Wind Induced Vibration

Related terms:

Accelerometer, Damper, Pultrusion, Polymer Composite, Vibration Problem, Glass

Fiber

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Damping considerations in tall build-

ings
Alberto Lago, ... Antony Wood, in Damping Technologies for Tall Buildings, 2019

3.4.1 Building Wind Vibration

Dynamic wind-induced vibrations in tall buildings are the result of turbulent winds
interacting with the structure at its natural frequencies. In particular vortex shedding
resonant behavior typically occurs within rather specific wind speed ranges, and it is
influenced by the architectural form of the tall building itself. In this phenomenon,
alternating vortexes are shed on the downstream sides of tall buildings leading to
net fluctuating forces exciting the structure in a direction that is perpendicular to
the one of the wind (see Fig. 3.23 for a typical example of vortex shedding in a
tall building analysis). When these forces occur at frequencies close to that of the
structure, they may be significantly amplified, especially if the inherent damping of
the structure is low. Compared to irregular buildings, monolithic prismatic buildings
with uniform elevations are likely to exhibit stronger wind-induced oscillations due
to vortex shedding.
Figure 3.23. Velocity contours along and around the faces of a tall building under
wind oscillation [contours of relative velocity angle (degrees) (time = 1e-05)].

Unlike earthquake vibrations, wind-induced vibrations are dependent of the build-

ing’s three-dimensional form and/or cross-sectional uniformity or lack thereof.
Therefore an effective strategy to mitigate wind oscillations in buildings involves the
selection of the right plan-form configuration (see Section 3.8 for further details).

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Testing, inspection, and maintenance

Alberto Lago, ... Antony Wood, in Damping Technologies for Tall Buildings, 2019

7.5.5.3.3 Hybrid mass damper

A 36-story building equipped with HMD, built in Tokyo (Japan), was equipped with
a monitoring system (Nagashima et al., 2001). The HMD consisted of a gear-type
pendulum and linear actuators. Indeed, two coupled HMDs were installed at the
36th floor in order to control the vibrations induced by wind. Fig. 7.6 illustrates the
position of dampers and sensors in the building. The sensors were servovelocity
types used for both the control system and observation of the wind-induced vibra-
tion.
Figure 7.6. Layout of HMD system and servovelocity sensors.Adapted from Na-
gashima, I., Maseki, R., Asami, Y., Hirai, J., Abiru, J., 2001. Performance of hybrid
mass damper system applied to a 36-storey high-rise building. Earthquake Eng.
Struct. Dynam. 30 (11), 1615–1637.

The ambient monitoring was conducted under the typhoon 9810 in 1998 for a
period of 4 hours. In this case, the wind profile, including the averaged turbulence
intensity, gust factor, and speed, was observed through the anemometer (device for
measuring wind speed used also in weather station) installed at the roof level (see
Fig. 7.6). Moreover, longitudinal, transversal, and torsional components of the wind
load acting upon the building were obtained with the use of the measured response
of the building and the acceleration of the HMD system. The influence of control
on wind loads was considered in this case. In parallel to the observed (measured)
responses, using the identified mathematical model of the building structure, the
same responses were simulated for the case of uncontrolled building in order to
evaluate the performance of the control system (Nagashima et al., 2001).

> Read full chapter

Sensing solutions for assessing and

monitoring super-tall towers
Y.Q. Ni, in Sensor Technologies for Civil Infrastructures, 2014

9.3 Integrated SHM and vibration control

The SHM system for the CT has been designed to have a special function of
monitoring and verifying the effectiveness of vibration control devices installed
on the structure. It is a unique and interesting use of SHM. A hybrid control
system, consisting of two tuned mass dampers (TMDs) coupled with two active mass
dampers (AMDs), as illustrated in Fig. 9.4a, was installed at a floor 438 m from
the tower base for mitigating wind-induced vibration of the main tower, while two
TMDs, as shown in Fig. 9.4b, were suspended at the heights of 571 and 575 m
respectively for vibration suppression of the antenna mast. Each of the water-tank
TMDs at 438 m level weighs 600 tons, which is about 0.3% of the total weight of
the structure (the tower weighs about 200 000 tons and its fundamental frequency
is about 0.1 Hz); the allowable stroke is ±1.2 m (restrained at ±0.8 m). Each of the
AMDs weighs 100 tons and the stroke is ±2.0 m. The AMDs are seated on top of the
water-tank TMDs. The two TMDs inside the antenna mast are suspended at heights
of 571 and 575 m, respectively. Each TMD, weighing 2 tons (the antenna mast weighs
approximately 1800 tons), is a lead-filled steel ball with a diameter of 0.65 m. Its
allowable stroke is ±40 cm.

9.4. Vibration control devices for CT: (a) TMDs + AMDs for main tower; (b) Suspended
TMDs for antenna mast.

To command the AMDs (made from linear motion actuators), it is necessary to

establish a structural response feedback system that will provide comprehensive
information for real-time vibration control. As illustrated in Fig. 9.5, the SHM system
for the CT has been devised to integrate with the vibration control system so that
reliable and real-time monitoring data can be obtained for feedback vibration con-
trol, thus enhancing the effectiveness of the control system. With such integration,
the signals from the anemometers and the seismograph of the SHM system will be
provided on-line to the vibration control system for making decisions on activating
or locking the control system, which is designed for wind-induced vibration control
only. In addition, the signals from the ad hoc transducers specific for feedback
vibration control will also be transmitted to the SHM center and compared with
the measured structural response signals by the SHM system to detect possible
faults of the control-specific transducers. Table 9.2 lists the total 20 transducers
deployed specifically for real-time feedback vibration control. Twelve accelerometers
are installed on the main tower, water tanks, and antenna mast for measuring
acceleration responses: four accelerometers are deployed respectively at the 1/4, 1/2,
and 3/4 heights of the main tower and at the water-tank level (438 m in height), with
one at each level; four accelerometers are placed at the centroids of the water tanks
with two on each water tank; and four accelerometers are mounted on the antenna
mast at the levels of 529 and 578 m high with two at each level. Four velocity meters
are used to monitor the velocity of the main tower, with one at each of the 1/4, 1/2,
3/4 heights of the main tower and one at the water-tank level (438 m in height).
Four displacement transducers are employed for measuring displacements of the
water tanks, with two for each water tank. As shown in Fig. 9.5, the SHM system is
also integrated with the renewable energy systems deployed on the structure (wind
turbines at the height of 168 m and solar photovoltaic panels at the heights between
438 and 443 m) for signal acquisition and control.

