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    Jack Blitz : Electrical and Magnetic Methods of Nondestructive Testing

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    JBlitz Electrical Magnetic Meth Nondestructive Test

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    Jack Blitz : Electrical and Magnetic Methods of Nondestructive Testing

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    ee oe al ee esis ee cag , _ Testing a e - 4 rs Electrical and Magnetic Methods of Nondestructi Jack Blitz MSc PhD CPhys FInstP CEng MIEE FiInstNDT Brunel University Uxbridge England ll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored 1 a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, elec- : mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the : mission of the publisher. Multiple copying is only permitted under Contents the agreement between the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and the Copyright Licensing Agency. loguing in Publication Data PREFACE Vii - 1 INTRODUCTION 1 nd magnetic methods of nondestructive testing. 1.1 General considerations — ; 1 : * 1.2 Methods of nondestructive testing 4 1.3 Electrical and magnetic methods 4 1.4 The choice of the method of testing 5 BN 0—7503—0148—1 IES Automation in nondestructive testing 9 1.6 Conclusion 10 1.7 Further reading 11 2 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY 2.1 General considerations ctive testing 2.2 Electrical conductivity and resistivity 2.3 Dielectric materials 2.4 Electromagnetism 2.5 Alternating currents 2.6 Circuit networks 2.7 Ferromagnetic materials 2.8 Electromagnetic radiation 3 MAGNETIC METHODS 3.1 Introduction Bee ee Behr Introduction defects such as cracks are likely to form and grow, often Such an extent so as to cause failure with, perhaps, disastrous has gained in importance as a result of the rapid ade during the past half-century in areas such rgy, in which there are high risks, and strict |. In the past, there was a tendency to over-design, sive amounts of material and the use of redundant over-stressing of structures would have been very "any, were often rudimentary and confined mainly to le inspections; an example of the latter is the striking ging with an iron bar to ascertain, from the nature of audible sound, whether or not cracks and internal ,voids his latter test, incidentally, is still commonly used but oe is now employed to receive and process the sound, rise to failure of a or structure and perties of the various the method of ca the e | hi General considerations 3 testing required to provide complete coverage. An important function of the designer is to study the various stresses to which the components in service may be subjected and the consequent formation and subsequent growth of defects, i.e. use is made of fracture mechanics (see, for example, Lawn and Wilshaw (1975)). At the same time, consideration must be given to the environments in which the components of the installation might operate during service and also to the possibilities of exposure to very high or very low temperatures, extremes of pressure such as those resulting from very high winds and rough seas, and the presence of corrosive or toxic substances. In many instances, weight may be an important factor and lightness can be achieved by the employment of suitable metal alloys or plastics and by the reduction of thickness. The latter must be considered in relation, for example, to the strength and fracture toughness of the materials used. The monitoring of any structural changes and defect initiation and growth during these investigations is often referred to as nondestructive evaluation (NDE), for which NDT methods are often employed. An important aid here is the use of computer modelling techniques, employing finite element analysis, to predict relationships b size and the signal indicated by an appropriate detecto: are of great value in the design of NDT instrumeni its optimum operating conditions. An example, w eddy current testing (section 4.6), is the evaluatio! coil and its optimum frequency of Operation for a pa It should also be mentioned that some components and st be subjected to the continuous monitoring of critical areas, when by means of NDE; this is known as condition monitoring. These preliminary investigations lead to the production of a sp detailing the testing of the entire structure. It should in nature of the testing equipment to be ied and the operati Coils encircling defect-free metal cylindrical rods ils encircling cylindrical defect-free tubes coaxial coils in cylindrical defect-free metal tubes ig the surfaces of defect-free