COVER PAGE

CARP AND MONO-SEX TILAPIA POLYCULTURE IN THE EARTHEN POND

SAURAV LAMICHHANE

LEE PROPOSAL
SUBMITTED TO THE
AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ANIMAL SCIENCE, VETERINARY SCIENCE AND FISHERIES
RAMPUR, CHITWAN
NEPAL

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FISHERIES

JUNE 2020

I
 COVER LETTER
To,
The Dean
Faculty of Animal Science, Veterinary Science and
Fisheries Agriculture and Forestry University
Rampur,
Chitwan Nepal

Subject: LEE proposal acceptance and funding

Sir,
It is my humble request to provide fund for my LEE work entitled
“carp and mono-sex tilapia polyculture in the earthen pond” as per my accepted
proposal and budget attached herewith which is NRs 1,00,000 (NRs One lakh). I am
bound to the term to refund the amount provided to me after the completion of work.

Sincerely,
Name: Saurav Lamichhane
Roll No.: 43
B.Sc. Fisheries 8th Semester
Batch: Third Date: 2020 – 06 – 19

Acceptance:

This proposal submitted for the LEE work of batch third is in accordance with the format and
the norms for LEE.

LEE Coordinator:
Asst. Prof. Rahul Ranjan Date: 2020 – 06 – 19

I recommend providing the fund of NRs. One lakh for the completion of LEE work as per the
norm.

Advisor
Prof. Sunila Rai, Ph.D. Date: 2020 – 06 – 19

Program Coordinator
Prof. Sunila Rai, Ph.D. Date: 2020 – 06 – 19

II
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE................................................................................................................................I

COVER LETTER..........................................................................................................................II

TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................III

LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................VI

LIST OF APPENDICES............................................................................................................VII

ABBREVIATIONS...................................................................................................................VIII

1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................1

1.1. General introduction.......................................................................................................1

1.2. Objectives.......................................................................................................................2

1.2.1. General Objective...................................................................................................2

1.2.2. Specific Objectives.................................................................................................2

2. LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................................3

2.1. Global status of aquaculture...........................................................................................3

2.2. Status of aquaculture in Nepal.......................................................................................3

2.3. Polyculture.....................................................................................................................4

2.4. Carp Polyculture.............................................................................................................5

2.5. Species for Carp Polyculture..........................................................................................5

A. Indigenous/Indian Major Carps......................................................................................5

2.5.1. Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822)...............................................................................5

2.5.2. Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton, 1822).......................................................................6

2.5.3. Labeo catla (Hamilton, 1822).................................................................................7

B. Exotic Carps...................................................................................................................8

2.5.4. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844)...............................................8

2.5.5. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1845)....................................................9

2.5.6. Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844)..................................................10

III
 2.5.7. Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758)........................................................................11

2.6. Nile tilapia in carp polyculture.....................................................................................12

2.6.1. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758)...........................................12

2.6.2. Polyculture of carps and mono-sex Nile tilapia....................................................13

2.7. Species combination in polyculture.............................................................................15

2.8. Water quality requirements for carps...........................................................................17

2.8.1. Temperature..........................................................................................................17

2.8.2. Turbidity and Transparency..................................................................................17

2.8.3. pH..........................................................................................................................17

2.8.4. Dissolved oxygen..................................................................................................18

2.8.5. Total alkalinity and Hardness...............................................................................18

2.8.6. Carbon dioxide......................................................................................................18

2.8.7. Ammonia, Nitrite, and Nitrate..............................................................................18

2.8.8. Chlorophyll – a.....................................................................................................19

2.8.9. Soluble reactive phosphorous...............................................................................19

2.9. Water quality requirements for Nile tilapia..................................................................20

2.9.1. Temperature..........................................................................................................20

2.9.2. pH..........................................................................................................................20

2.9.3. Dissolved oxygen..................................................................................................20

2.9.4. Ammonia...............................................................................................................20

2.10. Food and feeding......................................................................................................21

2.11. Liming......................................................................................................................23

2.12. Fertilization...............................................................................................................24

2.13. Growth and yield of carps........................................................................................25

2.14. Growth and yield of Nile tilapia...............................................................................27

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS.........................................................................................28

3.1. LEE site........................................................................................................................28

IV
 3.2. Pond preparation..........................................................................................................28

3.2.1. Draining and drying..............................................................................................28

3.2.2. Liming...................................................................................................................28

3.2.3. Pond filing.............................................................................................................28

3.2.4. Fertilization...........................................................................................................28

3.3. Stocking of Fingerlings................................................................................................28

3.4. Pond management........................................................................................................29

3.4.1. Feed and feeding...................................................................................................29

3.4.2. Subsequent pond fertilization...............................................................................29

3.4.3. Water quality monitoring......................................................................................30

3.4.4. Proximate analysis of feed....................................................................................30

3.5. Fish Harvesting............................................................................................................31

3.6. Marketing of the fish....................................................................................................31

3.7. Analytical methods.......................................................................................................31

3.7.1. Fish growth parameters.........................................................................................31

3.7.2. Apparent food conversion ratio............................................................................32

3.7.3. Gross margin analysis...........................................................................................32

3.7.4. Statistical analysis.................................................................................................32

4. EXPECTED OUTPUT.........................................................................................................33

5. WORK SCHEDULE............................................................................................................34

6. EXPECTED BUDGET........................................................................................................35

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................36

APPENDICES..............................................................................................................................41

V
 LIST OF TABLES
Table

Table 1: Species combination in polyculture system in Nepal................................................15

Table 2: Species combination in polyculture system in India..................................................15
Table 3: Species combination in polyculture system in Bangladesh.......................................16
Table 4: Water quality requirements in pond culture..............................................................19
Table 5: Water quality requirements for Nile tilapia..............................................................21
Table 6: Tropical and spatial niche of different polyculture fish.............................................21
Table 7: A simple mixture of supplementary feeds for rearing advanced fry of carps............22
Table 8: Expected FCR of grains at the different age groups of common carp.......................22
Table 9: Dietary nutrient requirements of fish.........................................................................22
Table 10: Feed ingredients and nutrient composition..............................................................22
Table 11: Fertilizer requirement in pond culture.....................................................................24
Table 12: Liming requirement in pond culture at preparation and during production.............23
Table 13: Liming dose for different soil pH value...................................................................23
Table 14: Dimension (Area) of LEE pond...............................................................................28
Table 15: Stocking % and Number of fingerlings required in the pond..................................29
Table 16: Measuring device and units of water quality parameters.........................................30
Table 17: Method/Equipment used in the proximate analysis of feed.....................................30
Table 18: Budget analysis of the total cost during the culture period......................................35
Table 19: Expected outcome after the culture period..............................................................33
Table 20: Work Schedule of LEE study...................................................................................34

VI
 LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendices
Appendices 1: Stocking weight and number of fish in the pond.............................................41
Appendices 2: Month-wise water quality parameters during the culture period.....................42
Appendices 3: Fertilization rate of fish in the pond.................................................................44
Appendices 4: Feed and feeding..............................................................................................45
Appendices 5: The average weight of fish during different samplings....................................46
Appendices 6: Harvesting of fish in the pond..........................................................................46
Appendices 7: Marketing of table fish.....................................................................................46

VII
 ABBREVIATIONS
% Percentage
°C Degree Celsius
AFCR Apparent food conversion ratio
AFU Agriculture and Forestry University
AGDP Agricultural Gross Domestic Product
AIT Asian Institute of Technology
BOD Biological oxygen demand
BW Bodyweight
C: N Carbon: Nitrogen
CFPCC Central Fisheries Promotion and Conservation Center
cm Centimeter
CP Crude protein
DAP Diammonium phosphate
DM Dry matter
DO Dissolved oxygen
DWG Daily weight gain
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FAVF Faculty of Animal Science, Veterinary Science, and Fisheries
FCR Food conversion ratio
FY Fiscal year
g Gram
g/d Gram per day
GAA Global Aquaculture Alliance
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GFY Gross fish yield
H Hour
Ha Hectare
IMC Indian major carp
K Potassium
kg Kilogram
L liter

VIII
LEE Learning Entrepreneurial Experience
m meter
m2 Square meter
m3 Cubic meter
mg/L Milligram per liter
mm Millimeter
mmt Million metric tonnes
MOC Mustard oil cake
mt Metric tonnes
N Nitrogen
NFY Net fish yield
NH3 Ammonia
No Number
NRs Nepalese Rupees
P Phosphorous
ppm Parts per million
SDD Secchi disc depth
SGR Specific growth rate
SOFIA State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture
TL Total length
TSP Triple superphosphate
USD US dollar
Yr Year

IX
 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. General introduction
Polyculture is an art and science of growing two or more compatible fish species in a pond with
an objective of maximizing the production by taking advantage of different spatial distribution
and feeding habits.[ CITATION Zim09 \l 1033 ]. Polyculture is also known as multi-trophic
aquaculture (Bunting, 2008). Polyculture concepts rely on the complete utilization of various
spatial niches and trophic of a pond to acquire a maximum production per unit area. This
provides improved utilization of available natural food. The compatible species of
complementary feeding habits are stocked in order to utilize all the ecological niches of the
ecosystem effectively (Singh et al., 2020; Shanin, Mondal, Wahab, & Kunda, 2011).