9.5. Integration of SHM with vibration control and renewable energy technology.

Table 9.2. Sensors deployed for feedback vibration control of CT

No. Type of sen- Monitoring Number of Sampling rate Location

sors item sensors (Hz)
1 Accelerometer Acceleration 12 100 ¼, ½, ¾
height of main
tower, 438-
 m (water-tank
level), 529 m,
578 m
2 Velocity meter Velocity 4 100 ¼, ½, ¾
height of main
tower, 438-
 m (water-tank
level)
3 Displacement Displacement 4 20 438 m (wa-
transducer ter-tank level)
> Read full chapter

Sensing solutions for assessing and

monitoring bridges
J.M.W. Brownjohn, ... N. De Battista, in Sensor Technologies for Civil Infrastructures,
2014

7.3 Instrumentation in notable bridge monitoring projects

Table 7.1 presents information on notable major bridge monitoring projects, dat-
ing back to Tacoma Narrows. There many other sources of information, such as
proceedings of Structural Health Monitoring of Intelligent Infrastructure (SHMII)
conferences, Encyclopedia of Structural Health Monitoring (SHM), books, e.g. Xu
and Xia (2012) and specific papers such as (Ko and Ni, 2005) and books, e.g.
(Andersen and Fustinoni, 2006).

Table 7.1. Notable major bridge monitoring projects

Bridge Span Built Instru- Strain Dis- GPS Accel- Other Tem- Incli- Other
ment- place- Wind era- mo- pera- na-
ed ment tion tion ture tion
Taco- 853 1940 1940: Mo-
ma 4  tion
Nar- months pic-
rows ture
(Uni-
versi-
ty of
Wash-
ing-
ton,
1954)
Pas- 229 1978 1978: 6 ×  15 ×-
co-Ken- 2  triax  servo
newick (Bampton et al.,years
1983) prop

Deer 330 1939 1981:3 years 6 ×  12 ×- 1

Isle-Sedgewick (Bampton et al., 1986) triax  servo
prop 
+ 2 × 
sky-
vane
Vin- 457 1964 Mid 26
cent 1980s
Thomas Bridge (Yun et al., 2008)

Gold- 1280 1937 2006 56-64

en only
Gate
Bridge
(Pakzad et al., 2009)

New 2003 350 2005 84 in

Cape struc-
Gi- ture
rardeau Bridge (Celebi, 2006) and
ground
New 2003 728 2010 3 × ext 3 ×  70 3 × air
Car- speed, direction
CSMIP, 66 wireless
tem-
quinez pera-
Bridge ture,
(Kuru- hu-
ta et midity
al.,
2012)
Con- 11 ×- 1997 Con- Me- 55 ×- 76 50 ×  Ice
federa-  250 struc- chani-  survey ther- force,
tion tion cal +  mo- corro-
Bridge WWG cou- sion
(Che- ple
ung
et al.,
1997)
Com- 501 1974 54 ×  17 ×  2 ×  16 ×  201 ×  36 ×  2 ×-
modore Barry (Catbas and Aktan, 2009crack-
ERSG  ) sonic  capaci- ther- VW  WIM
+ 148  meter +  tive mis- tilt-
×  radia- tor meter
VWG tion,
rain,
RH
Tuas 92 1997
Con- 12 ×  1 ×  44 × 
Sec- struc- VWG, triaxi- ther-
ond tion 12 ×  al mo-
Link VWG cou-
(- stress ples
Brownjohn and Moyo, 2001)
Great 1624 1998 1998 1 ×  2 Wind
Belt (6  cup +  pres-
(- weeks) vane sures
Frand-
sen,
2001)
Foyle 233 1984 1990/1918 × ER 2 ×  Anemomete 6 × 
(- laser  ther-
Sloan + 2 ×  mo-
ext cou-
et al., ples
1992)
Hum- 1410 1981 1990/1991 6 ×  13 ×  12 ×  2 ×  5
ber ext speed, 15 × dirn,
ser- 1 × lift ther-
(- and voc, 4  mis-
Brownjohn et al., 1994) opti- ×  tor
cal piezo
Sec- 528 1996 Con- 3 ×  1 ×- 8 ×  5 × 
ond struc- opti-  sonic ser- ther-
Severn tion cal vo-acc mis-
Cross- tor
ing
(Mac-
don-
ald et
al.,
1997)
Nah- 404 1973 1998 10 ×  4 × ext 2 ×  2 ×  12 × 
mae ERS, triax triax, tilt-
(Koh 44 ×  prop 12 ×  meter
VWG uniax
et al.,
2009)
Jindo 344 1984 1998 38 2 5 ×  4 × 
(Koh cap, tilt-
15 ×  meter
et al., piezo,
2 × 
2009) seis

Sohae 470 1993 12 ×  10 ×- 2 ×  10 ×  24 ×- 14 6 × 

(Koh static,  ext, 4- anemometer
ac-  acc on tilt-
82 ×   × laser celerometer,
cable2 × seismometer meter
et al., dy-
namic
2009)
Gwan- 500 1994 3 ×- 3 ×  20 ×  24 ×- 14 6 × 
gan  ext, 1- prop, ac-  acc on tilt-
(Koh  × laser 1 ×  celerometer,
cable2 × seismometer meter
sonic
et al.,
2009)
300(Koh 2000
Youngjong et al., 2009
2001) 122 ×  4 ×- 4 ×  3 ×  33 10 × 
static,  ext, 3- anemometer
triax, tilt-
175 ×   × laser 14 ×  meter
dy- biax,
namic 12 × 
uniax
Sec- 344 2006 2010 1 ×  triax: 3 Light
ond triaxi- 10 ×  sensor
Jindo al high
Bridge sonic res,
WSN 100 × 
(Jo et low
res
al.,
2011)

