosaccharides such as fructose, or artificial sweeteners such
as aspartame, saccharine, or sucralose also activate the sweet receptors. The affinity for each
of these molecules varies, and some will taste sweeter than glucose because they bind to the
G protein–coupled receptor differently.

Next, the sample is salt. The response that she gives and guess was it have salty taste
and what she guess that it is salt was right. Salty taste is simply the perception of sodium ions
(Na+) in the saliva. When you eat something salty, the salt crystals dissociate into the
component ions Na+ and Cl–, which dissolve into the saliva in your mouth. The Na+
concentration becomes high outside the gustatory cells, creating a strong concentration
gradient that drives the diffusion of the ion into the cells. The entry of Na+ into these cells
results in the depolarization of the cell membrane and the generation of a receptor potential.

The other sample is PTC. The response that she gives was it had a bitter taste but, she
does not guess it right that it was actually PTC that have bitter taste. Bitter taste is similar to
sweet in that food molecules bind to G protein–coupled receptors. However, there are a
number of different ways in which this can happen because there are a large diversity of
bitter-tasting molecules. Some bitter molecules depolarize gustatory cells, whereas others
hyperpolarize gustatory cells. Likewise, some bitter molecules increase G protein activation
within the gustatory cells, whereas other bitter molecules decrease G protein activation. The
specific response depends on which molecule is binding to the receptor.

2. Two-point discrimination

Two-point discrimination (2PD) is the ability to discern that two nearby objects touching
the skin are truly two distinct points. Based on the experiment that we have done, when the
coin was placed on the back of the forearm and in the palm, we can guess the coin correctly.
When my partner placed two toothpicks on my forearm, with a distance of 3 mm and 6 mm, I
cannot guessed it correctly. My answer was, only one toothpick. But then, when the distance
between the two toothpicks are 9 mm, I can feel that there were 2 toothpicks on my palm of
hand. Body areas differ both in tactile receptor density and somatosensory cortical
representation. Normally, a person is able to recognize two points separated by 2 to 8 mm on
fingertips. On the lips, it is 2 to 4 mm, and on the palms, it is 8 to 12 mm and 30–40 mm on
the shins or back (assuming the points are at the same dermatome. The posterior column-
medial lemniscus pathway is responsible for carrying information involving fine,
discriminative touch. Therefore, two-point discrimination can be impaired by damage to this
pathway or to a peripheral nerve. This is because, when the surface of the skin is touched
simultaneously by two relatively fine points (such as a compass or the two ends of a paper
clip), the sensation may be perceived as either a single or two separate sites being stimulated.
Whether felt as a “single” or “two-point” stimulation will depend on the distance between the
points, the area of the body being stimulated, age of the patient, and the integrity of the
nervous system. Some parts of the body (such as the tip of the tongue, the lips, and the
fingertips) are more sensitive than others (e.g., the hand or arm, which in turn are much more
sensitive than the back). Distances of just 2–3 mm can usually be discerned on the tongue and
lips and just slightly more on the fingertips (3–5 mm).

3. Smell
 Based on our observations for the smell station part, one of our group members was
decided to be the one who gave the response. There were seven samples that had different
kind of smell. The samples are coffee, strawberry, vanilla, banana, orange, pandan and also
onion. The person incharge needed to guessed what is the samples based on what they had
smelled. The results that we got was what we guessed were all correct. For the second
attempt, the identification improved. We can guess more faster than before. Like taste, the
sense of smell, or olfaction, is also responsive to chemical stimuli. The olfactory receptor
neurons are located in a small region within the superior nasal cavity. This region is referred
to as the olfactory epithelium and contains bipolar sensory neurons. Each olfactory sensory
neuron has dendrites that extend from the apical surface of the epithelium into the mucus
lining the cavity. As airborne molecules are inhaled through the nose, they pass over the
olfactory epithelial region and dissolve into the mucus. These odorant molecules bind to
proteins that keep them dissolved in the mucus and help transport them to the olfactory
dendrites.

4. Hot and Cold

Many of our sense receptors respond strongly to acute changes in our environment
and then cease responding when these stimuli become constant. This phenomenon is known
as sensory adaptation. Our sense of smell, for example quickly adapts to the odours of the
laboratory, and our touch receptors soon cease to inform us of our clothing until these stimuli
change. When one hand is placed in warm water and another in cold water, the strength of
stimulation gradually diminishes until both types of temperature receptors have adapted to
their new environment. If the two hands are then placed in water at an intermediate
temperature, the hands feel different. The baseline of the receptors has obviously changed.
The sensations of temperature are there for not absolute but relative to the baseline previously
established by sensory adaptation.

5. Hearing

Based on our observations for the hearing station part, there are three types results that we
get which were I. Hearing acuity and tone discrimination, II. Directional hearing and also III.
Directional hearing and selective attention. For the first part which was Hearing acuity and
tone discrimination, based on the result the parts of the auditory system are used in hearing
through air in auditory canal. Besides that, the kinds of problems would I expect if I heard the
tuning fork more strongly on one site of the head than on the other when applying a tuning
fork to the middle of the forehead A normal response is no lateralization of the sound energy
generated from the fork to either ear. (It is perceived by the patient as being in the middle of
the head or on top of the head.) In an abnormal patient, the vibrating fork will be perceived in
the ear with conductive hearing loss (drum perforation, impacted wax, middle ear fluid,
stapes fixation, or otosclerosis), provided the other ear is normal. 

Directional hearing (also called spatial hearing or sound localization) allows us to

identify where a sound is coming from. While it may sound like an insignificant feature,
localizing sounds plays a more important role in our daily lives than we might think. For
example, if a person calls our name from behind us, our instinctive reaction may be to turn
around, and this is how directional hearing work. Our ears localize sounds due to the few
factors which are the shape of ears. The outer ear (the pinna) has a special helical (spiral)
shape that faces forward. In this way, the ears are a forward-facing funnel that makes the
sounds in front of us louder than those behind us. This alone gives our brain some idea of
where a sound is coming from. The next factor is binaural hearing. Along with the shape of
our ears, having two ears also allows us to more effectively localize sounds. By receiving
sound through an ear on each side of our head, our brain compares the differences between
how each ear perceives a given sound. Based on this, our brain can “triangulate” a sound’s
origin.

The last part is Directional hearing and selective attention. Based on our results, it was
easy to tell which one speaking first. But, when same arrangement with a doorway separating
us from “direct line of hearing” from my helpers was quite hard to tell which one speaking
first. This is because there a door that block the sounds of hearing. Selective auditory
attention or selective hearing is a type of selective attention and involves the auditory system
of the nervous system. Selective hearing is characterized as the action in which people focus
their attention on a specific source of a sound or spoken words. The sounds and noise in the
surrounding environment is heard by the auditory system but only certain parts of the
auditory information are processed in the brain. Most often, auditory attention is directed at
things people are most interested in hearing.

References:
1- Browning, G. (1987) Is there still a role for tuning-fork tests? British Journal of
Audiology, 21:3, 161-163
2- Thiagarajan, B., & Arjunan, K. (2012) Tuning Fork Tests. WebmedCentral:ENT
Scholar 3(4):WMC003279
3- Stankiewicz, J. & Mowry, H. (1979) Clinical accuracy of tuning fork tests.
Laryngoscope. 89(12) 1956-1963
4- Bhat, K. & Naseeruddin, K (2004) Combined Tuning Fork Tests in Hearing Loss:
Explorative Clinical Study of the Patterns. Journal of Otolaryngology 33(4) 227-234