Carp polyculture is the most common, popular, and successful aquaculture system in South
Asia including Nepal. It has become a tool to counter the different problems of poor rural
farmers like malnutrition, low income, and food security (Woynarovich, Moth-Poulsen, &
Péteri, 2010). Carp polyculture includes three Indigenous major carps along with three Chinese
carps and common carp. These include Indigenous major carps: Rohu (Labeo rohita), Mrigal
(Cirrhinus mrigala) and Bhakur (Labeo catla), and Chinese carps: Silver carp
(Hypopthalmichthys molitrix), Bighead carp (Hypopthalmichthys nobilis) and Grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella), Common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Although carps feed at low in
the food chain and accept both natural food and artificial feed but the indigenous carps have a
slow growth rate.

Carp polyculture is the major aquaculture system contributing to more than 90% of fish
production in Nepal. In 2075/76, total fish production and productivity were 91,832 mt and
4.92 mt/ha respectively (CFPCC, 2077), which is insufficient to fulfill the growing demand for
fish in Nepal. Therefore, it is essential to increase production and productivity. Including
mono-sex Nile tilapia in carp polyculture could enhance fish productivity because tilapia grows
faster, as its specific growth rate is around 2.5 – 4.5 %/day (Shanin et al., 2011; Toguyeui et
al., 1997). Moreover, Nile tilapia is an omnivore and is compatible with carps.
Polyculture of carps and mono-sex Nile tilapia under the Learning Entrepreneurial Experience
(LEE) program will be practiced in a pond to learn a semi-intensive aquaculture system and
marketing fish.

1
1.2. Objectives
1.2.1. General Objective
The overall objective of LEE is to learn to produce carps and mono-sex Nile tilapia in
polyculture in the earthen pond and market fish.

1.2.2. Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study are the following:

a. To determine the growth and production of different carps and Nile tilapia.
b. To monitor the water quality parameters in a carp-Nile tilapia polyculture pond.
c. To calculate the gross margin of carp and tilapia polyculture.
d. To learn the marketing of fish.

e.

2
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Global status of aquaculture
Global fish production will continue to expand over the next decade even though capture
fisheries had peaked its level and aquaculture no longer enjoy the high annual growth rates of
the 1980s and 1990s (11.3 and 10.0%). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA)
reports that total aquaculture production will grow to 201 million metric tons (mmt) by 2030.
In 2017, global fish production reached 172.6 million mt out of which fisheries aquaculture
contributed 92.5 and 80 million mt respectively. Inland waters contributed 11.9 and 49.5
million mt in fisheries and aquaculture respectively. Marine waters contributed 80.6 and 30.6
million mt in fisheries and aquaculture respectively. The total aquatic plant production was
31.8 million mt. The annual growth rate on an average is 4.8 % during 2011−2017. Global per
capita consumption of fish was 20.3 kg in 2017 (FAO, 2019).

The freshwater fish aquaculture production was 44.65 million mt in 2017. Total production of
carps were Grass carp (5.5 million mt), Silver carp (4.7 million mt), Common carp (4.1 million
mt), Catla (2.7 million mt), Rohu (1.9 million mt) and Mrigal (0.5 million mt). The production
of Tilapia was 4.13 million mt (FAO, 2019).

2.2. Status of aquaculture in Nepal

Nepal is a fascinating landlocked country situated in the southern slopes of the Himalaya
(Shrestha, 2008). Fisheries have been a strong tradition and long practiced in Nepal. Fish is
considered auspicious and signifies the symbol of power, prosperity, and productiveness. It is
one of the staple dishes in many communities in Nepal and is an important source of food as it
is healthy, rich in protein, and low in calories and cholesterol levels.

Aquaculture is a new activity and started in the early 1950s. Aquaculture is mainly done in
Terai-plain, including carp production in the pond and cages in lakes and reservoirs and
raceways in the hilly region (Rai et al., 2008). In 2075/76, total fish production was 91,832 mt
out of which capture and aquaculture contributed 21,000 and 70,832 mt respectively. The pond
aquaculture contributed to 62,725 mt which is almost 90% of total aquaculture production. The
pond productivity was 4.92 mt/ha. Bara district has the highest fish production of 7,886 mt
while Rupandehi district has the highest productivity of 5.8 mt/ha. The total fish consumption
was 3.11 kg per individual. Fish contributes 20.75% of the total meat consumption. The total
import of edible fish was 9,334 mt which is in decreasing rate. Fish contributes 4.18% and
1.13% in the AGDP and GDP respectively. (CFPCC, 2077).

3
2.3. Polyculture
Polyculture is a production system where two or more species of fish with different ecological
habitat and food preferences are cultured together in such densities that there will almost no
competition for space and food (Shrestha & Pandit, 2012). Polyculture is characterized by low
investment, quick return, high profit, and rapid growth in yield, and meet the needs for raising
the living standard of the people[ CITATION Lin82 \l 1033 ]. So, the choice of species in a
polyculture system should be based on the following criteria: availability of fish seeds,
availability, and cost of other inputs such as feeds, fertilizers, and productivity of the system.
The marketability of the end-produce and profitability of the system also needs to be
considered[CITATION Gue88 \l 1033 ]. Therefore, the association of fish species of different
food habits for effective use of available fish foods in the pond is one of the most important
management techniques for maximum fish production. The production of fish in monoculture
is much more feed dependent than in polyculture unless very low stocking densities are applied
(Woynarovich et al., 2010). This idea of multispecies fish culture was derived originally from
the philosophy of harmony, i.e. harmonization of the relations among man, matter, and nature
(Tang, 2011).

Principal requirements of different species in combination (Shrestha & Pandit, 2012)

1. They should have complementary feeding habits and occupy different ecological
niches.
2. They should attain marketable sizes at the same time.
3. They should all be non-predatory and tolerate each other.

Advantages of Polyculture

1. Better utilization of the space and feeding niche.

2. Full utilization of natural and formulated feeds.
3. Low water quality and disease problems.
4. Product diversity for household consumption and marketing in the same period.
5. Risk diversification and more economic return than monoculture.

Disadvantages of Polyculture

1. Skilled technical knowledge, expertise, and experience are required.

2. Difficult to procure and synchronize fingerlings of the right size at right time.
3. Difficult to maintain the food for all species.

4
 4. Difficult in harvesting and low production.

2.4. Carp Polyculture

Carp polyculture is the most viable and common aquaculture system in Nepal. There are
different types of carp polyculture, which is practiced to enhance productivity. The two main
aspects that greatly influences the level of intensities of operation of polyculture systems are
stocking densities and species combination (Jena, Ayyappan & Aravindakshan, 2002). The
major and established system of Nepal is a semi-intensive carp polyculture.

2.5. Species for Carp Polyculture

The selection of species plays a vital role in the polyculture system because all of the species
should benefit from the available food (such as plankton and detritus, among others) without
competing with one another (Yin et al., 2017). The interactions of stocked fishes are complex;
some are beneficial and should be promoted, whereas those that are competitive and mutually
exclusive should be avoided[ CITATION Lin82 \l 1033 ].

Carps are major fish cultured in Nepal; carps belong to the family of Cyprinidae. The main
species that are under culture are:

Rohu (Labeo rohita) – column feeder, Naini or Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) – bottom feeder,
Bhakur (Labeo catla) – surface feeder, Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) – surface
feeder, Bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) – surface feeder, Grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella) – marginal/column feeder and Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) –
bottom feeder [CITATION Hus16 \l 1033 ].

A. Indigenous/Indian Major Carps

2.5.1. Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822)
Rohu is a carp family species found in rivers in South Asia (FAO, 2006a). It is naturally found
in the terai region of Nepal, north and central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Burma
(FishBase, 2013). It is the most important and preferred species among the three IMC due to its
higher growth rate, market demands, consumer preference, and taste (Nair & Salin, 2007).

 General Biology

The body is moderately elongated and cylindrical. Small pointed head, reddish eyes with a
small pair of maxillary barbells are present. A sub-terminal mouth with thick-fringed and inner
fold lips and three rows of pharyngeal teeth. Moderate size cycloid scales with 40-44 lateral

5
line scales are present. Body-color is blue to brownish along the back and silvery on the sides
and belly. A distinct red mark appears on the scale during the breeding season and the fins
become grayish or black (Shrestha, 2008). It attains sexual maturity at the end of the second
year. Spawning occurs in the marginal and shallow areas of rivers. It is a seasonal breeder and
breeding season is June – August when the temperature is 25 - 30°C. The fecundity per
spawning is about 2,00,000 – 4,00,000. The growth is about 900 g in the first year, which is
slow and can attain 1m and 30 kg in its lifetime[CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ].