Jiangyin (1385
Ko and1998 1998)
Ni, 2005b Total 72 14 × 
sta- EM
tion cable
stress,
12
load
pins,
Jiangyin (1385
Zhou et1998 2005
al., 2006 ) 8 2 ×- 36 116 × 
 sonic FBG
300 River
Binzhou Yellow 2003(Li et
2003 Multi-
al., 2006 ) 4 1 ×  46
ple 4 sonic,
FBG 1 × 
fibre propel-
optic lor
1088 2008 211 96 ×- 5 28 169 × 
 ext struc-
Su- Con- 4 ×  ture + 
tong struc- ‘- 8 12 × 
Yangtze tion aerovane’ air
Run- 1490 2005 Con- 120 2 9 2× 100 44 × 
yang struc- ’- struc-
Yangtze South Bridge tion aerovane’ ture + 
6 × air
Maan- 2 ×- 2010 Con- 268 6 + 9  9 2× 80 52 × 
shan  x1080 struc- ×  ’- struc-
Yangtze tion ‘defle- aerovane’ ture + 
ctome- 2 2 × 
ter’ air
Tsing 1377 1997 Con- 110 10 ×  14 6 ×  19 115
Ma struc- level, sonic
(- tion 2 ×  and
Wong, 2007) ext 14 prop

Ting 475 1998 Con- 88 2 × ext 7 7 ×  45 83

Kau struc- 7 sonic
(- tion and
Wong, 2007) prop

Kap 430 1997 Con- 30 5 ×  6 2 ×  3 224

Shui struc- level, sonic
Mun tion 2 × ext and
(- prop
Wong, 2007)
Akashi 1991 1998 72 ×- 3 ×  8 1 ×  6 ×  3 ×  3
Kaikyo  FBG ext, 6  triaxi- triaxi- girder
(Sum- ×  al al veloci-
TMD seis- ty
itro, mometer
2001)
890 (Sumitro,
TataraBridge 1999 2001) 15 × 
uniax
1 × 
triax
seis-
mometer

Abbreviations: Vibrating wire gauge, VWG; electrical resistance strain gauge, ERSG;
fibre Bragg grating, FBG; tuned mass damper, TMD; California Strong Motion
Instrumentation Program accelerometer, CSMIP.Further examples are given in (Ko
and Ni, 2005a) and (Andersen and Fustinoni, 2006).For some bridges there is no
information about sensors instrumentation in public domain.

With the implication that monitoring means automated recording of time se-
ries over long periods of time, monitoring effectively began with introduction of
instrumentation for recording (rather than just observing) motion, such as the
seismograph, whose invention is usually credited to John Milne in 1880, although
there were several less successful earlier designs, e.g. (Mallett, 1846).

The first well-documented monitoring of bridges was a series of oneday seismo-

graph recording exercises on San Francisco · Oakland Bay and Golden Gate Bridges
from 1934 to 1937 by Dean Carder of the US Coast and Geodetic Survey (Carder,
1937), and the second was the motion-picture recording of the original Tacoma
Narrows Bridge (University of Washington, 1954) before its collapse in November
1940.

Certainly many bridges have been equipped with permanent seismometer arrays in
seismic regions, particularly in California (Table 7.1 provides a few examples) but
our focus is on more comprehensive instrumentation arrays for recording normal
operational loading and performance as well as the extremes. Except for the effects
of differential support, in the case of long span bridges earthquakes are probably
less of a threat to bridge superstructures than strong winds, for which more exotic
forms of instrumentation have been deployed. In particular, long span bridges
have usually been instrumented to study problematic wind-induced vibrations, such
as Pasco · Kennewick (Bampton et al., 1983) and Deer Isle · Sedgwick Bridges
(Bampton et al., 1986) in USA and Great Belt Bridge (Frandsen, 2001) in Denmark,
for which remedial measures were introduced as a result of the studies. Concerns
about wind-induced response have remained a strong driver for monitoring that has
included the full range of wind sensors mentioned above.

For wind-sensitive structures that respond dynamically, and this includes long span
bridges having mode frequencies below 1 Hz, the fluctuating component of wind
(i.e. turbulence) is as relevant as the mean value; hence the frequency response
of wind and pressure sensors is as important as it is for motion sensors. In this
respect, sonic anemometers (which have no moving parts) are regarded as the best
performing devices but are sometimes used in tandem with mechanically robust
cup/vane and combined propeller/vane devices for long-term monitoring (Wong,
2004).

Concerns about in-wind performance drove the monitoring of the Humber Bridge
in 1990 and 1991. In a collaboration between University of Bristol and Politecnico di
Milano (Brownjohn et al., 1994), the bridge was used to validate software to simulate
dynamic in-wind performance of a proposed deck section design for the Stretto di
Messina Bridge.

In recent years monitoring exercises have also been used to study cable vibration
problems such as at Oresund Bridge (Larsen and Andersen, 2007), requiring so-
lutions for recording cable vibrations that have included direct fixing of wired and
wireless (Feltrin et al., 2010; Nagayama et al., 2010) accelerometers, strain gauges,
proximeters (Humber) and non-contacting optical systems (Caetano et al., 2007;
Nassiff et al., 2005).

Earlier systems invariably comprised accelerometers and anemometers, due to the

emphasis on wind-induced response. Modern systems employ a wide range of
sensors operating with both analogue and digital signals and at a range of sample
rates. Also, technologies that emerged in the 1990s, such as GPS and fibre optics, are
now ‘mature’ and systems for measuring configuration (effectively via displacement)
are increasingly important.

So far wireless sensors sampling at dynamic rates (to record vibrations) have rarely
been used in permanent monitoring installations, but real world tests of the tech-
nology include Golden Gate (Kim et al., 2007) and Jindo Bridge (Jo et al., 2011). The
Jindo Bridge exercise is, to date, the most remarkable exercise on the deployment
of a large-scale network of wireless sensors capable of recording at high data rates
with synchronisation errors measured in micro-seconds.

> Read full chapter

Architectural aspects and building sys-

tem interaction
Alberto Lago, ... Antony Wood, in Damping Technologies for Tall Buildings, 2019

6.4 Façade
Owners of tall buildings are frequently interested in building structures with a
unique shape and façade system. In this case, it is required to combine several
expertise such as design, fabrication, and installation to address the design and
construction of façades. Moreover, there are other concerns such as esthetics,
performance, engineering, and quality control for longevity that affect façade imple-
mentation in tall buildings. Hence, the communication between structural engineer,
façade consultant, and architect helps to properly address all these issues (Daraphet,
2013).