conductors nents for eddy current measurements eddy current tests—measurements eddy current defect detection and sizing re advanced eddy testing current methods DS OF TESTING Contents 91 OP) 103 104 116 126 126 126 131 136 141 147 Se 167 167 169 178 185 196 196 196 204 206 208 Preface This book is intended to help satisfy an urgent requirement for up-to-date comprehensive texts at graduate and senior undergraduate levels on the subjects in nondestructive testing (NDT). The subject matter here is con- fined to electrical and magnetic methods, with emphasis on the widely used eddy current and magnetic flux leakage methods (including Particle inspec- tion), but proper attention is paid to other techniques, such as microwav and AC field applications, which are rapidly growing in Theoretical analyses relating to the various method: the depths of presentation are often governed by wl mation is readily availab amount of space is devoted t siders to be a reasonabl. 4 a too elementary manner or at a level theoretical physicist. The inclusion of the introductory chapter is int reader with some of the philosophy of NDT and to. relative performances of the more important meth 2 provides a summary of the basic a ani Preface Dr R Collins, Professor W D Dover, Mr W G King, sor C A Hogarth, Professor W Lord, Dr L Morgan, Rogers, Commander G M B Selous and his coll- ond Mr D. Topp for their kind help in different en to the various sources of information acknowl- thor is grateful to Professor D C Imrie, Dean of Brunel University, for allowing him the use of partment of Physics. Jack Blitz Epa rent of Physics, Brunel University, Uxbridge UK March 1991 1 Introduction 1.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Although this book deals specifically with electrical and magnetic me of testing materials, the reader should be aware that the sub covered forms part of the wider field of nondestructive testing is briefly discussed in the following sections of this c appropriate that there is some appreciation of before a study is made of any of the methods Materials and manufactured products often to the user to ensure that they will meet expe during a specified period of service. It is essentia product intended for future use does in no way im performance. Any technique used to test under ‘he: nondestructive testing method. A manufacturer often to NDT to maintain his reputation for quality a considerations, such as Introduction IDS OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING on metals and non-metals and the method of testing such as the type of material and its dimensions, itions of interest within the structure or compo- €.g. whether internal or surface defects are ty for data acquisition and processing. Detailed Ous NDT methods and applications can be found in ction 1.7. The techniques used may be roughly classified gical metheds, e.g. the use of X-rays, gamma-rays and sting, X-radiography, and dye-penetrant mount of attention from _they. attract regular of gechcioncy | in Choice of the method of testing 5 sections 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4, and are related to the structural and mechanical properties of the materials. Thus grain structure in polycrystalline metals, mechanical strength, hardness and the presence of defects and impurities can be assessed from the results of electrical and magnetic NDT methods. The principal electrical and magnetic NDT methods are: (i) eddy current testing (Chapters 4 and 5); (ii) magnetic particle inspection (Chapter 3); (iii) magnetic flux measurements (Chapter 3); (iv) electromagnetic microwave testing (Chapter 6) and (v) potential drop and AC field measurement (ACFM) techniques (Chapter 7). Eddy current and magnetic particle methods are the ones most commonly used for electrical and magnetic testing; for obvious reasons, magnetic par- ticle detection is often regarded as being a visual method. The use of eddy current methods is normally restricted to the testing of goed ey conductors, although these methods can be applied to the m the thicknesses of poorly conducting coatings on ele substrates. Magnetic particle and magnetic flux met! only for testing ferromagnetic materials. | testing is usually restricted to examining dielectr' drop methods can be used for testing semiconduc electrical conductors. Other, but less common, elect electrified particle testing and capacitance meastrenene both of which are applicable only to dielectric materials. Introduction composition and structure ious factors determining the composition of a material include the Of the material itself, the constituents of an alloy and the concen- S