UNDERSTANDING POWER

QUALITY PROBLEMS
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Technical Reviewers
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Damir Novosel, ABB Power T&D Company, Inc., Raleigh, NC
Roger C. Dugan, Electrotck Concepts, Inc., Knoxville, TN
Mohamed E. El-Hawary, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Stephen Sebo, Ohio State University

IEEE PRESS SERIES ON POWER ENGINEERING

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Power Math Associates, Inc.

Series Editorial Advisory Committee

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University of Saskatchewan
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Dalhousie University
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Arizona State University
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Decision Systems International
Mehdi Etezadi-Amoli
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Antonio G. Flores
Texas Utilities
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Roger L. King
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University of Wisconsin
Raymond R. Shoults
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Keith B. Stump
Siemens Power Transmission and
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P. M. Anderson
Power Math Associates, Inc.
 UNDERSTANDING
POWER QUALITY
PROBLEMS
Voltage Sags
and Interruptions

Math H. J. Bollen
Chalmers University of Technology
Gothenburg, Sweden

IEEE Industry Applications Society, Sponsor

IEEE Power Electronics Society, Sponsor

IEEE Power Engineering Society, Sponsor

IEEE.
PRESS
SERIES ~II
ONPOWER
ENGINEERING

P. M. Anderson, Series Editor

+IEEE
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, lnc., NewYork

ffiWILEY-
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bollen, Math H. J., 1960-
Understanding power quality problems: voltage sags and interruptions
Math H. J. Bollen.
p. em. - (IEEE Press series on power engineering)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
IBSN 0..7803-4713-7
l. Electric power system stability. 2. Electric power failures.
3. Brownouts. 4. Electric power systems-Quality control.
I. Title. II. Series.
IN PROCESS
621.319-dc21 99-23546
CIP
The master said, to learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is
that not after all a pleasure?

Confucius, The Analects, Book One, verse I

 BOOKS IN THE IEEE PRESS SERIES ON POWER ENGINEERING

ELECTRIC POWER APPLICATIONS OF FUZZY SYSTEMS

Edited by Mohamed E. El-Hawary, Dalhousie University
1998 Hardcover 384 pp IEEE Order No. PC5666 ISBN 0-7803-1197-3

RATING Of' ELECTRIC POWER CABLES: Ampacity Computations/or Transmission,

Distribution, and Industrial Applications
George J. Anders, Ontario Hydro Technologies
1997 Hardcover 464 pp IEEE Order No. PC5647 ISBN 0-7803-1177-9

ANALYSIS OF FAULTED POWER SYSTEMS, Revised Printing

P. M. Anderson, Power Math Associates, Inc.
1995 Hardcover 536 pp IEEE Order No. PC5616 ISBN 0-7803-1145-0

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS: Design and Analysis, Revised Printing

Mohamed E. El-Hawary, Dalhousie University
1995 Hardcover 808 pp IEEE Order No. PC5606 ISBN 0-7803-1140-X

POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, Volumes I, II, III

An IEEE Press Classic Reissue Set
Edward Wilson Kimbark, Iowa State University
1995 Softcover 1008 pp IEEE Order No. PP5600 ISBN 0-7803-1135-3

ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY

Paul C. Krause and Oleg Wasynczuk, Purdue University
Scott D. Sudhoff, University of Missouri at Rolla
1994 Hardcover 480 pp IEEE Order No. PC3789 ISBN 0-7803-1029-2

SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

P. M. Anderson, Power Math Associates, Inc.
B. L. Agrawal, Arizona Public Service Company
J. E. Van Ness, Northwestern University
1990 Softcover 282 pp IEEE Order No. PP2477 ISBN 0-7803-5350-1

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

P. M. Anderson, Power Math Associates, Inc.
1999 Hardcover 1,344 pp IEEE Order No. PC5389 ISBN 0-7803-3427-2

POWER AND COMMUNICATION CABLES: Theory and Applications

Edited by R. Bartnikas and K. D. Srivastava
2000 Hardcover 896 pp IEEE Order No. PC5665 ISBN 0-7803-1196-5
 Contents

PREFACE xiii
FTP SITE INFORMATION xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii

CHAPTER 1 Overvlew of Power Quality and Power Quality

Standards 1
1.1 Interest in Power Quality 2
1.2 Power Quality, Voltage Quality 4
1.3 Overview of Power Quality Phenomena 6
1.3.1 Voltage and Current Variations 6
1.3.2 Events 14
1.3.3 Overview of Voltage Magnitude Events 19
1.4 Power Quality and EMC Standards 22
1.4.1 Purpose of Standardization 22
1.4.2 The tsc Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards 24
1.4.3 The European Voltage Characteristics Standard 29

CHAPTER 2 Long Interruptions and Reliability Evaluation 35

2.1 Introduction 35
2.1.1 Interruptions 35
2.1.2 Reliability Evaluation of Power Systems 35
2.1.3 Terminology 36
2.1.4 Causes of Long Interruptions 36
2.2 Observation of System Performance 37
2.2.1 Basic Indices 37
2.2.2 Distribution of the Duration of an Interruption 40
2.2.3 Regional Variations 42

vii
viii Con ten ts

2.2.4 Origin of Interruptions 43

2.2.5 More Information 46
2.3 Standards and Regulations 48
2.3.1 Limits for the Interruption Frequency 48
2.3.2 Limits for the Interruption Duration 48
2.4 Overview of Reliability Evaluation 50
2.4.1 Generation Reliability 51
2.4.2 Transmission Reliability 53
2.4.3 Distribution Reliability 56
2.4.4 Industrial Power Systems 58
2.5 Basic Reliability Evaluation Techniques 62
2.5. J Basic Concepts of Reliability Evaluation Techniques 62
2.5.2 Network Approach 69
2.5.3 State-Based and Event-Based Approaches 77
2.5.4 Markov Models 80
2.5.5 Monte Carlo Simulation 89
2.5.6 Aging of Components 98
2.6 Costs of Interruptions 101
2.7 Comparison of Observation and Reliability Evaluation 106
2.8 Example Calculations 107
2.8.1 A Primary Selective Supply 107
2.8.2 Adverse Weather 108
2.8.3 Parallel Components 110
2.8.4 Two-Component Model with Aging and Maintenance III

CHAPTER 3 Short Interruptions 115

3.1 Introduction 115
3.2 Terminology 115
3.3 Origin of Short Interruptions 116
3.3.1 Basic Principle 116
3.3.2 Fuse Saving 117
3.3.3 Voltage Magnitude Events due to Reclosing 118
3.3.4 Voltage During the Interruption 119
3.4 Monitoring of Short Interruptions 121
3.4.1 Example of Survey Results 121
3.4.2 Difference between Medium- and Low-Voltage Systems 123
3.4.3 Multiple Events 124
3.5 Influence on Equipment 125
3.5.1 Induction Motors 126
3.5.2 Synchronous Motors 126
3.5.3 Adjustable-Speed Drives 126
3.5.4 Electronic Equipment 127
3.6 Single-Phase Tripping 127
3.6.1 Voltage-During-Fault Period 127
3.6.2 Voltage-Post-Fault Period 129
3.6.3 Current-During-Fault Period 134
3.7 Stochastic Prediction of Short Interruptions 136
Contents ix

CHAPTER 4 Voltage Sags-Characterization 139

4.1 Introduction 139
4.2 Voltage Sag Magnitude 140
4.2.1 Monitoring 140
4.2.2 Theoretical Calculations 147
4.2.3 Example of Calculation of Sag Magnitude 153
4.2.4 Sag Magnitude in Non-Radial Systems 156
4.2.5 Voltage Calculations in Meshed Systems 166
4.3 Voltage Sag Duration 168
4.3.1 Fault-Clearing Time 168
4.3.2 Magnitude-Duration Plots 169
4.3.3 Measurement of Sag Duration 170
4.4 Three-Phase Unbalance 174
4.4.1 Single-Phase Faults 174
4.4.2 Phase-to-Phase Faults 182
4.4.3 Two-Phase-to-Ground Faults 184
4.4.4 Seven Types of Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags 187
4.5 Phase-Angle Jumps 198
4.5.1 Monitoring 199
4.5.2 Theoretical Calculations 201
4.6 Magnitude and Phase-Angle Jumps for Three-Phase Unbalanced
Sags 206
4.6.1 Definition of Magnitude and Phase-Angle Jump 206
4.6.2 Phase-to-Phase Faults 209
4.6.3 Single-Phase Faults 216
4.6.4 Two-Phase-to-Ground Faults 222
4.6.5 High-Impedance Faults 227
4.6.6 Meshed Systems 230
4.7 Other Characteristics of Voltage Sags 231
4.7.1 Point-on-Wave Characteristics 231
4.7.2 The Missing Voltage 234
4.8 Load Influence on Voltage Sags 238
4.8.1 Induction Motors and Three-Phase Faults 238
4.8.2 Induction Motors and Unbalanced Faults 24 t
4.8.3 Power Electronics Load 248
4.9 Sags due to Starting of Induction Motors 248