From the nonstructural point of view, it is recommended that damage, due to severe
shaking in façade elements, shall be controlled in order to save life and maintain the
functionality of the system (NEHRP, 2009). The use of dynamic modification systems
may be effective for this mean. Regardless of the dynamic modification systems
utilized, the interaction with the façade in tall buildings is a relevant subject. In the
following sections, the major research developments in this area are reviewed.

6.4.1 Double-Skin Façade

Tall buildings have seen the application of several different façade systems, such
as glass/metal curtain walls, stone panels, and precast concrete panels. Generally
speaking, most of these systems are multilayered, but conventionally no consider-
able gaps exist between the layers. Alternatively, a different system called double-skin
façade (DSF) with a wide gap between the system layers has been recently proposed
(Moon, 2005). The main advantage of the DSF is its improved performance as an
environmental intermediary to facilitate the flow for ventilation, leading to more en-
ergy-efficient solutions (Moon, 2011). Despite this great advantage, the structural
capability of DSF, especially at upper floors in tall buildings, is an important concern
that could lead to human discomfort. Therefore dynamic modification systems can
be introduced within the DSF to control the excessive movement in tall buildings
(Moon, 2011). There are several dissipating systems that may be placed within DSFs
(Fig. 6.24): low-stiffness connectors, distributed TMDs, and dissipative elements.

Figure 6.24. Energy dissipating systems in DSFs: (A) low-stiffness connector and (B)
distributed TMD (Moon, 2005).

Low-stiffness connectors can be installed between the outer skin of the DSF and
the primary building structure; see Fig. 6.24A. Under wind excitation, the outer skin
including its mass sways significantly, and the vibration in the inner façade skin
(primary structure) becomes fundamentally mitigated. However, this strategy gives
a matter of vibration control in tall buildings. The main drawback to low-stiffness
connectors is the significant vibration of the outer façade skin (Moon, 2005,
2011Moon, 2005Moon, 2011).

In distributed TMDs, the outer façade skins are fixed (similar to conventional DSFs),
and additional masses are installed resulting in vertically distributed dampers;
see Fig. 6.24B. Such systems effectively control the wind-induced vibration in tall
buildings. Although vibration of the outer skin is mitigated, the additional mass is a
disadvantage. Compared to single (large) TMD located at the top, distributed TMDs
save space at the top of the building. The construction of distributed TMDs is simpler
than conventional TMDs since they can be assembled as prefabricated DSF units.
Moreover, with the use of TMD–DFS damping interaction, smaller damper–mass
ratio is required compared to the conventional system for the same level of sup-
plementary damping ratio (Moon, 2005, 2011, 2016Moon, 2005Moon, 2011Moon,
2016).

Alternatively, dissipative elements (e.g., viscous/viscoelastic dampers) can be used

between the wall (main structure) and the structural DSF systems (Fig. 6.25). In this
situation, three different schemes can be utilized (Passoni et al., 2014): simple DSF
(Fig. 6.25A), bidimensional DSF that stiffens also the façade at roof (Fig. 6.25B),
and tridimensional DSF simultaneously installed along both horizontal directions
(Fig. 6.25C). The dissipative elements may be designed to be mainly effective under
ultimate limit state earthquakes. In addition to the capability of these elements
in mitigating seismic-induced vibrations, they are helpful in reducing the DSF
dimensions. Moreover, the potential damage may be lumped into these replaceable
dissipative elements; thus postearthquake repair costs and building downtime can
be considerably decreased (Passoni et al., 2014).

Figure 6.25. Dissipative elements connecting wall systems and DSF: (A) simple
double skin, (B) bidimensional system, and (C) tridimensional system (Passoni et
al., 2014).

Active systems can also be employed for the DSF system to more efficiently mitigate
the vibrations (Fu and Zhang, 2016). In this case, the actuator is attached between the
two layers of glass skins of the DSF in order to control the outer façade movements
and depths. Fig. 6.26 illustrates the interaction between active control systems and
the façade accompanied with a close-up view of the connection (Fu and Zhang,
2016).
Figure 6.26. Interaction of active damping system (damper plus actuator) and DSF
system (Fu and Zhang, 2016).

6.4.2 Diagrid Façade

A common structural system in which both architectural and structural matters are
considered could be the combination of an internal core and external frame such as
a diagrid. The diagrid structural systems have diagonal elements instead of vertical
columns in order to resist both lateral forces and gravity loads (Moon, 2013). Several
studies have been conducted to use this structural system to provide alternative
solutions for the implementation of distributed, mass, and base isolation damping
systems:

• Distributed damping systems can be installed between floors and the external
façade system (horizontal rings of diagrid system, Fig. 6.27) (Lago et al., 2010).
In this study, viscoelastic dampers were utilized to connect the two systems. In
using such a damped connection, the force and displacement on the structure
may be mitigated, and damage to architectural façades can be reduced (Lago
et al., 2010). In addition to viscoelastic dampers, other types of dampers (e.g.,
viscous) or isolation systems may be also distributed vertically along the height.
Apart from an appropriate performance, the viscoelastic dampers are more
suitable for taller buildings, since they require a reduced gap between the
façade and the floors (Lago et al., 2010).Figure 6.27. Interaction of façade and
dampers in a complex-shaped building (Lago et al., 2010).
• Elliptical diagrid systems can be employed as both structural and architectural
elements in tall buildings (Arup, 2009). An example is the Mode Gakuen
Cocoon Tower, a 50-story school skyscraper in Tokyo, Japan (Fig. 6.28A). Three
diagrid frames, surrounding an inner core frame (Fig. 6.28B), are rigidly
attached to each other at the top and base of this building. Because of such
connections, the bending of each diagrid frame causes considerable shear de-•
formation near the middle stories of the interior core frame. This deformation
makes it suitable to utilize shear-type (distributed) dampers to efficiently
dissipate seismic response (Arup, 2009). Hence, viscous (oil) dampers were
horizontally distributed (six per each floor) from the 15th to the 39th floor
of the inner core (where most of the shear deformation was happening). Fig.
6.28C shows schematically an elevation part of the inner core with the installed
location of the viscous dampers.Figure 6.28. (A) View of Mode Gakuen Cocoon
Tower in Tokyo with diagrid system, (B) three diagrid frames, inner core frame,
and (C) viscous damper elevation within the central core (Arup, 2009).
Mass damping systems may be employed in order to reduce excessive re- •
sponses in diagrid systems. One example of this case is related to the use of
a friction mass damper (a concrete container including water or sand) on the
top four stories of a 72-story building. The damper is attached between the
building core (using friction pendulum bearings) and the diagrid structural
system (using rubber bearings, Fig. 6.29) (Ramadhan, 2014).Figure 6.29. Top-
most stories of a 72-story building indicating (A) diagrid façade and isolated
damper (green block) and (B) plan of damper placed between the façade and
core (Ramadhan, 2014).
Diagrid systems have an intrinsic high stiffness that is quite effective in
controlling story drifts, but, on the contrary, it increases the seismic forces. In
this case, base isolation systems could be an effective solution to enhance the
performance of the diagrid system (Arup, 2009). Fig. 6.30 shows the isolation
of the diagrid system with a base isolation system in a 20-story, high-rise
building in Tokyo. The isolation layer, executed between the first and second
basement floors of the building, consists of multilayered laminated rubber
bearings with steel and high-damping elastomeric bearings (to efficiently
increase the fundamental period and to have horizontal deformation mainly
occurring in the isolation layer). In addition, viscous dampers in the perimeter
were utilized to increase the damping in the isolation system and decrease
its response (Arup, 2009).Figure 6.30. The overall perspective of a 20-story
base-isolated building in Tokyo with (A) diagrid system and diamond-type
double-skin façade and (B) isolation of diagrid frame at base (Arup, 2009).