Of the components of a mixture. The factors related to structure e hardness of metals, case hardening depth in alloys, grain SIZC, rity content and the degree of internal stresses. These factors affect, erent extents, the values of elastic constants, electrical conductivity, yroperties and electrical permittivity, each of which vary with atic modulus but, for most solids, the ic moduli are very nearly equal to one 2 ypically between | and 10 MHz) which are reflected surface opposite and parallel to the one in contact with the source I(a) and (6)). Ultrasonic waves are generally easy to propagate | but not always so in polymers which often have high acoustic can be determined by using electromagnetic le to penetrate metals because of the OAS SP tendo a ee OO Ee ae Choice of the method of testing x many plastic objects. An important advantage of the use of microwaves over that of ultrasound for testing non-metals is to be found at high temperatures where coupling between the probes and the material under examination is possible with microwaves but not with ultrasound. Microwave testing can also be applied to determining thicknesses of paralicl-sided metal objects. The eddy current method can be used for measuring the thicknesses of thin metal sheets and foils and also of dielec- tric coatings, e.g. paints and cladding, on metal substrates. ZZ. Oo (6) Introduction ng facilities and the fact that the depth of penetration test object may be highly limited, e.g. 50 mm or less less in most polymers, although increased penetra- d with the use of gamma-ray isotopes. Radiological ther disadvantage in their inability to measure depths ly, but this drawback can be overcome by taking two or in different directions, preferably perpendicular to one ‘ay tube; O: test object; F: film. ue has the advantages of being able Automation in nondestructive testing 9 to testing. The dye-penetrant method can be used for testing any solid but it cannot detect sub-surface flaws. The magnetic particle technique is suit- able only for ferromagnetic metals and requires the application of a strong magnetic field, but it provides a more sensitive and even more certain means of detection and it can also locate sub-surface defects. Surface and sub-surface defects can also be detected by ultrasonic surface and Lamb (i.e. plate) waves. An indication of a surface defect by one of these methods presents a choice of either outright rejection of the tested object, if the defect is clearly serious, or testing by another method to ascertain its size. A very small defect can be ground away or even ignored, it it is clearly harmless. Reliable, but less simple, means of measuring depths of cracks and other defects, both surface-breaking and sub-surface, in metals, include ultrasonic and eddy current testing, quantitative magnetic flux le: techniques and the Ac potential drop and field methods. The ul technique is also usable for testing non-metals. The microwave met! be applied to detect defects in non-metals and it can also be used f and assessing micro-cracks in metal surfaces. : Where feasible, the simplest ultrasonic method of measuring of a surface-breaking crack is to locate the probe on the surface op} to that containing the crack and then to note the time delay of the r pulse from its tip. Otherwise, the crack-tip diffraction method can be used, where two probes, one sending the waves at an angle and the ot! receiving waves scattered from the crack-tip, are located on the 5 surface (Silk 1977). The depth of a sub-surface crack or lamination p to the surface can be assessed by locating a flat frequency- n sonic compression wave probe above the crack and u: at a swept frequency to observe half-w Introduction ess much experience of the idiosyncrasies of the equipment he uses for ent kinds of testing. Over a period of time, a ‘friendly relationship’ ‘be Said to build up between the operator and his equipment, which may possible with automatic testing. However, there are always the of human errors, especially if the operator is distracted or Recent improvements in the design of NDT equipment together with the incorporation of microprocessors g systems, have brought about a very high degree addition, with advances in modelling techniques mechanics, an entirely automated testing pro- use eliminates the risks of human error and, at srably increases the speed of testing. Any fault arising during its operation can either be corrected automatically ef OF, if this is not possible, the computer can just identify of a defect in a component, e.g. a crack having more than fied dimension, would allow the computer to divert the