 Stocking rate

The desirable stocking rate is one fish/m2. The stocking rate is similar to stocking density
because of one fish kind in monoculture. There are enough food and room in a pond for a fish.
The stocking ratio of Rohu is 10% when stocked all seven carps in polyculture, 30% when
stocked with only indigenous major carps (CFPCC, 2076).

 Food and Feeding

It is a column as well as a bottom feeder and prefers on plant matter and decaying vegetation.
The utilization of plant matter is much better in mrigal and rohu than in catla but less prefer
zooplankton than mrigal [ CITATION Jhi85 \l 1033 ]. Adult shows preferences to
phytoplankton whereas juveniles prefer algae, submerged vegetation, and exhibit schooling
behavior in ponds. A nibbling type mouth with soft thick fringed and sharp cutting edges to
feed on soft vegetation. Thin hair-like modified gill rakes help to feeds on plankton by sieving
waters (FAO, 2006a).

2.5.2. Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton, 1822)

Mrigal/Naini is found in rivers in South Asia and is endemic to Indo-Gangetic riverine systems.
Adults inhabit fast-flowing streams and rivers (FishBase, 2014).

 General Biology

Elongated body with a depressed, rounded snout. A small head with a pair of rostral barbells is
present. The mouth is small and underslug without fringed and plough-shaped pharyngeal
teeth. Large cycloid scales with large golden bright to black olive-brown, yellowish on the
sides but not pinkish as Rohu. The belly is silvery pale yellow and whitish. Grayish fins with
orange-tinged on tips of pelvic, anal, and caudal during the breeding season. The dorsal fin is
placed in front of the pelvic (Shrestha, 2008).

6
The first maturity age is around two years for males and three years for females. It is a seasonal
breeder and breeding season is June – August when the temperature is 25 – 30°C. The season
depends on monsoon duration and onset. The fecundity is about 1,50,000 – 3,00,000. The
growth is about 600-700 g in its first year and slower than Rohu and Catla can attain up to 90
cm and 30 kg in its lifetime[CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ]. In natural waters, rapid growth rate
occurs in the first four years, followed by a period of slow growth in the next three years. The
growth rate thereafter becomes even slower[ CITATION Jhi85 \l 1033 ].

 Stocking rate

The stocking ratio of Mrigal is 15% when stocked all seven carps in polyculture, 30% when
stocked with only indigenous major carps (CFPCC, 2076).

 Food and Feeding

It is omnivorous that feeds on detritus, mud organism, dead and decaying plant and animal
matter however young one feeds on zooplankton[CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ].

2.5.3. Labeo catla (Hamilton, 1822)

Catla/Bhakur or South Asian carp, is an economically important South Asian freshwater fish. It
is endemic to the riverine system in northern India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and
Myanmar. It has been introduced later into almost all riverine systems, reservoirs, and tanks all
over India (FAO, 2020b).

 General Biology

The body is short, deep, and laterally compressed and has more depth than head length. Dark
grey color on the back, silvery on the side, and abdomen. A massive head with thick lips and
upturned mouth and large cycloid scales are present but no barbells. Long and fine gill rakers and
three-row pharyngeal teeth are present (Shrestha, 2008). It attains maturity in its second
year[ CITATION Jhi85 \l 1033 ]. It is a seasonal breeder and breeding season is June – August
when the temperature is 25 – 30°C. It naturally breeds in flowing water bodies, especially in
rivers, and floodplains during the rainy season. The fecundity is around 1,00,000 – 2,50,000. It
is the fast-growing fish among the IMC. It grows to 1-1.5 kg in the first year and attains 1.5 m and
45 kg in its lifetime[CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ].

 Stocking rate

7
The stocking ratio of Catla is 5% when stocked all seven carps in polyculture, 40% when
stocked with only indigenous major carps (CFPCC, 2076).

 Food and feeding

It is a surface feeder. Juveniles prefer planktonic algae, debris, and bigger zooplankton. Adults
are also planktivorous and show a preference for zooplankton (FAO, 2020b). It is a non-
predatory fish and well habituated in taking rice bran, wheat bran, mustard oil cake, and other
supplementary feed under the aquaculture system.

B. Exotic Carps
2.5.4. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844)
Silver carp is a freshwater species native to Eastern Asia from Amur to Xi Jiang, China, and
Hanoi, Vietnam. [ CITATION Anc11 \l 1033 ]. It was introduced in 1967 and 1968 from India
and Japan respectively[CITATION Shr12 \l 1033 ]. It is potamodromous, and migrate
upstream to breed. Fundamentally, it is a benthopelagic active species and swims just below
the water surface. It is introduced around the world for aquaculture and control of algal
blooms. The reason for importation was for use in aquaculture but enhancement of wild
fisheries and water quality have also been intended on occasion (Kolar et al., 2005).

 General Biology

The body is laterally compressed, deep, and flat. It is olive green in color on the dorsal side and
silver on the ventral side [ CITATION Anc11 \l 1033 ]. Head is broad, with an upturned mouth
and barbells are absent. The ventral keel extends from isthmus to anus i.e. complete. The
posterior margin of pectoral fins does not extend beyond the base of the pelvic fin[CITATION
Shr17 \l 1033 ]. Fins are dark without a true spine. The scales are small silvery, cycloid, and
lateral line scale count typically range from 85 to 108. Unique and highly specialized filtering
gill rakers are present in two separate rows gill arch, creating a v-shaped cavity. It is extremely
thin, sponge-like interlaced, and connected (Kolar et al., 2005).

The maturity age varies greatly with climate and environmental factors, especially temperature.
It matured in about 2-3 years at weight 2-5 kg. Fully ripe males and females are available
during April-May and May-July respectively. The fish breeds naturally during April-July in the
flowing waters of its natural habitat when the temperature is 22-28°C. The fish does not spawn
naturally in ponds and tanks (Jhingran & Pullin, 1985). The fecundity ranges from 60,000 –

8
80,000. The growth is about 1-2 kg in the first year and can attain up to 40-50 kg in its
lifetime[CITATION Shr12 \l 1033 ]. The highest growth rate in size and weight in the second
and third years of life respectively (Jhingran & Pullin, 1985).

 Stocking rate

. The stocking ratio of Silver carp is 25% when stocked all seven carps in polyculture, 45%
when stocked with only exotic carps (CFPCC, 2076)

 Food and Feeding

It feeds on planktivores by filtration using gill rakers. Under natural conditions, Silver carp
actively select for phytoplankton but also feed on zooplankton. It consumes green algae,
diatoms, dinoflagellates, xanthophytes, and cyanobacteria. Hatchlings feed on unicellular algae.
Adults also accept food like bone meal, rice bran, and flour (Vankhede & Deshmukh, 2002;
FAO, 2005a).

2.5.5. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1845)

Bighead carp is native to large rivers, and associated floodplain lakes of eastern Asia, with a
broad distribution from the drainage areas of the Pearl River in southern China to those of the
Heilongjiang River in the north (FAO, 2004a). It was introduced in 1969 and 1972 from
America and Hungary respectively[CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ]. It is a semi-migratory fish and
broodstock migrates from lower reaches of rivers to the spawning ground in the upper reaches
(FAO, 2004a). It is recognized in the world, because of its versatility in aquaculture operations.

 General Biology

The body is laterally compressed, deep-bodied, and flat. Head and mouth are
disproportionately large. The length of the head is larger than body height with upturned mouth
and barbells absent. The body is dark gray above and cream-colored below with dark gray to
black irregular blotches on the back and sides. The blotched or mottled pattern is often lost in
turbid water (Kolar et al., 2005). Small, silvery, and brownish, cycloid scales are present, and
lateral line scale count is from 96 to 110 Pharyngeal teeth are four in each arch with a single
row and shape like a spoon with the grinding surface shallowly concave.

Incomplete abdominal keel in Bighead where it extends from anterior vent to base of pelvic fin
whereas keel is complete and extending from anterior vent to anterior breast portion, near gill
membranes junction in Silver carp. When the posterior part of the pectoral fin of bighead is

9
pressed, it extended well beyond pelvic fin base, overlapping 16 – 42% of the length of pelvic
fin whereas no overlapping or less than 10% overlapping occurs in Silver carp. Bighead carp
have mottled sides whereas Silver has uniform silvery sides.

Eyes are situated low in the head but bigheads differ from Silver as they are facing ventral and
forward. The grinding surfaces of the pharyngeal teeth of the Bighead carps differ from those
of the Silver carp, which have fine striations that are visible with magnification. Long, thin
unfused gill rakers in Bighead carps, which contrast sharply to the long, thin, fused sponge-like
in Silver carp (Kolar et al., 2005).