6.4.3 Mega Brace Dampers Façade

To improve the energy dissipation capacity of dampers (e.g., viscous dampers), it is
possible to install them in mega-brace dampers such that they span several floors
in tall buildings (as already discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.1.1). This results in
enlarging the relative displacement between the two ends of the dampers (Zhao and
Han, 2016).
The iconic features of this system can be seen as an architectural appeal for the
façades of a tall building (Almufti et al., 2016). This is the case of the 181 Fremont
tower located in San Francisco (Fig. 6.31). This solution was adopted instead of a
TMD due to cost-benefit reasons (Almufti et al., 2016). The damper mega brace
system adds an 8% supplemental damping that helps reduce both wind and seismic
excitations. The system is made up of three braces in one (Fig. 6.31B): primary BRB
brace and two external secondary BRB braces with viscous dampers at the ends (see
Chapter 8, Section 8.1.10 for more details about this building).

Figure 6.31. The 181 Fremont tower: (A) view of building and mega brace, (B)
schematic representation, and (C) close-up view of dampers (blue) in mega brace
(Almufti et al., 2016).

> Read full chapter

Case studies of tall buildings with dy-

namic modification devices
Alberto Lago, ... Antony Wood, in Damping Technologies for Tall Buildings, 2019

8.1.5 Beijing Yintai Center, Beijing, China

8.1.5.1 Project data

The major building data (Fig. 8.33) are summarized as follows:
Figure 8.33. Beijing Yintai Center: building overview.

• Year of completion: 2007

• Developer: Beijing Yintai Property Co., Ltd

• Contractor: Beijing Urban Construction Group Co., Ltd

• Owner: Beijing Yintai Property Co., Ltd

• Architectural designer: John Portman & Associates Inc.

• Structural designer:John A. Martin & Associates Inc.China Electronics Engi-

neering Design Institute (CEEDI)
• Damping supplier:Taylor Devices, Inc. (North Tonawanda, NY, United States)-
Beijing Qitai Shock Control and Scientific Development Co. Ltd
• Testing laboratory:Taylor Devices, Inc. (United States)The Structural and Earth-
quake-Resistant Testing Center of the School of Civil Engineering at Harbin
Institute of Technology (HIT), China
• Height: 249.9 m

• Interstory height: 3.3 m

• Stories: 62 above grade and 4 below grade

• Gross area of the tower: Rectangular plan having dimensions L=40 m×40 m,
total floor area 113,000 m2
• Building function: Boutique hotel and serviced apartments

• Structural material:Concrete classes: Cores and columns from story 1 to sto-

ry 4: C70Structural steel: Q345Dampers: FVDs per Taylor Devices drawings
67DP-17893-01-1 and 67DP-17893-01-2
• Floor plan area: Rectangular plan having dimensions L=24 m×61 m, total floor
area 1464 m2

8.1.5.2 Introduction/history
As the tallest skyscraper along Chang’an Avenue, Beijing Yintai Centre sits on the
southwestern corner of the “Golden Cross” intersection of the China World Trade
Centre Bridge in Beijing’s Central Business District (CBD). After completion, with
a height of 249.9 m, Beijing Yintai Centre became a new prestigious landmark of
Beijing.

Its central tower in the middle reaches 66 stories and 249.9 m in height, comprising
of Park Hyatt Beijing, Park Hyatt Penthouses, and Park Hyatt Residences. The central
tower is flanked on each side by two symmetrical 52-story, 186-m tall superior
office towers. Standing like a tripod, the three square towers resemble the Chinese
character “ ” (pin), which translates to “quality”. Beijing Yintai Centre has become
an exceptional commercial, recreational, entertainment, and fashion destination in
Beijing.

8.1.5.3 Structural system

The tower is a frame-core wall structure with levels 3 and 4 as rigid girder converting
stories. Furthermore, levels 23, 33, 47, and 56 are rigid stories set up with steel
trusses between the inside tube and outside tube. The four stories are composed of
12 outside frame columns and center concrete core tubes. The inside and outside
tube of the top-out steel structure is a frame tube structure system. The outer tube
columns are typically spaced 5 m with some being 2.5 m. Because of the vertical
transportation, the layout of the inside frame tube column spaces are unsymmet-
rical. The top of the structure has a 40 m decoration framework with size of the
elements similar to those of the typical floor. The floor slabs adopt steel–concrete
composite slabs (Fig. 8.34).
Figure 8.34. Beijing Yintai Center: frame support and standard layout structural plan.

8.1.5.3.1 Building fundamental periods

The building fundamental vibration modes are shown in Fig. 8.35. The first mode
(T1=6.33 seconds) is flexural along the Y direction. The second mode (T2=6.26 sec-
onds) is flexural along the X direction. The third one (T3=3.44 seconds) is torsion.