CHAPTER S Voltage Sags-Equipment Behavior 253

5.1 Introduction 253
5.1.1 Voltage Tolerance and Voltage-Tolerance Curves 253
5.1.2 Voltage-Tolerance Tests 255
5.2 Computers and Consumer Electronics 256
5.2.1 Typical Configuration of Power Supply 257
5.2.2 Estimation of Computer Voltage Tolerance 257
5.2.3 Measurements of PC Voltage Tolerance 261
5.2.4 Voltage-Tolerance Requirements: CBEMA and ITIC 263
5.2.5 Process Control Equipment 264
5.3 Adjustable-Speed AC Drives 265
5.3.1 Operation of AC Drives 266
5.3.2 Results of Drive Testing 267
5.3.3 Balanced Sags 272
x Con~nh

5.3.4 DC Voltage for Three-Phase Unbalanced Sags 274

5.3.5 Current Unbalance 285
5.3.6 Unbalanced Motor Voltages 289
5.3.7 Motor Deacceleration 292
5.3.8 Automatic Restart 296
5.3.9 Overview of Mitigation Methods for AC Drives 298
5.4 Adjustable-Speed DC Drives 300
5.4.1 Operation of DC Drives 300
5.4.2 Balanced Sags 303
5.4.3 Unbalanced Sags 308
5.4.4 Phase-Angle Jumps 312
5.4.5 Commutation Failures 315
5.4.6 Overview of Mitigation Methods for DC Drives 317
5.5 Other Sensitive Load 318
5.5.1 Directly Fed Induction Motors 318
5.5.2 Directly Fed Synchronous Motors 319
5.5.3 Contactors 321
5.5.4 Lighting 322

CHAPTER 6 Voltage Sags-Stochastic Assessment 325

6.1 Compatibility between Equipment and Supply 325
6.2 Presentation of Results: Voltage Sag Coordination Chart 328
6.2.1 The Scatter Diagram 328
6.2.2 The Sag Density Table 330
6.2.3 The Cumulative Table 331
6.2.4 The Voltage Sag Coordination Chart" 332
6.2.5 Example of the Use of the Voltage Sag Coordination Chart 335
6.2.6 Non-Rectangular Sags 336
6.2.7 Other Sag Characteristics 338
6.3 Power Quality Monitoring 342
6.3.,1 Power Quality Surveys 342
6.3.2 Individual Sites 357
6.4 The Method of Fault Positions 359
6.4.1 Stochastic Prediction Methods 359
6.4.2 Basics of the Method of Fault Positions 360
6.4.3 Choosing the Fault Positions 362
6.4.4 An Example of the Method of Fault Positions 366
6.5 The Method of Critical Distances 373
6.5.1 Basic Theory 373
6.5.2 Example-Three-Phase Faults 374
6.5.3 Basic Theory: More Accurate Expressions 375
6.5.4 An Intermediate Expression 376
6.5.5 Three-Phase Unbalance 378
6.5.6 Generator Stations 384
6.5.7 Phase-Angle Jumps 384
6.5.8 Parallel Feeders 385
6.5.9 Comparison with the Method of Fault Positions 387
Contents xi