The maturity varies greatly with climate and environmental factors, especially temperature
(Jhingran & Pullin, 1985). It matured in about 2-3 years at weight 2-5 kg. The fish breeds
naturally during May-July in the flowing waters of its natural habitat when the temperature is
24-28°C. The fecundity ranges from 50,000 – 60,000. The growth is about 1-2 kg in the first
year and can attain up to 40-50 kg in its lifetime [CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ].

 Stocking rate

The stocking ratio of Bighead carp is 5% when stocked all seven carps in polyculture, 15%
when stocked with only exotic carps (CFPCC, 2076).

 Food and Feeding

It dwells in the upper layer and prefers high fertility water. It feeds upon zooplankton and
larvae feeds on rotifers, phytoplankton, and nauplii. In culture, bighead carp will also accept
artificial feed, such as the by-products from grain processing.

2.5.6. Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844)

Grass carp is an herbivorous fish, originally from Vietnam, Amur River on China border fish
with a broad distribution from the catchment area of the Pearl River in southern China to that
of the Heilongjiang River in northern China (Cudmore & Mandrak, 2004; FAO, 2004b). It is an
important species used for weed control in water bodies [ CITATION Aco16 \l 1033 ]. It was
introduced in 1967 and 1968 from India and Japan respectively[CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ].

 General Biology

The body is elongated and cylindrical, with the rounded abdomen, compressed at the rear, and
length of caudal peduncle is twice the length of width. The body is greenish-yellow laterally,

10
with dark brown dorsally and greyish white in the abdomen. Head is broad with the sub-
terminal arch-shaped mouth and barbells absent. Two rows of pharyngeal teeth are present.
Large cycloid scales with 39-46 scales on lateral lines. Short and spare gill rakers and the gill
membrane is connected to the isthmus (Towers, 2010).

It is a seasonal breeder and breeds in April-May when the water temperature is 22-27 °C
[CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ]. The maturity age fluctuates greatly with climate and
environmental factors. The maturity age is 15,000 (°C)-days, counting only those days when
the water temperature exceeds 15°C (Jhingran & Pullin, 1985). The fecundity is 60,000-80,000
per spawning. The growth is about 1-2 kg in the first year and is one of the fast-growing fish. It
can attain up to 50 kg and 1.5m in length in its lifetime[CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ].

 Stocking rate

The stocking ratio of Grass carp is 5% when stocked all seven carps in polyculture, 5% when
stocked with only exotic carps (CFPCC, 2076).

 Food and Feeding

They are herbivorous; feeding primarily on aquatic plants but also take insects and others, and
readily accept formulated pellets under culture conditions.

Larvae feed on protozoa and small zooplankton switching to bigger ones as the mouth gape and
pharyngeal teeth are not well developed. When the body length is 26 mm, pharyngeal teeth
develops and intestine increase and convolute. At this stage, switch to a macrophytic occurs.
As growth occurs, gape increases, and pharyngeal teeth become falciform increasing its cutting
ability. Feeding behavior is temperature-dependent. The optimum temperature for feeding
ranges from 22-30°C. Feed diet affects the intensity and intake. DO affects the feeding as it
stops below 3 mg/l and the optimum range is 5-8 mg/L (Ni & Wang, 1999).

2.5.7. Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758)

Common carp is a native to large rivers and lakes of Asia and Europe dwelling upon deep
slow-flowing warm waters and can thrive in large turbid rivers. It is active at dusk and dawn.
Hardy, tolerant of a wide variety of conditions and breeds along shores or in
backwaters[ CITATION Fis16 \l 1033 ].It was introduced in 1956 and 1960 from India and
Israel respectively. Two varieties are mostly culture i.e. German Carp (Cyprinus carpio var.
communis) and Israeli Carp (Cyprinus carpio var. specularis). German carp have golden scales

11
covered completely and uniformly whereas Israeli carp have few large shiny scales covered
unevenly [CITATION Shr17 \l 1033 ]. It is also known as an ‘ecological engineer’ and
nuisance fish because it causes dramatic ecological disruption to both the aquatic community
and the ecosystem (Rahman, 2015).

 General Biology

The body is deep, robust, heavy with slightly compressed laterally. The mouth is underslug
with a flashy protrusible lip and small head s relatively small and complete lateral line. Long
and serrated trailing edge on the first ray of the anal fin and dorsal fin. Two pair’s small
barbells are present in the upper jaw (Shrestha, 2008). The maxillary barbells are shorter than
the mandibular barbells. The wild forms have large scales and yellow-brown, or green-brown
coloration on the head, on the dorsal and upper-lateral side of the body with the yellowish or
whitish abdomen. The coloration of domesticated strains is similar. The environment (color of
water, soil, etc.) may also modify the coloration of fish [ CITATION CAB19 \l 1033 ].

It is a multiple breeder and breeds at March-April in terai and April- May in hills. It also breeds
in September-October. The fecundity is 1,00,000 – 2,00,000 per spawning [CITATION
Shr17 \l 1033 ]. Spawning occurs in the shallow, marginal weed-infested areas[ CITATION
Van02 \l 1033 ]. The growth of German is about 1-2 kg in the first year and that of mirror carp
is 2-3kg. It can attain up to 18 kg and 50 cm in length in its lifetime (Shrestha & Pandit, 2012).

 Stocking rate

The stocking ratio of Common carp is 25% when stocked all seven carps in polyculture, 35%
when stocked with only exotic carps (CFPCC, 2076).

 Food and Feeding

A peaceful bottom, omnivorous, and non-predatory feeder in nature, which prefers different
natural foods, including planktonic crustaceans, tender parts, and seeds plants, and fish eggs
and larvae. It is a flexible and opportunistic feeder that can switch to any food available. The
mouth is large and opens in an accordion-like fashion to dig in the mud (FAO, 2011). It makes
embankment weak by burrowing holes[ CITATION Van02 \l 1033 ].

12
2.6. Nile tilapia in carp polyculture
2.6.1. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758)
Nile tilapia is a fish species of cichliformes order. It is tropical species native to Africa and the
Middle East, distributed widely throughout the world. It is the second most important food
fishes in the world (Fitzsimmons, 2000). It was introduced from Thailand in 1985 (Shrestha &
Pandit, 2012).

 General biology

The body is laterally compressed to oval and deep, depending on the environment. Body-color
depends on environmental, physiological, and dietary factors. Lateral line interrupted with 30-
34 cycloid scales. Terminal mouth with teeth in 3 to 7 series and number depending upon the
size. Male brooders have a red flush in different parts like head, lower body, dorsal and caudal
fins. Truncate caudal fin with distinctive and regular 7 – 12 vertical stripes are present which is
a diagnostic feature (FAO, 2020c). Sexual maturity is attained around 5-6 months of age and at
20 g weight too. It is a prolific breeder and spawning begins when the temperature reaches 24
°C. In a pond, a soft bottom nest is excavated using the mouth and the females lay eggs over
there. The fecundity is 500-2500 eggs per spawning (Shrestha & Pandit, 2012).

 Feed and feeding

It is an omnivorous, versatile, opportunistic feeder, which prefers surface grazing on

periphyton mats, zooplankton, bacteria, and aquatic plants. Its diet varies with season and
spatial conditions and food composition depends on size, the maturity of fish, and the
environment. It can filter feed by entrapping suspended particles on mucous in the buccal
cavity. When the total length is around 6cm, it switches to herbivorous feeding on
phytoplankton (Tesfahun & Temesgen, 2018; FAO, 2020c).

 Stocking rate

The desirable stocking rate is three fish/m2 (FAO, 2005b).

2.6.2. Polyculture of carps and mono-sex Nile tilapia

Depending upon management and intensity, Tilapia farming ranges from rural subsistence to a
largescale level and commonly cultured in semi-intensive systems. Incorporating mono-sex
tilapia in the existing systems of carps-polyculture will enhance the carp polyculture
production.

13
Monosex solves unwanted reproduction and early sexual maturation problems. Hybridization
or genetic manipulation, direct hormonal sex reversal, or manual sexing can achieve monosex.
Production of monosex is relatively easier and their growth and other production traits are
largely influenced by genetics[ CITATION Gup04 \l 1033 ]. In comparison to the mixed
population, monosex has a higher specific growth rate, daily weight gain, protein efficiency
ratio, and protein content [CITATION Cha \l 1033 ]. In populations of tilapia, males grow
approximately 50% faster and are uniform in size than females(rcbhujl). Since it consumes
plankton, it will improve water quality in ponds and in effluents at harvest. Such improvements
in water quality and faster uniform growth will help to gain larger economic and production of
fish with no further inputs to enhance the sustainability of aquaculture systems environmentally
and economically. The addition of tilapia (3000/ha) and Sahar (1000/ha) into the existing carps
production system could increase yields by 30% and profit margin by 18% (Shrestha et al.,
2018).