Figure 8.35. Beijing Yintai Center: fundamental frequencies and mode shapes.

8.1.5.3.2 Damping strategy utilized

For this project, a series of 73 viscous dampers were utilized. This included 59
dampers located in the inside tube from the 44th to the 57th story and 14 dampers
located in the outside tube from the 46th to the 57th story (Figs. 8.36 and 8.37).
The primary goal was to improve the service life behavior in terms of comfort under
wind loads. The secondary goal was to improve the structural performance during
seismic activity.
Figure 8.36. Beijing Yintai Center: damper layout on floor plan.

Figure 8.37. Beijing Yintai Center: damper layout on elevation.

8.1.5.3.3 Additional damping provided by the damping system

Although the dampers are set to provide beneficial nonlinear performance, the
additional damping ratio for the first mode is approximately equivalent to 3.2% of
critical for wind in a 10-year return period. For earthquake response, the dampers
provide an additional 2.2% of critical damping.

8.1.5.3.4 Building cost versus damping cost

In structural design the spirit of energy conservation, environmental protection, and,

economic and security integration principles lead to change the steel-section area
along the height of the floors. Moreover, for the floor span two main types of steel
beams are used.

To reduce wind-induced vibration a certain amount of dampers installed directly can

achieve the same or better effect as they strengthen the structure. Moreover, the cost
of the viscous dampers makes a very economical scheme compared to increasing the
size of the structural system.

8.1.5.3.5 Building code

Several buildings codes were utilized, such as:

• China code for seismic design of buildings: GB50011 (2001)

• Technical specification for steel structure of tall buildings: JGJ99 (1998)

• Guidelines for the evaluation of the response of occupants of fixed structures,

especially buildings and offshore structures, to low-frequency horizontal mo-
tion (0.063–1.0 Hz): ISO 6897 (1984)

According to the referenced code for seismic design of buildings (GB5011, 2001),
the maximum acceleration under frequent earthquakes, with 63% of the 100-year
transcendental probability, is 85 cm/s2. Under DEs with 10% transcendental proba-
bility, the maximum acceleration is 255 cm/s2. Under unusual earthquakes with 3%
transcendental probability, the maximum acceleration is 410 cm/s2.

The fundamental wind pressure in 50 years of design benchmark period is 0.5 kN/m-

2.

Without additional damping, the maximum acceleration at the top floor exceeded
the acceptability criteria set forth in JGJ99 (1998) and ISO 6897 (1984) that is equal
to 0.20 m/s2 under 10-year return period wind load.

8.1.5.3.6 Peer-reviewed project

The peer-review process was carried out by John A. Martin & Associates Inc.

8.1.5.4 Damping overview

8.1.5.4.1 Damping strategy

Steel structures alone have very low damping ratio especially for high-rise buildings.
Attaching viscous dampers to this building improved the overall damping and
reduced the response during wind loading and earthquake events. The primary goal
was to improve the occupant comfort under wind loads and the secondary goal was
to improve the structural performance during earthquakes.

Nonlinear viscous dampers were utilized in diagonal brace at locations where relative
displacement between two points is predicted and greater (Fig. 8.38).

Figure 8.38. Beijing Yintai Center: viscous damper detail photograph.

8.1.5.4.2 Damping type

The typical damper utilized with base plate is shown in Fig. 8.39: 1. Piston rod; 2.
piston head; 3. seal/seal bearings;’ 4. fluid; 5. cylinder; 6. end cap; 7. base plate; 8.
end clevis; 9. sphrical bearing 10 bellows.
Figure 8.39. Beijing Yintai Center: viscous damper composition diagram.

The damper has the following main properties:

• Type of damper: Nonlinear viscous damper

• Design life: 50 years

• Maximum damper force and stroke: F=1200 kN and D=±100 mm

• Nonlinear constitutive law: F=Cv , with =0.4 and v=velocity (m/s)

• Damping constant: C=2000 kN(s/m) and C=1500 kN(s/m)

• Main vibration period: 3 seconds < T < 6 seconds

8.1.5.4.3 Structural and damping design

CODE AND GUIDELINES

The major reference codes utilized in the design are the following:

• Technical specification for steel structure of tall buildings: JGJ99 (1998)

• Code for seismic design of buildings: GB50011 (2001)

ANALYSIS MODELING AND SOFTWARE

Two types of analysis software were used. PKPM was used for designing the structure
in China. However, this software at that time had no ability to model viscous dampers
and analyze structure with dampers. Therefore, ETABS was used to analyze the
building with viscous dampers. The damping devices were modeled as a Maxwell
model (Chapter 4) whereby a spring component is modeled in series with a dashpot
(damper) component. Some of the analysis performed by ETABS were response
spectrum and time history.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES
The basic principle was to achieve the comfort performance under wind with respect
to adding damping.

The structural response was calculated for both undamped and damped structures.
Under wind load, the damped structure acceleration of the top floor was less than
0.20 m/s2. The acceleration time history of the 54th floor was compared for the case
with and without dampers (Fig. 8.40).

Figure 8.40. Beijing Yintai Center: comparison of acceleration time history of the
54th floor with and without dampers.

The performance (story drift and story shear) of the damped structure was superior
to the undamped one (Fig. 8.41) (Tables 8.10–8.13).

Figure 8.41. Beijing Yintai Center: comparison of story drift and story shear.