CHAPTER 7 Mitigation of Interruptions and Voltage Sags 389

7.1 Overview of Mitigation Methods 389
7.1.1 From Fault to Trip 389
7.1.2 Reducing the Number of Faults 390
7.1.3 Reducing the Fault-Clearing Time 391
7.1.4 Changing the Power System 393
7.1.5 Installing Mitigation Equipment 394
7.1.6 Improving Equipment Immunity 395
7.1.7 Different Events and Mitigation Methods 395
7.2 Power System Design-Redundancy Through Switching 397
7.2.1 Types of Redundancy 397
7.2.2 Automatic Reclosing 398
7.2.3 Normally Open Points 398
7.2.4 Load Transfer 400
7.3 Power System Design-Redundancy through Parallel
Operation 405
7.3.1 Parallel and Loop Systems 405
7.3.2 Spot Networks 409
7.3.3 Power-System Design-On-site Generation 415
7.4 The System-Equipment Interface 419
7.4.1 Voltage-Source Converter 419
7.4.2 Series Voltage Controllers-DVR 420
7.4.3 Shunt Voltage Controllers-StatCom 430
7.4.4 Combined Shunt and Series Controllers 435
7.4.5 Backup Power Source-SMES, BESS 438
7.4.6 Cascade Connected Voltage Controllers-UPS 439
7.4.7 Other Solutions 442
7.4.8 Energy Storage 446

CHAPTER 8 Summary and Conclusions 453

8.1 Power Quality 453
8.1.1 The Future of Power Quality 454
8.1.2 Education 454
8.1.3 Measurement Data 454
8.2 Standardization 455
8.2.1 Future Developments 455
8.2.2 Bilateral Contracts 456
8.3 Interruptions 456
8.3.1 Publication of Interruption Data 456
8.4 Reliability 457
8.4.1 Verification 457
8.4.2 Theoretical Developments 457
8.5 Characteristics of Voltage Sags 458
8.5.1 Definition and Implementation of Sag Characteristics 458
8.5.2 Load Influence 458
8.6 Equipment Behavior due to Voltage Sags 459
8.6.1 Equipment Testing 459
8.6.2 Improvement of Equipment 460
8.7 Stochastic Assessment of Voltage Sags 460
8.7.1 Other Sag Characteristics 460
8.7.2 Stochastic Prediction Techniques 460
xii Contents

8.7.3 Power Quality Surveys 461

8.7.4 Monitoring or Prediction? 461
8.8 Mitigation Methods 462
8.9 Final Remarks 462

BIBLIOGRAPHY 465

APPENDIX A Overview of EMC Standards 477

APPENDIX B IEEE Standards on Power Quality 481

APPENDIX C Power Quality Definitions and Terminology 485

APPENDIX D List of Figures 507

APPENDIX E List of Tables 525

INDEX 529

ABOUT THE AUTHOR 543

 Preface

The aims of the electric power system can be summarized as "to transport electrical
energy from the generator units to the terminals of electrical equipment" and "to
maintain the voltage at the equipment terminals within certain limits." For decades
research and education have been concentrated on the first aim. Reliability and quality
of supply were rarely an issue, the argument being that the reliability was sooner too
high than too low. A change in attitude came about probably sometime in the early
1980s. Starting in industrial and commercial power systems and spreading to the public
supply, the power quality virus appeared. It became clear that equipment regularly
experienced spurious trips due to voltage disturbances, but also that equipment was
responsible for many voltage and current disturbances. A more customer-friendly defi-
nition of reliability was that the power supply turned out to be much less reliable than
always thought. Although the hectic years of power quality pioneering appear to be
over, the subject continues to attract lots of attention. This is certain to continue into
the future, as customers' demands have become an important issue in the deregulation
of the electricity industry.
This book concentrates on the power quality phenomena that primarily affect the
customer: interruptions and voltage sags. During an interruption the voltage is com-
pletely zero, which is probably the worst quality of supply one can consider. During a
voltage sag the voltage is not zero, but is still significantly less than during normal
operation. Voltage sags and interruptions account for the vast majority of unwanted
equipment trips.
The material contained in the forthcoming chapters was developed by the author
during a to-year period at four different universities: Eindhoven, Curacao, Manchester,
and Gothenburg. I Large parts of the material were originally used for postgraduate and
industrial lectures both "at home" and in various places around the world. The material
will certainly be used again for this purpose (by the author and hopefully also by
others).