compo- "an assembly line into a rejection bin. In some cases it might be to provide feed-back to the most recent stage of manufacture so automatic correction to any faulty process. t plication of computers to nondestructive testing es, e.g. several tens Further reading 11 1.7 FURTHER READING It is unfortunate that there is a scarcity of textbooks on nondestructive testing at the level at which this particular volume is airaed. Most books on the subject are, at present, pitched either at a comparatively low level suit- able for operators or at a level more appropriate to specialists and experi- enced researchers. The more advanced works usually consist either of articles by individual authors on diverse topics in narrow fields of NDT or of reports on conference proceedings. The reader may find the books listed below useful. It should be made clear that the absence of any particular ie title may not necessarily imply either unsuitability or lack of quality. The reader who is interested in the latest developments in electrical methods and NDT in general is recommended to consult the publications in paragraph (d) and also the references appended to each of the chapters in this book. (a) General Hall B and John V 1988 Nondestructive Testing (Berlin: Springer) Halmshaw R 1987 Nondestructive Testing (London: McGonnagle W J 1961 Nondestructive A second edition of the Nondestructive Testing Handbook. the American Society for : 3 tl Ohio (founder ed and the fi Introduction tic methods e Nondestructive Testing Methods (New York: ciples of Magnetic Particle Testing (Chicago: Magnaflux d) 1985 Electromagnetic Methods of Nondestructive Testing Gordon and Breach) C 1986 Nondestructive Testing Handbook (2nd edn) vol 4 5 (London: Wykeham) ‘y and Practice (London: sting (3rd edn) (Berlin: Springer) gular intervals. hly) (Northampton: 2 Fundamental Theory 2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Most of the underlying theory of electrical and magnetic testing is co tained in undergraduate textbooks on electricity and magnetism f Duffin 1980) and this chapter summarizes the general aspect: Any theory characteristic of a particular method is to b relevant chapter. Systeme International (SI) units are used book unless otherwise indicated and a list of those ei Appendix Al. Quantities characterized by both magnitude : are called vectors and are printed here in bold type. For examp F which represents force can be equated to its components along th and z directions of a Cartesian system, i.e. Faikkt+jFy+kF where i, j and & are unit vectors directed parallel to the 0,, 0, Scalar quantities, such as mass and time, are indepen Fundamental theory ‘electrical conductivity often used by engineers is the inter- annealed copper standard (ACS): 100 per cent IACS is equal to the conductivity of 99.999 per cent pure annealed copper. The con- y of this material is equal to approximately 60 MS m~', so there is sion factor of about 1.67 from’MS m“' to Iacs. For example, ied aluminium has an approximate conductivity of 40 MSm7! nt IACS. imate values of electrical conduc- ities at room temperature of some rials. Exact values of these quan- re, composition and or individual samples of ilating materials may vary over es of magnitude depending on the method - eparation and impurity content. Resistivity Conductivity (2m) Sm‘) DsSql0x* 40 x 10° 60x 10-8 17x 10° 17 «107 60 x 10° 0 Beas 11 x 10° x 10° Dielectric materials 15 tors and dielectrics (or insulators) there are virtually no free electrons and the mechanism for conduction is different, i.e. p decreases and a increases as temperature rises. At room temperature, the approximate values of p and o for semiconductors are, respectively, 10nQm—0.1Qm and 10Sm7'-0.1 MSm7!. For dielectrics, the corresponding ranges are 10°-10'°Qm and 107'%-10-° Sm=!, 2.3 DIELECTRIC MATERIALS 2.3.1 Electric field Although a dielectric material is virtually free from the presence of conduc- tion electrons, it can contain an electric field arising from the presence of any free electric charges which are either positive or negative. Their values are expressed in coulombs (C). Consider two electric charges Q; and Q) located at points A and B, respectively, where B is related to A by a vector displacement r. Coulomb’s law indicates that the force F, which is also a vector quantity, acting between them is proportional to the product of the charges and the inverse square of the displacement. Using the si convention, this is expressed as : F = Q:Qar,/42er? where r; represents a unit vec in the dire characteristi u he 1 Fundamental theory ntity. E is sometimes called the potential