Shrestha et al. (2018) and Pandit et al. (2004) have concluded that the addition of tilapia to
carp polyculture has increased the yield and production, so incorporating mono-sex tilapia will
be a profitable venture.

14
2.7. Species combination in polyculture

Generally, to maximize the capacity of the pond, four to seven species are stocked at the same
time.

The proportion of fish species

The proportion of carp and other fish species in polyculture as presented in the table:

Table 1: Species combination in polyculture system in Nepal

Indigenous Major Carp Combination All seven carps Combination

Catla 40% Silver Carp 25%
Rohu 30% Bighead Carp 05%
Mrigal 30% Catla 05%
Exotic Carps Combination Grass Carp 05%
Silver Carp 45% Rohu 10%
Bighead Carp 15% Common Carp 20%
Grass Carp 05% Mrigal 15%
Common Carp 35%
Source : (CFPCC, 2076).

Table 2: Species combination in polyculture system in India.

Three Species Combination Six Species Combination

Catla 40% Catla 15%
Rohu 30% Silver Carp 15%
Mrigal 30% Rohu 20%
Four Species Combination Grass Carp 15%
Catla 30% Mrigal 15%
Rohu 30% Common Carp 20%
Grass Carp 20%
Mrigal 20%
Source: [ CITATION Muk19 \l 1033 ]

Table 3: Species combination in polyculture system in Bangladesh

A. Six Species Combination B. Five Species Combination

1. Surface feeder 40 – 50 % Catla 10 – 15 %
Catla 10 – 15 % Silver Carp 20 – 30%

15
 Silver Carp 30 – 35 % Ruhi 15 – 20%
2. Column feeder Mrigal 10 – 15%
Rui 20 – 25% in 2m pond depth Common Carp 15 – 20%
Rui 10% in below 2m pond depth
Grass carp 5 – 10 % C. Four Species Combination
3. Bottom feeder 30 – 40 % Catla 30 – 40 %
Mrigal 15 – 20% Rhui 20 – 30 % or 10 – 15%
Common carp 15 – 20% Mrigal 15 – 20 %
Common 15 – 20 %
D. Three species combination
Catla 40%
Rui 30%
Mrigal 30%
Source: (FAO, 1992)

Stocking density and ratio

The rate of stocking generally depends on the biological productivity of a pond and the amount
of supplementary feeding. In general, the stocking rate is determined in relation to the water
surface area of a pond. Fingerlings can be stocked at 700 – 900 per bigha in a pond of 2.5m
depth. For better survival, it is good to stock a fingerling of 10 – 15 cm size. As lager size,
fingerling has a high chance of survival and better production than a smaller size despite being
a little expensive. The species ratio depends on pond nutrients, fish seed accessibility,
consumer, and market demand, etc.

Often different species are stocked at the same time but sometimes due to interspecific
competition growth of Catla is affected by Silver carp. So, in such case Silver carp must be
stocked later than catla by one to two months so that Catla can attain a better growth rate.
Silver carp has a faster growth rate and can reach around a kg over a 9 – 10 month period
(Manual on polyculture and integrated fish farming in Bangladesh, 2020).

16
2.8. Water quality requirements for carps
The determining factor for fish production is water quality. The physical, chemical, and
biological attributes of water, all combine is called water quality. Changes in these attributes
affect production. Improved production suggests improvements in water quality whereas
reduction suggests degradation of water quality. It is influenced by stocking density,
management practice, fertilization, and feeding strategy. Manipulation of water quality is major
in semi-intensive and intensive production as manipulated helps to overcome limitations to
production like using aeration, liming, and water exchange process[CITATION Egn97 \l
1033 ].

2.8.1. Temperature
Temperature increase dramatically during the day and cool at night in the tropical part, causing
diel cycles. It affects the natural productivity directly affects other water quality
variables[CITATION Egn97 \l 1033 ]. Warm water fish grow best at temperatures between 250
and 320 C [CITATION Boy98 \l 1033 ]. The feeding decreases below 200 C and may die below
120 C. (Shrestha & Pandit, 2012). Abundance, occurrence, and periodicity of phytoplankton
depend on temperature (Tripathi & Pandey, 1990).

2.8.2. Turbidity and Transparency

Turbidity is water clarity measurement whereas transparency is affected by suspended,
dissolved particles and amount of sunlight (Fondriest Environmental, 2014). Suspended solids
concentrations above 80 mg/L do not support good production. Good to moderate fisheries can
be maintained in waters with 25-80 mg/L suspended solids[CITATION Boy98 \l 1033 ]. The
desirable range for suspended solids the fish culture is 25 – 80 mg/L (Shrestha & Pandit, 2012).
A good plankton growth gives green-bluish, brownish color in the water. The dark brown color
is lethal for fish/shrimp culture. Unproductive waters have a bluish color and are very
transparent[ CITATION Ala17 \l 1033 ].

2.8.3. pH
The optimum pH range from 6.5-9.0. The acid and alkaline death points are at pH 4 and pH 11
respectively[CITATION Boy98 \l 1033 ]. High alkalinity and low hardness can cause
afternoon pH to rise above 10 during intense photosynthesis. The high afternoon pH in such
waters may kill fish fry and zooplankton[CITATION Boy98 \l 1033 ].

17
 2.8.4. Dissolved oxygen
The optimum dissolved oxygen is 5-8 ppm. Warm-water fish can survive for days even in 1-2
mg/L DO levels but die after short-term exposure to less than 0.3 mg/L DO. Adult fish can
survive at 0.3-0.5 mg/L DO for hours whereas fingerlings may survive short exposure to
concentrations even lower than this [CITATION Boy98 \l 1033 ]. Bacteria may infect the fish
if they experienced prolonged low DO levels along with reduced growth and survival. Below
3-4 mg/L DO levels, feeding should be stopped (Tucker and Robinson 1990). The optimum
level of BOD is 3-6 ppm[ CITATION Ala17 \l 1033 ].

2.8.5. Total alkalinity and Hardness

Inorganic carbon is required for photosynthesis so alkalinity might reduce the productivity
Alkalinity below 30 mg/L as CaCO3 limits primary production in well-fertilized ponds, while
in unfertilized ponds alkalinities below 120 mg/L can reduce primary production (Boyd &
Tucker, 1998). A total alkalinity range of 20-400 mg/L is considered satisfactory for most
aquaculture purposes.

The range of 40 to 400 ppm of hardness is suitable. The hardness of 15 ppm or more is
satisfactory for the growth of fishes and does not require additional lime[ CITATION Ala17 \l
1033 ].

2.8.6. Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide range from 0 mg/L in the afternoon to 5-10 mg/L at dawn. High levels of about
60-80 mg/L have a narcotic effect and even higher can cause death[CITATION Boy98 \l
1033 ]. CO2 level of 30 mg/L can be tolerated by warm water for short periods if DO is more
than 5 mg/L. The optimum level of CO2 is 5 ppm[ CITATION Ala17 \l 1033 ].

2.8.7. Ammonia, Nitrite, and Nitrate

Acute toxicities can occur within hours of exposure to more than about 1-2 mg/L of un-ionized
ammonia-nitrogen[CITATION Boy98 \l 1033 ]. The optimum level of NH3 is 0.3 to 1.3 ppm.
& less than 0.1 ppm is unproductive.

The ideal and normal measurement of nitrite is zero in any aquatic system[ CITATION
Ala17 \l 1033 ]. Nitrite is toxic to fish because it can pass easily into the blood through gills,
where it converts hemoglobin into a relatively stable form, methemoglobin, which is very poor
oxygen-carrying capacity. Where ammonia & Nitrite were toxic to fish, Nitrate is harmless.

18
Nitrate concentration is recommended from zero to 200 ppm, which are acceptable in a
fishpond. The nitrate level is normally stabilized in the 50-100 ppm in range. Biological filters
may be used to treat water for converting ammonia to nitrite and then to harmless nitrate
through the nitrification process.

2.8.8. Chlorophyll – a
Chlorophyll-a is the responsible molecule for photosynthesis.
2.8.9. Soluble reactive phosphorous

Table 4: Water quality requirements in pond culture

Water Quality Optimum Level Source

Temperature 25 – 320C (for warm waters)
Turbidity 25 – 80 mg/L
Transparency/Secchi Disk 40 – 60 cm
pH 6.5 – 9.0
DO 5 – 8 ppm
BOD 3 – 6 ppm
Water Color Green, Bluish Green, Brownish greenish
Total Alkalinity 20 – 400 mg/L
Hardness 40 – 400 ppm
Carbon dioxide 5 ppm
Ammonia 0.3 – 1.3 ppm
Nitrite 0 mg/L
Nitrate 0 – 200 ppm
Chlorophyll – a
Soluble reactive
phosphorous
Source:

19
2.9. Water quality requirements for Nile tilapia
Tilapia can tolerate a wider range of environmental conditions—including factors such as
salinity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, and ammonia levels than most cultured freshwater
fishes can [ CITATION Mjo10 \l 1033 ].