'Eindhoven University of Technology, University of the Netherlands Antilles, University of

Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, and Chalmers University of Technology, respectively.

xiii
xiv Preface

Chapter 1 of this book gives an introduction to the subject. After a systematic

overview of power quality, the term "voltage magnitude event" is introduced. Both
voltage sags and interruptions are examples of voltage magnitude events. The second
part of Chapter 1 discusses power quality standards, with emphasis on the IEC
standards on electromagnetic compatibility and the European voltage characteristics
standard (EN 50160).
In Chapter 2 the most severe power quality event is discussed: the (long) inter-
ruption. Various ways are presented of showing the results of monitoring the number of
interruptions. A large part of Chapter 2 is dedicated to the stochastic prediction of long
interruptions-v-an area better known as "reliability evaluation." Many of the techni-
ques described here can be applied equally well to the stochastic prediction of other
power quality events.
Chapter 3 discusses short interruptions-interruptions terminated by an auto-
matic restoration of the supply. Origin, monitoring, mitigation, effect on equipment,
and stochastic prediction are all treated in this chapter.
Chapter 4 is the first of three chapters on voltage sags. It treats voltage sags in a
descriptive way: how they can be characterized and how the characteristics may be
obtained through measurements and calculations. Emphasis in this chapter is on mag-
nitude and phase-angle jump of sags, as experienced by single-phase equipment and as
experienced by three-phase equipment.
Chapter 5 discusses the effect of voltage sags on equipment. The main types of
sensitive equipment are discussed in detail: single-phase rectifiers (computers, process-
control equipment, consumer electronics), three-phase ac adjustable-speed drives, and
de drives. Some other types of equipment are briefly discussed. The sag characteristics
introduced in Chapter 4 are used to describe equipment behavior in Chapter 5.
In Chapter 6 the theory developed in Chapters 4 and 5 is combined with statistical
and stochastical methods as described in Chapter 2. Chapter 6 starts with ways of
presenting the voltage-sag performance of the supply and comparing it with equipment
performance. The chapter continues with two ways of obtaining information about the
supply performance: power-quality monitoring and stochastic prediction. Both are
discussed in detail.
Chapter 7, the last main chapter of this book, gives an overview of methods for
mitigation of voltage sags and interruptions. Two methods are discussed in detail:
power system design and power-electronic controllers at the equipment-system inter-
face. The chapter concludes with a comparison of the various energy-storage techniques
available.
In Chapter 8 the author summarizes the conclusions from the previous chapters
and gives some of his expectations and hopes for the future. The book concludes with
three appendixes: Appendix A and Appendix B give a list of EMC and power quality
standards published by the IEC and the IEEE, respectively. Appendix C contains
definitions for the terminology used in this book as well as definitions from various
standard documents.

Math H. J. Bollen
Gothenburg, Sweden
 FTP Site Information

Along with the publication of this book, an FTP site has been created containing
MATLAB® files for many figures in this book. The FTP site can be reached at
ftp.ieee.orgjupload/press/bollen.

xv
 Acknowledgments

A book is rarely the product of only one person, and this book is absolutely no excep-
tion. Various people contributed to the final product, but first of all I would like to
thank my wife, Irene Gu, for encouraging me to start writing and for filling up my tea
cup every time I had another one of those "occasional but all too frequent crises."
For the knowledge described in this book lowe a lot to my teachers, my collea-
gues, and my students in Eindhoven, Curacao, Manchester, and Gothenburg and to my
colleagues and friends all over the world. A small number of them need to be especially
mentioned: Matthijs Weenink, Wit van den Heuvel, and Wim Kersten for teaching me
the profession; the two Larry's (Conrad and Morgan) for providing me with a contin-
uous stream of information on power quality; Wang Ping, Stefan Johansson, and the
anonymous reviewers for proofreading the manuscript. A final thank you goes to
everybody who provided data, figures, and permission to reproduce material from
other sources.

Math H. J. Bollen
Gothenburg, Sweden

xvii
Voor mijn ouders