Table 8.10. Beijing Yintai Center: Experimental Test Case Plan

Case Frequency (Hz) Amplification Maximum Veloci- Cycle Numbers

(mm) ty (mm/s)
1 0.15 10 9.42 60
2 0.1 100 62.83 10
3 0.3 40 75.40 5
4 0.5 15 47.12 5
5 1.0 15 94.25 5
6 1.0 10 62.83 5
7 1.2 10 75.40 5
8 1.5 10 87.96 5

Table 8.11. Beijing Yintai Center: Acceleration of Stories Under Wind Load

Story Acceleration X Direction (m/s- Acceleration Y Direction (m/s2)

2)

Without Damper With Damper Without Damper With Damper

55 0.236 0.200 0.231 0.204
54 0.233 0.197 0.225 0.200
53 0.229 0.194 0.219 0.198
52 0.225 0.192 0.213 0.196
51 0.222 0.189 0.208 0.193

Table 8.12. Beijing Yintai Center: Structural Effect Under Frequent Earthquake

Earthquake Wave With Damper Without Damper

X Y X Y
Basement Yts1 10879.88 10546.79 11943.88 11622.01
shear (kN)
Yts4 12743.91 12194.92 14099.83 13675.28
Max story drift Yts1 1/803 1/807 1/738 1/766
(49th story)
Yts4 1/444 1/456 1/424 1/435
Top floor Yts1 0.5706 0.5699 0.5895 0.5877
Acceleration
(m/s2)
Yts4 0.6898 0.6948 0.795 0.7857

Table 8.13. Beijing Yintai Center: Structural Effect Under Rare Earthquake

Earthquake Wave With Damper Without Damper

X Y X Y
Basement Yts1 53550.86 51673.01 54579.04 52655.95
shear (kN)
Yts4 62214.55 58896.25 64483.69 60900.73
Maximum sto- Yts1 1/157 1/158 1/156 1/155
ry drift (49th
story)
Yts4 1/95 1/97 1/93 1/94
Top floor Yts1 3.36 3.36 3.40 3.40
acceleration
(m/s2)
Yts4 3.76 3.76 3.82 3.80

DESIGN PHASE CONSIDERATIONS

The preliminary design adopted linear dampers. More than 100 linear dampers were
used to satisfy the code. However, it is well known that linear dampers do not provide
the same level of efficiency as nonlinear dampers. Nonlinear dampers are able to
dissipate more energy having the same conditions as linear dampers.

8.1.5.4.4 Architectural integration strategy

The connection of all dampers used diagonal brace as illustrated in Fig. 8.38. The
damper locations were eventually covered from view by walls with a maintenance
door.

8.1.5.4.5 MEP integration strategy

There is no interaction or interference between the damping system and the MEP.

8.1.5.4.6 Elevator and other mechanical devices integration strategy

There is no interaction between the damping system and other mechanical devices.

8.1.5.4.7 Experimental tests

Before all the dampers were installed, a number of tests were carried out. The
damper component level production tests were performed at the Taylor Devices
Seismic Test Facility (United States). Each damper was tested to full force and velocity.

Additionally, the building owner selected a third party laboratory and organized the
designer, the function Object() { [native code] }, and the supervisor to witness the
damper performance tests.

The test cases were established as given in (Table 8.10). The test results showed that
the damper met or exceeded all the requirements of the test plan. There was no
evidence of binding, yielding, or permanent deformation in any part of the damper
(Fig. 8.42).
Figure 8.42. Beijing Yintai Center: test results of damper force match the theory
diagram curve.

8.1.5.4.8 Monitoring system

There is no monitoring system in the building.

8.1.5.4.9 Maintenance strategy

Taylor Devices, Inc. provided a 35-year warranty. Taylor Devices’ FVDs are designed
to be completely maintenance-free for the life of the dampers. All surfaces on the
damper are coated for corrosion protection. No periodic maintenance, inspection,
or spare parts are required, desired, or recommended.

8.1.5.5 Comparison of different design strategies

8.1.5.5.1 Structural options considered

It was very difficult to ensure concrete structure’s earthquake-resistant perfor-

mance. For this reason, the entire framing was made in steel. For example, the
lower transfer floor was designed, but the stiffness was too big compare to the steel
superstructure.

8.1.5.5.2 Damping solution considered

BRB system had been considered.

8.1.5.5.3 Cost–benefit analysis

DAMPING COST

The cost of 73 Taylor Devices viscous dampers including all of shipping, customs
duty, Chinese tax, braces, and installation fee is ¥323,000 (approximately USD
52,000) per damper location (Fig. 8.43).

Figure 8.43. Beijing Yintai Center: viscous damper in the test machine of the third
part test lab.

8.1.5.6 Lesson learned and recommendations

8.1.5.6.1 Difficulties in the design

The project was initially designed 10 years before. In China, at that time only a few
designers and owners could accept the idea of adding viscous damping devices
(VDDs) to the building. It was not easy to convince the designer and owner that
the structure would achieve good performance inexpensively by adding viscous
dampers.
8.1.5.6.2 Design innovative solutions

Yintai Centre was the first high-rise structure with viscous dampers in China.
Achieving the comfort level under wind load by adding dampers was indeed an
innovation at that time. Compared to linear damper, the nonlinear damper could
achieve the same effect with less quantities. It was also a big innovative solution.

8.1.5.6.3 Possible improvements

One possible improvement could be the utilization of toggle brace or scissor brace
configuration that could eventually reduce the number of damper utilized.

> Read full chapter

Pultrusion of braids
M. Milwich, in Advances in Braiding Technology, 2016

14.4 Braid-pultrusion process

Braid-pultrusion is a further development or a specific interpretation of the usual
pultrusion process. In braid-pultrusion, a braiding machine is integrated into the
pultrusion line, so that, in addition to the unidirectional rovings, clockwise helically
arranged, braided rovings can be added. The unidirectional rovings meet the tensile
and pressure forces, whereas the helically braided rovings meet the cross-sectional
and torsional forces (Figs. 14.4 and 14.5) (Milwich et al., 2001).

Figure 14.4. Helically braided fibers in the braid-pultrusion process enclosing the

unidirectional fibers.Source: ITV.
Figure 14.5. Braid-pultrusion equipment with injection technique.Source: ITV.

Fig. 14.6 shows a detail of the injection into the die; Fig. 14.7 shows the thermoset
braid-pultruded profile.

Figure 14.6. Injection die to inject a thermoset resin directly into the die.Source: ITV.
Figure 14.7. Pultruded thermoset matrix hollow tube.Source: ITV.

Despite the high technical and economic potential of the braid-pultruded composite
profiles, braid-pultrusion is only slowly emerging from a niche technique to a more
widely used industrial technique.

14.4.1 Thermoset-matrix braid-pultrusion

For the production of elongated profiles the thermoset pultrusion process is an
energy-efficient and cost-effective method for mass production. By integrating
a braiding machine into the pultrusion line, braided rovings can be added. The
possible variation of the braiding angle leads to specifically adjustable mechanical
properties of the fiber composite profiles (Fig. 14.8).