2.9.1. Temperature
Temperature is a major metabolic modifier in these fish. The intolerance of tilapia to low
temperatures is a serious constraint for commercial culture in temperate regions. The suitable
temperature is around 31 to 36 °C, whereas the upper and lower fatal temperatures are 11-12
°C and 42 °C respectively. Optimal growing temperatures are typically between 22° C and 29°
C but the upper limit to optimal range might be up to 45° C; spawning normally occurs at
temperatures greater than 22° C. Most tilapia species are unable to survive at temperatures
below 10° C, and growth is poor below 20° C. Tilapia generally stop feeding when water
temperature falls below 18° C [ CITATION Ros00 \l 1033 ].

2.9.2. pH
In general, tilapia can survive in pH ranging from 3.7 to 10.3. The best growth rates are
achieved between pH 7 to 9 (Ross, 2000).

2.9.3. Dissolved oxygen

Tilapia can tolerate poor water quality and low dissolved oxygen concentration. Survival after
short-term exposure to 0.1 mg/L or less is reported. DO values in culture systems of 2.3 and 3.0
mg/L caused depression in growth. Optimum concentration will be above 3.0 mg/L
[ CITATION Ros00 \l 1033 ]. While tilapia is generally tolerant of low DO extended periods of
hypoxia may cause reduced growth and increased mortality particularly when algal blooms
occur.

Tilapia yield was about 17% lower in ponds without aerators. Therefore, this signifies the
major characteristic of water quality that is DO, which is important to the growth, and survival
of fish[CITATION Egn97 \l 1033 ].

2.9.4. Ammonia
Ammonia is toxic to tilapia at concentrations of 7.1 mg/L as unionized ammonia and depresses
feed intake and growth at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/L. Optimum concentrations are
estimated to be below 0.05 mg/L [ CITATION Ros00 \l 1033 ].

20
 Table 5: Water quality requirements for Nile tilapia

Water Quality Optimum Level Range

Temperature (°C) 22-29 8 – 42
Salinity (ppt) 5 – 10 Upto 36
pH 6 – 9.0 3.7 – 10.3
DO Above 2 mg/L Upto 0.3 mg/L
Ammonia 0.3 – 1.3 ppm Upto 7.1 mg/L
Source: [ CITATION Ros00 \l 1033 ].
2.10. Food and feeding
Fish feed on two types of food: natural and supplementary.

A. Natural Food

It includes the food that pond produced itself like phytoplankton, zooplankton, macrophytes,
detritus, etc. (Carballo et al., 2008). In general, to produce 1 kg of fish meat, it requires 10 kg
of zooplankton, which requires 100 kg of phytoplankton. (Woynarovich et al., 2010).

Table 6: Tropical and spatial niche of different polyculture fish

Species Trophic niche Spatial niche

Filter Feeder Macro-Particulate Surface Column Bottom
Phytoplankto Zooplankto Detritu
n n Macrophytes s
Silver Carp ** * +
Bighead Carp * ** +
Bhakur * ** +
Grass Carp ** +
Rohu ** * * +
Mrigal * ** +
Common carp * ** +
Tilapia ** * +
** Major Trophic niche * Minor Trophic niche Source: [ CITATION Dab09 \l
1033 ]

B. Supplementary Food
It includes the feed that is supplied from outside to maintain the nutrients in the pond as this
feed is not produced by the pond. Feeding is a crucial element that determines the profitability
of production. As the principles and practice of feeding to elder groups, differ from the fry
group. The feed should have high protein content (30–35 %) and finely ground when feeding to
the fry group as compared to the elder group (Woynarovich et al., 2010).

21
Table 7: A simple mixture of supplementary feeds for rearing advanced fry of carps

Ingredients %
Wheat flour 25
Soya 25
Fish meal 25
Meat or blood meal 25
Source: (Woynarovich et al., 2010).

The feed conversion ratio (FCR) should be calculated each month, as well as at the end of the
production season. Thumb rule is that the FCR will be less during the first half of the
production season, while it will be more in the second half. FCR of the same feedstuffs to
younger fish will be lower than of elder fish because younger consume more natural protein-
rich food, consequently, requires supplementary feed to gain 1 kg (Woynarovich et al., 2010).

Table 8: Expected FCR of grains at the different age groups of common carp

Age group FCR

Advanced Fry 0.75 – 1.25
One summer- old fish 1–2
Two summer – old fish 1.5 – 2.5
Table fish 2 – 3.5
Source: (Woynarovich et al., 2010).

Table 9: Dietary nutrient requirements of fish

Life stage Crude protein (%)

Fry 35 – 50
Fingerling 30 – 40
Adult 25 – 30
Source: (FAO, 2004b; 2005b; 2006a; 2006b; 2011; 2020b)

Table 10: Feed ingredients and nutrient composition

Feed ingredients Nutrient composition (% on dry matter basis)

Moistu CP CF Lipid Ash Gross energy
re (kJ/g)
Rice barn (de- 8 – 10 15 – 18 1–2 8 – 12 10.11
oiled)
MOC 8 – 10 25 – 38 6–9 10 – 12 19.57
Duckweed 88 30 7 12 15 400 kJ/100g
Napier grass 91 20 27 315 kJ/100g
Source:

22
2.11. Liming
Areas with soft waters and acidic soils need liming but not in soils with a high concentration of
carbonates[ CITATION Egn97 \l 1033 ]. So acidic and low alkalinity problems can be solved
by lime and to neutralize soil acidity. Liming raises the alkalinity of the water and increases the
availability of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The application of liming materials is not a
type of fertilization[CITATION Boy98 \l 1033 ]. When agricultural limestone was applied to
unfertilized ponds with low alkalinity, the production did not increase even at the highest
application rate, 4480 kg/ha compared to un-limed ones. Therefore, liming is a technique for
increasing the response to fertilization, not a substitute[ CITATION Egn97 \l 1033 ].

Generally, two kinds of lime are used which are the powdered limestone, or agricultural lime
which acts slowly, and the quicklime which acts quickly and aggressively. Therefore,
quicklime is better at disinfecting or at the treatment of water (Woynarovich et al., 2010).

Table 11: Liming requirement in pond culture at preparation and during production

pH value Preparatory Dose (kg/ha) Monthly dose (kg/ha/month)

8 50 – 100 10 – 25
7.5 100 – 200 25 – 50
7 200 – 300 50 – 75
6 300 – 400 75 – 100
Less than 6 400 – 450 100 – 125
Source: (Woynarovich et al., 2010).
Table 12: Liming dose for different soil pH value

pH value Amount of lime (kg/ha/yr)

8 or more No need of liming
7.5 – 8 200
6.5 – 7.5 500
5 – 6.5 1000
4–5 2000
Source: (Shrestha & Pandit, 2012

23
2.12. Fertilization
Fertilizer increases the primary productivity by increasing the plant nutrients, which will lead
to a higher abundance of natural food, and an increase in the productivity of fish[CITATION
Boy98 \l 1033 ]. A large number of nutrients are required to stimulate phytoplankton growth
like major elements (C, N, K, P, etc.) and trace elements (Fe, Mn, Zn, etc.). Therefore, the
fertilization requirement is fulfilled by adding nutrients in either organic or inorganic
forms[ CITATION Egn97 \l 1033 ].

Theoretically, pond fertilization is based on Liebig’s law of the minimum. The application of
chemical fertilizer with manure that contains a wide C: N ratio is beneficial because the
nitrogen stimulates microbial degradation of the manure. Fertilizer dissolves slowly in 3 – 4 h
in standing water. Therefore, the dissolution before the application is very important. Less than
20% of phosphorus and greater than 60% of nitrogen dissolved when various solid fertilizers
sank through 2 m of the water column[CITATION Boy98 \l 1033 ].

Table 13: Fertilizer requirement in pond culture

Fertilizer Fertilization Dose Fertilizer Used Fertilization Fertilizer Dose

Nutrients Nutrient Dose
2
Nitrogen 0.2 – 0.4 g N/m / Urea (46% N) 0.4 g N/m2 / day or 4.7 g Urea/
day 2.8 g N/m2 / week m2 /week
Phosphorou 0.1 – 0.2 g P/m2 / Phosphorous (18% 0.1 g P/m2 / day / 3.5 g DAP/
s day N & 46 % P2O5) 0.7 g P/m2 / week m2 /week
Manure 150 kg /ha/ day 0.105 kg/m2
/week
Source: (Knud-Hansen, McNabb, & Batterson, 1993; Shrestha & Pandit, 2012)

24
2.13. Growth and yield of carps
Jha et al. (2018) evaluated different carp polyculture systems. Silver carp, bighead carp, grass
carp, common carp, rohu, and mrigal were stocked at a ratio of 4:1:4:3:5:5 and a rate of 15,000
fish/ha along with SIS of density 50,000 fish/ha on the different pond of average size 150.9 ±
4.1 m2. The pond was applied with 250 kg/ha bleaching powder to eradicate weed fish. Ponds
were fertilized with urea after 15 days at 7g/m2 (2.16 g N/m2) and diammonium phosphate
(DAP) at 3.5g/m2 (0.63 gN and 0.71 g P/m2). In the replicate of TF, Carps were fed daily at 5%
of body weight (BW) for 60 days, then 2% BW for 150 days, using a supplemental feed
composed of dough (mustard oil cake and rice bran (1:1)), or using grass (for grass carp) at
50% BW.