gradient, i.e. E=-—grad V (Qeia) = — [idV/dx + jaVidy + kdVidz] (2.76) ; parallel to the Ox, 0, and 0; axes, respect- nd, hence, E in Vm7™!, terial is one in which there are no free olecules) constituting dielectric materials are (tractive forces, some of which are electrical by nature egative charges contained by these particles cancel application of an electric field is sufficient to displace these another, usually by very small amounts, so that dipoles , when the electric field is applied perpendicular to the f a slab of dielectric material, the dipoles are aligned in qual positive and negative charges, respectively, s of the charges are interchanged when the Dielectric materials we have p= \ D-ds (2.9) AY where D is effectively the electric flux density (cf equation (2.16)) and has the unit C m~?. However, for reasons which become apparent in section 2.4.2, D is known as the dielectric displacement. Figure 2.1 Electrostatic lines of force berwes having opposite polarities. Fundamental theory and containing a free charge Q (figure 2.3). The com- y, Z) are Ds, Dy, and Dz and, at (x+dx, y +dy, (Ds+ @D,fAx)dx], [D,+(6D,/ay)dy] and increase in flux on passing through the prism is ax + dD,/dy + 8D-J4z)dx dy dz. th Gauss’s theorem (Duffin 1980), this is equal to the tained within the prism. Putting Q = p dx dy dz, where p in represents the charge density (in C m7? ), we then have 8D,Jax + 8D,/dy + Dz] dz = p (2.10a) - (2.106) (2.10c) Electromagnetism 19 coulombs and volts, respectively. Thus the unit of e€is the farad per metre (Fm7!), It is usually convenient to express the electrical permittivity of a substance as a ratio, e,, known as the relative permittivity or the dielectric constant, i.e. & = €/€0. (2.12) The precise value of &, as will be seen later (section 2.8.1), is directly related to the speed c of electromagnetic waves in free space, which is very nearly equal to 3x 10° ms7', giving e9 = 1/ (36x x 10°) Fm=!. Values of electrical permittivities of a number of commonly used dielectric materials are shown in table 2.2. Table 2.2 Values of relative permittivities (dielectric constants) and loss factors tan 6 in dielectric materials at room temper. Values of e, and tan 6 depend greatly on frequency in view sive effects and the best which can be done in the available here is to provide some examples taken Laby (1973) by the kind permission of Longman | Material Frequency range Cellulose acetate 1 MHz-1 GHz Mahogany 3 GHz Marble 1 MHz Paper fibres 50.Hz Paraffin wax 1 MHz-1 GHz Polyethylene ~ 50Hz-1 GHz Porcelain Quartz lico: Fundamental theory so. For every north pole, there is a south pole having fined below in terms of single magnetic poles and it is assumed ; corresponding opposite poles are sufficiently far removed to have le influence within the region of interest. ying Coulomb’s law (cf equation (2.3)), a force F acting between snetic poles of strength P; and P2, at points A and B respectively, arated by a displacement vector r, is given, using the Si convention, ‘ F= P,Por|4xur? (2.13) the direction of r, and » a quantity called the cteristic of the medium. If, P; =P pole, the force acting on the unit tic field strength H and expressed as Pr,[4zxpr?. (2.14) a magnetic flux ® can be represented graphi ‘ough it is properly defined later (equation 2: 18). (2.15) ; called the magnetic Electromagnetism 21 as electric fields and, by analogy with the treatment given in section 2302; we have div B=0. (2.17) However, the analogy of this equation with equations (2.10) is not complete because free magnetic poles are non-existent. 2.4.2 Interactions between magnetic and electric fields From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, a change in magnetic flux ® threading a circuit gives rise to a back EMF V, i.e. V= -a6/ar. If ¢ is measured in seconds (s) and V in volts (V), ® is expressed (Wb). It can be shown that the current / in the circuit is prop: the magnetic flux b=LI (2.19) where L, the constant of proportionality, is defined as the coefficient of self-inductance and has the unit of the henry (H) when J is expressed in ampéres (A). The relationship between the flux through the coil and the back E the circuit is best established by using the ‘curl’ operator which pro’ vector in the z direction as a result of action in the x) be illustrated, for example, by the motion of a cor! significance of this operator is n explanation is Fundamental theory Same way it can be shown that the contributions are - 8&,/dz) dy dz in the y—z plane EJax) dz dx in the z—x plane. Ons are induced by the rate of change in flux having com- Jat) dy dz, — (@B,/dt) dz dx and — (4B./dr) dx dy