Figure 14.8. Braid-pultrusion process with additional rovings laid on the outside of

the profile.Source: ITV.
The integration of a braiding machine into the pultrusion line—and the compaction
of the unidirectional fibers by the braid—means that an open bath impregnation
technique is not possible. Therefore, an injection impregnation system is deployed,
in which the matrix is directly pressure-injected into the die. For this the die has to
be designed carefully, because the matrix will flow out of the fiber intake of the die,
when the intake has too big of a cross section.

With the braid-pultrusion technique, the so-called “Technical Plant Stem” was pul-
truded with both glass fiber (see Fig. 14.8) and carbon fiber consisting of unidi-
rectional and braided reinforcement (Milwich et al., 2007). The technical plant stem
deals with the bionic transfer of plant biomechanics into technique. Research work of
the plant biomechanics group of University Freiburg shows that horsetail (Fig. 14.9)
and giant reed have very high specific mechanical properties combined with high
oscillation damping of strong wind-induced vibration (Speck and Speck, 2008). The
testing of the pultruded profiles (Fig. 14.10) actually demonstrates impressively that
the technical plant stems with spacer wall exhibit a much higher damping that the
monolithic, single-wall hollow profiles. This could be verified with both glass- and
carbon fiber reinforcement (Fig. 14.11) (Milwich et al., 2006, 2010).

Figure 14.9. Horsetail.Source: Plant Biomechanics Group Freiburg, American Jour-

nal of Botany.
Figure 14.10. Braid-pultruded hollow profiles with single wall and technical plant
stems with spacer wall system.Source: ITV.

Figure 14.11. Technical plant stems offer a much better damping behavior tan  than
single-wall tubular profiles.Source: ITV.

To pultrude smaller cross sections, usually a thermoset matrix system with only one
type of curing agent is used, which starts the curing from a certain temperature
onward. As explained previously, profiles with a bigger, more massive cross section
are pultruded with two or even three curing agents. In the German BMBF (Federal
Ministry of Education and Research)-funded project “PulForm,” the use of two
hardening agents is used for a different purpose (PulForm, 2015).

In this braid-pultrusion process, a two-step-resin is injected into the die. The heat
of the die does not exceed a certain limit, so that only one curing step takes place
in the die. The composite material leaves the die in a rubber-like state, which is just
rigid enough to be pulled out by the puller and cut.

The pultruded profiles are then transported to a heated blow-mold, in which a

flexible hose presses the semicured braided textile to the mold surface. The higher
temperature of the blow-mold starts the reaction of the second curing agent finally
leading to a fully cured part. Therefore, this new production method offers a further
opportunity to combine the cost-effective braid-pultrusion process with the oppor-
tunity to change the cross-section geometry in a similar way as described in Section
7.3 of chapter Braids in candles “Pultrusion-RTM.”

14.4.2 Thermoplast-matrix braid-pultrusion

As mentioned before, thermoplastic matrices like polyamide, polypropylene, and
polyethylene have advantages regarding serial production. Usually they can be
pultruded with higher production speeds, are tougher, can be welded, and have a
higher vibration damping and better recyclability. Directly after braiding, the already
impregnated fibers (prepregs) are heated and formed in the die, cooled, and the
finished profile pulled out of the die by the caterpillar action (Milwich et al., 2004;
Milwich and Planck, 2011).

At ITV Denkendorf, a thermoplastic braid-pultrusion technology was developed

within the framework of the BMBF (Federal Ministry of Education and Research)
project “T-Pult”. To commercialize thermoplastic pultrusion technology, four braid-
ing machines were placed into a pultrusion line so as to gain a certain wall thickness
of a hollow profile intended for an application in the automotive industry. The use
of a thermoplastic matrix was mandatory, because the profile would be postformed
just after pultrusion in a postforming machine and also over-molded in a die-casting
process.

Because the commercially available polyamide (PA) fibers would shrink too much,
special low-shrink PA-fibers were produced and comingled with glass. After every
braiding machine, an energy-efficient infrared heating technology guarantees
a very good preheating of the fiber strands and thus good fiber impregnation
(Figs. 14.12 and 14.13).

Figure 14.12. Scheme of the thermoplastic braid-pultrusion process at ITV Denk-

endorf.Source: ITV.
Figure 14.13. Thermoplastic braid-pultrusion process at ITV Denkendorf with four
braiding machines.Source: ITV.

Fig. 14.14 shows the pultruded profile consisting of four braided layers in the wall.

Figure 14.14. ITV pultruded profile with different braiding angles, consisting of four
braided layers.Source: ITV.

Another thermoplastic braid-pultrusion process was developed at the Institute for

Lightweight Construction (ILK) at Dresden University (Fig. 14.15). The ILK technique
uses thermoplastic preimpregnated tapes for braided and unidirectional reinforce-
ment, which can be multiaxial/multilayered processed to meet the working loads.
Using tapes results in a very low porosity and low crimp (Garthaus et al., 2015).
 Figure 14.15. (a) ILK Dresden: Braid-pultruded hollow profiles with thermoplastic
matrix, (b) schematic diagram of the braid-pultrusion process.Source: Technische
Universität DresdenInstitut für Leichtbau und Kunststofftechnik, Dresden.

The braid-pultruded hollow profiles with endless-fiber reinforcement and ther-

moplastic matrix combine good mechanical properties with thermoforming and
weldability. The properties and manifold possibilities to functionalize them in the
following processes enable those profiles to be deployed in manifold structural
applications, eg, drive shafts, tension struts, or traction struts.

Up to now, the Institute of Lightweight Engineering and Polymer Technology

(ILK) of Dresden University produced profiles with carbon fiber reinforcement in
combination with PA-, polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)- and polyether ether ketone
(PEEK)-matrix material. Wall thicknesses were up to 3 mm. Also a positive substance
jointing integration of waterproof/media-resistant thermoplastic liner to produce
lightweight pressure pipes was realized.

ITA Aachen also developed a braid-pultrusion process (Fig. 14.16). The preheating

of the fibers and textiles and the heating before postforming are made by either
induction heating or nfrared heating (Schäfer et al., 2015).

Figure 14.16. ITA Aachen braid-pultrusion process.Source: University Aachen, Insti-

tut für Textiltechnik.

> Read full chapter

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