The daily weight gain, and survival of Silver, Bighead, Grass, Common, Rohu, Mrigal found to
be 1.5g/day/fish, 65%, and 2.1 g/day/fish, 45% and 2.3 g/day/fish, 45% and 5.1 g/day/fish,
22% and 1.0 g/day/fish, 66% and 0.7 g/day/fish, 66% respectively in the pond Carp + 100 %
feed treatment (TF). The overall FCR was 2.44.

Laudari et al. (2016) assess the optimum feeding rate on the growth and production of carp
polyculture in Nepal. Three earthen ponds were divided into 12 units to culture for 128 days.
The ponds were kept sun-dried for one week, liming at the rate of 500 kg/ha and filled with
boring water. The ponds were fertilized with inorganic fertilizer (Urea and DAP) at a rate of
100 kg/ha/m0onth. The stocking ratio Common: Silver: Bighead: Grass was 40%: 30%: 15%:
15% in T1, T2, T3, and T4 treatments respectively with a stocking density of 1.5 fish/m2.
Feeding rates of 2% (T1), 3% (T2), and 4% (T3) of fish body weight and no feeding (T4)
experimented in triplicate.

The survival of common carp in T1, T2, T3, and T4 were 90.6±9.51, 91.6±9.55, 95.9±9.79,
96.3±9.81 respectively. The survival of silver carp in T1, T2, T3, and T4 were 88.9±9.41,
96.8±9.84, 98.4±9.92, 95.2±9.75 respectively. The survival of bighead carp in T1, T2, T3, and
T4 were 92.3±9.60, 100±10, 91.9±9.58, 90.4±9.50 respectively. The survival of grass carp in
T1, T2, T3, and T4 were 76.5±8.73, 82±9.02, 71.1±8.73, 70.7±8.34 respectively.

The overall FCR in T1, T2, T3, and T4 were 1.18±0.07, 1.16±0.10, 1.85±0.08, and 0
respectively.

25
Mandal et al. (2018) assess the effect of a red algal bloom on the growth and production of
carp. The experiment included two treatments: carp polyculture in a non-red pond and carp
polyculture in the red pond with the algal bloom each with three replicates reared for 120 days.
Red ponds were fertilized with goat manure at a rate of 3 kg 100 m2 of the pond area on a dry
weight basis biweekly. For the 4:1 N/P ratio, non-red ponds were fertilized with DAP and urea
at the rate of 700 g/100 m2 and 940 g/100 m2respectively. The fish were silver: common: rohu:
mrigal: bighead: grass at 3.5: 2.5: 1.5: 1:1:0.5 ratio, respectively at the density of one fish/m2.
Fish were fed with 24% CP pellet at 3% body weight. Grass carp were fed with grass on a wet
weight basis of 50 % body weight.

The daily weight gain per fish of Silver, Bighead, Common, Rohu, Mrigal, and Grass was in
red and non-red ponds were 2.3 g, 2.0 g, and 2.6g, 2.8g, and 2.2g, 2.3g, and 2.5g, 2.4g, and
1.8g, 1.5g, and 3.1g, 3.9g respectively. The Survival of Silver, Bighead, Common, Rohu,
Mrigal, and Grass were in red and non-red ponds were 52%, 52.3% and 95.2%, 86.0% and
89.5%, 86.7% and 84.9%, 61.6% and 88.12%, 59.1% and 40.5%, 60.8% respectively. The
overall AFCR was 1.5, 1.9, and survival was 75.2%, 67.85 in red and non-red pond
respectively.

Jena et al. (2002) evaluate the production performance in multiple cropping systems in carp
polyculture. Six carp species of 17.5 g average weight were stocked, viz., catla: rohu: mrigal:
silver: grass: common in the ratio of 2:2:2:2:0.5:1.5, at a combined density of 10,000
fingerlings/ha. The mean survival of catla, rohu, mrigal, silver, grass, common were 96.9%,
91.9%, 91.6%, 91.6%, 52.5%, 75.9% in a single cropping treatment. The overall FCR was 3.16
± 0.05.

26
2.14. Growth and yield of Nile tilapia
Shrestha et al. (2018) conducted two trials to evaluate the benefits of adding Nile tilapia and
Sahar to carp polyculture ponds. The on-station trial stocked ponds with three separate
treatments: a) Carp only (C) b) Carp+ Tilapia (C + T) and c) Carp + Tilapia + Sahar (C + T +
S). Silver: bighead: common: grass: rohu: mrigal were stocked in all ponds at the ratio of
3.5:1:2:2.5:0.5:1.5:1. Feeding was done with the local feed of 20% CP at the rate of 2% BW.
The GFY of carp, carp + tilapia, and carp + tilapia + sahar was 2.06±0.17, 2.31±0.13, and
2.58±0.11 respectively. The overall survival was 87.17±5.09, 76.02±3.02, and 80.48±1.33.

Pandit et al. (2004) conducted an experiment with grass carp and tilapia. Five stocking ratios of
grass carp to Nile tilapia treatments and three replications as (1) Grass carp only at 0.5 fish/m 2
(2) Grass carp: tilapia: 0.5 :0.25 fish/m 2 (3) Grass carp: tilapia: 0.5 :0.5 fish/m 2 (4) Grass carp:
tilapia: 0.5 :1 fish/m2. (5) Grass carp: tilapia: 0.5 :2 fish/m 2. Chopped fresh Napier grass leaf
was provided daily in the morning. The survival of grass carp in T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 were
0, 80.6%, 80.6%, 83.3%, and 91.7% respectively. The survival of tilapia in T1, T2, T3, T4, and
T5 was 100%. The daily weight gain of tilapia in T2, T3, T4, and T5 was 0.46, 0.40, 0.26, and
0.19 respectively. The daily weight gain of grass carp in T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 were 0, 2.3,
3.1, 2.4, and 2.2 respectively.

Little and Edwards (2004) determine the effect of poor and improved nutrients inputs on the
performance of mixed-sex and monosex tilapia. Fresh ruminant manure at the rate of 50 kg dry
matter /ha/day was put in poor nutrient level and inorganic fertilizers and rice bran were put in
improved nutrient level. After 5 months growth and net yields were affected by nutrients level
by not by sex. The mean net yield of monosex tilapia in improved inputs was 1709±93.3 kg/ha
and the net yield of mixed-sex in improved inputs was 1600±125 kg/ha in both dry and wet
season. The net yield of monosex tilapia in poor inputs and mixed-sex tilapia was 334.0±97.7
kg/ha and 236.7±0.83 kg/ha respectively in both dry and wet season. The mean survival
monosex tilapia in improved inputs was 66.6 ±5.73 and the mean survival of mixed-sex in
improved inputs was 61.8±5.01 in both dry and wet season. The mean survival of monosex
tilapia in poor inputs and mixed-sex tilapia was 57.3±7.15 and 40.91±7.42 respectively in both
dry and wet season.

27
 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. LEE site
The culture practices will be done in the Aquaculture farm, Agriculture and Forestry
University. Carp-Tilapia Polyculture will be practiced in the S1 pond of area 325 m2 (23*13m)
and depth 1.5m. The culture period will be of 60 days from 15th July to 15th September 2020.

Table 14: Dimension (Area) of LEE pond

Pond Description Area (m2) Work to be done

Pond S1 325 (25*13 m) Carp-Monosex Tilapia polyculture

3.2. Pond preparation

3.2.1. Draining and drying
The pond will be drained and dried prior to stocking. Weed and predatory fish will be removed.
Aquatic weeds and macrophytes will be cleared.

3.2.2. Liming

After draining the pond, liming will be done with agricultural limestone (CaCOɜ) at
the rate of 200 kg/ha at the pond bottom (Shrestha & Pandit, 2012) by manual
broadcasting. It is used to kill the weed and predatory fish remnants.
3.2.3. Pond filing
The pond will be filled with clean and fresh water up to 1.5m height with the help of a motor.
A fine mesh of nylon nets will be tightly fitted over the inlet and outlet pipe.

3.2.4. Fertilization
After filling, the pond will be fertilized with inorganic fertilizer, Urea (46%N), and DAP
(18N:46P2O5) at 470g/100m2 and 350g/100m2 respectively (Knud-Hansen et. al., 1993). Cow
dung at the rate of 150kg/ha/day will also be applied as a preparatory dose prior to applying
cow dung (Shrestha & Pandit, 2012).

3.3. Stocking of Fingerlings

The seeds for stocking in ponds will be procured from the different private and government
hatcheries in Chitwan.

28
After the procurement, Fry and Fingerling will be acclimatized for half an hour. Then, Fry and
fingerlings of carps and tilapia will be stocked in the pond with the stocking density of two
fish/m2.

Table 15: Stocking % and Number of fingerlings required in the pond

Fish Species Stocking (%) Number

Silver Carp 10 70
Bighead Carp 5 35
Grass Carp 25 160
Rohu 25 160
Naini 5 35
Common Carp 10 70
Tilapia 20 130
Total 100 660

3.4. Pond management

3.4.1. Feed and feeding
After stocking the fish into the pond, the feed will be given at 5% of the total biomass. Feed
will be prepared from the locally available ingredients i.e. Rice bran (dhuto) and Mustard oil
cake (MOC) (pinna). The Rice bran and Mustard oil cake will be given twice a day. These
ingredients will be mixed in a 1:1 ratio and dough will be prepared. It will be given in the
morning between 9 to 10 am and in the evening between 3 to 4 pm. Feeding will be done in
feeding tray fixing in the pond. The quantity of feed will be adjusted and changed according to
the increased fish biomass after the regular sampling. For further enhancement of the growth of
fish, mineral and nutrients mixture can be added at the rate of 1 kg/100kg.

For the better growth of grass carp, duckweed will be feed in the early days and gradually
changing into the grasses like Napier, Para-grass, and Banana leaves. It will be supplied to the
pond by chopping it into pieces at 50% BW.

3.4.2. Subsequent pond fertilization

The ponds will be fertilized periodically (biweekly) after observing the Secchi disk depth at the
rate of 4.7gm/m2/week Urea and 3.6 gm/m2/week DAP respectively. The fertilizer will be
soaked and dissolved in water a few hours prior to application for better efficiency. Cow dung
at the rate of 150 kg/ha/day will also be applied if needed.

3.4.3. Water quality monitoring

The water depth in the pond will be maintained around 1 m throughout the culture period.

29
Freshwater will be supplied on a regular basis to compensate for the losses.
The water quality parameter will be measured daily throughout the culture period. The major
parameters to be measured will be temperature, transparency, pH, dissolved oxygen.
Measurement of these parameters will be done between 6-7 AM in the morning and a sample
of water for laboratory analysis can be done at the same time if necessary.

Table 16: Measuring device and units of water quality parameters

Parameter Units Method

Temperature °C DO meter
Transparency cm Secchi disk
Water depth cm Graduated plastic column pipe
pH Unit pH meter
Dissolved oxygen mg/L DO meter
Total alkalinity mg/l CaCO3 Titrimetric method
Chlorophyll-a µg/L 
Soluble reactive phosphorus mg/L
Source: (Boyd & Tucker, 1992)

3.4.4. Proximate analysis of feed

Samples of feed will be analyzed for their composition of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP),
ether-extract (EE), Crude-fiber (CF), and total ash (TA). Parameter and method/equipment
used during proximate analysis of the feed.

Table 17: Method/Equipment used in the proximate analysis of feed

Parameter Method /Equipment used

Dry matter (DM) Oven
Crude protein (CP) Kjeldahl method
Ether Extract (EE) Soxhlet Extractor
Crude Fiber (CF) Goldfisch crude fiber extraction beaker
Total ash (TA) Muffle furnace
Source: [ CITATION AOA80 \l 1033 ]

3.5. Fish Harvesting

A sampling of fish will be done monthly after the final stocking. During sampling, about 10%
of the stocked population of each species will be weighed. After taking weight sampled fish
will be returned back to the pond. Harvesting will be done after two months of stocking. For
the final harvest, all ponds will be drained using an electric motor and diesel pump set and all
fish will be harvested. Around 10% population of each species will be weighed individually for

30
assessing mean weight and rest will be counted and weighed in batches for assessing survival,
growth, and yields.

3.6. Marketing of the fish

After harvesting fish will be sold from the fish-selling counter of Fisheries Program, AFU, and
door to door selling to the local community, AFU cafeteria, and hostel.

3.7. Analytical methods

3.7.1. Fish growth parameters

A sampling of fish will be done every month to determine the growth and adjust feed ration.
Netting will be only once and fish caught will be weighed and noted. Final harvesting will be
done at the end of the culture period. Growth and production will be calculated using the
following formulae:

Average Harvest Weight ( g )− Average stocked Weight (g)

Daily Weight Gain( g /fish /day)=
Culture period(days)

Total Weight Gain=Harvested Weight ( g )−Stocked Weight (g)

Total number of fish harvested

Survival rate ( % )= ×100
Total number of fish stocked

Total harvested weight ( kg )−Total stocked weight ( kg )

Net fish yield ( kg/100 m² / yr)= x 365
Culture peiod ( days ) ×Culture Units ( m 2 )

t
Extrapolated NFY
ha
yr
= ( )
Total harvest weight ( g )−Total stocked weight ( g )
Culture period ( days )∗Culture Unit ( m2 )∗1000∗1000
∗10000∗365

t
ha Total harvest weight ( g )
Extrapolated GFY ( )= ∗10000∗365
yr Culture period ( days )∗Culture Unit ( m2 )∗1000∗1000

3.7.2. Apparent food conversion ratio

Apparent food conversion ratio (AFCR) will be calculated with net fish yield and the amount
of feed supplied ignoring the natural food consumed by the fish.

31
 Quantity of feed supplied(kg)
AFCR=
Net fish yield (kg)

3.7.3. Gross margin analysis

The gross margin and rate of return will be analyzed from total variable cost (operational cost)
and the total income from the fish sale. The variable cost items included will be the cost of
fingerlings, feed, fertilizer, agricultural lime, bleaching powder required for the production
based on the market price. Gross margin and rate of return will be calculated based on the
product sold at the farm get price.

Gross Margin analysis can be done by using a simple formula:

Gross margin ( NRs. )=Grossreturn ( NRs . )−Total Variable cost (NRs .)

Gross Return ( NRs . )=Price of fish ( NRs

Kg )
∗Total quantity produced(kg)

Total variable cost ( NRs. ) =∑ Cost incurred ∈all the variable items(NRs .)

Gross margin
Rate of return ( % )= ∗100
Gross investment

3.7.4. Statistical analysis

All data collected during our LEE work like pond inputs and water quality data will be entered,
tabulated, and calculated in the MS-Excel sheet. Data presentation will be done using suitable
tables and figures.

32
 4. EXPECTED OUTPUT
The expected outcome from the carp-tilapia polyculture after 60 days is shown below:

Table 18: Expected outcome after the culture period

Expected outcomes

S. N. Particulars Unit Quantity Rate (NRs.) Amount (NRs.)

1. Rohu kg 300

2. Mrigal kg 300

3. Silver carp kg 300

4. Bighead carp kg 300

5. Grass carp kg 300

6. Common carp kg 300

7. Tilapia kg 300

 Total

Rs. /pond
Gross return
Rs. /pond
Net profit
NRs/kg
Production cost

B:C ratio

i.e.

Total expenditure= Rs

Total outcomes= Rs

Profit= Rs

33
 5. WORK SCHEDULE
The detailed schedule of all the work activities carried during the LEE like proposal
development, field works, and report writing, etc. are shown in the below:

Table 19: Work Schedule of LEE study

June July July Aug Aug Sept Sept Oct

Activities
15-30 1-15 16-30 01-15 16-30 01-15 16-30 01-15
PRELIMINARIES
Proposal submission and defense
Literature review
FIELD-WORKS
Site Selection and Pond Preparation
Stocking
Pond management
Harvesting and Marketing
Data collection and entry
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
Data Analysis
Report Writing
LEE defense
Final Report Submission

34
 6. EXPECTED BUDGET
The expected budget of our work on carp-tilapia polyculture is shown below:

Table 20: Budget analysis of the total cost during the culture period

Budget
S.N. Particulars Unit Final Quantity Rate (NRs.) Amount (NRs.)
1. Pond preparation and management
1.1. Lime kg 7 15 105
1.2. Urea kg 22 20 440
1.3. DAP kg 16 55 880
1.4. Organic Manure kg 420 2 840
2. Seed
2.1. Rohu Nos
2.2. Mrigal Nos
2.3. Silver Carp Nos
2.4. Big Head carp Nos
2.5. Common Carp Nos
2.6. Grass Carp Nos
2.7. Tilapia Nos
3. Feed
3.1. Rice barn kg 40
3.2. MOC kg 35
3.3. Vitamin* kg 1 300 300
3.4. Pellet feed * Kg

4. Transportation   500
5. Fuel and Electricity Liter/Units 10 100 1,000
6. Equipment   5,000
7. Plastic wares
8. Miscellaneous 5,000
   Total  

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