tions, respectively. Equating rate of change in flux Jat) dz dx +k(@B./dt) dx dy] B./dy — OEy/dx) dy dz + j(GE,/dz — dE./4x) dz dx + k(0E,/8x — 3E,fdy) dx dy (2.20) unit vectors in the x, y and z directions, respectively. coefficients of the unit vectors on both sides of equation curl E= Vx E= -aB/ai (2.21) 9x) + k(GEy/Ax — 0E,/ay). eld is e lines of the field given by the (2.224) Alternating currents ae Equation (2.22q) is readily derived from this expression. The magnetic field in a solenoid can also be obtained from equation (2.22c), by integrating over each of its turns. If the length of the solenoid is large compared with the radius, the value of H at the centre is given by H=NI (2.22d) where N is the number of turns per unit length. The field is approximately uniform over most of the length but there are divergences on approaching both ends of the solenoid. As a result, the values of H at the ends are reduced to one half that at the centre. Now consider conduction taking place through current elements of area dS. For a current density J, i.e. the current per unit area, equation (2.22c) becomes > H- df= \ J-dS. (2.234) S However, the above equation does not take into account the effects of any break in a conducting medium as would occur, for example, in a circuit containing a capacitor. At a given time, equal and opposite charges appear on the capacitor plates and consequently an electric field h dielectric displacement D (equation (2.8)) are set t [ medium between these plates. The conduction curr a displacement current aD) Si he the units of dD/d¢ and J are b By analogy with the deriv: curl H=VxH=J It is often convenient (section 4.5.2) to expi vector potential A defined as Fundamental theory "(higure 2.4). A positive charge on one plate of the capacitor "an electric field which induces a negative charge on the other ial difference V = Q/C appears across the plates. Thus, at current J = dQ/d/ flows through the circuit, and the potential scross the resistance is equal to R dQ/dr. Because there is no Kirchhoff’s first law (section 2.6.1) shows that QIC+R dQjar=0. (2.274) be shown to be RC) (2.27) rge with time (figure 2.5). Alternating currents The solution to this equation is Q = Qol! — exp(- t/RC)] (2.285) as depicted in figure 2.6. Equation (2.295) shows that Q= Qo when / is infinite, the capacitor is fully charged, i.e. the current is zero, and V equals Qo/C. Here the relaxation time 7 = RC is the time taken for the charge QO to reach a fraction (1 — 1/e) of its asymptotic value Qo. 2.5.2 Free oscillations of an LRC circuit If an inductance L is placed in the circuit in series with C and R any source of EMF (figure 2.7) and, again, a charge Qo given to the itor, it can be shown from equations (2.18) and (2.19) that a po difference of — L d//dt appears across L at any time ¢. Equation (2. then modified to become L d?Q/dt? +R dQ/dt+ O/C =0 2 eee since di/dt =d?Q/dé?. The solution to this equation can be shown to be Q=exp[—(R/2L)'1] [A exp(R?/4L? — 1[LC)'7t +B exp—(R7/4L? — 1/LC)'74] Fundamental theory constants which can be evaluated by the application of undary conditions. the solution of equation (2.30) depends on the relative 27/41” and 1/LC. When R?/4L? > 1/LC, O decreases with time Aner similar to that for the discharge of a capacitor through However, when 1/LC is greater than R*/4L7, damped ms take place and this is of interest here. The expression 1/LC)”* becomes an imaginary quantity and can be written as ec Ee and ‘ OWE = R*)417)/2 (2.31) n that. a't)] cos(wt — ¢) (2.32a) - @=tan~"(a/ao). (2.310) interested in light damping, which, in ‘sustained for more than a few cycles, so for wo to be very much greater than a’ and, equal to wo. In these circumstances, equation a’t)] cos wolf. (2.32b) Alternating currents obtained from the ratio of successive amplitudes Q,-; and Qn, i.e. Qn-1/Qn = exp 6 (2.34) where for light damping O= a 2 = Riloles (2.35) From equation (2.47) it can be seen that 6= 2/2 where 2 is the quality factor (section 2.5.4). Figure 2.8 Oscillatory variations of charge Q with time ¢ during dis- charge of capacitance through series resistance R and inductance L (see figure 2.7 for circuit diagram) for values of R*/4L? less than 1/LC. 2.5.3 Forced oscillations of an LRC circuit by means of an altern: t EMF Fundamental theory plex impedance of the circuit which has a real maginary component X, called the reactance and is Z=R+jX. (2.39) es LRC circuit, X=wL-—J/wC. Defining an angle , we than have - Z=|Z\exp jg =(R* + X’)'” exp jo. (2.40) nusoidal variations of V with time /¢ as V= Vo exp jwi (2.41) plitude of V and wf as the phase. Hence Si | = Jo exp jt—¢) (2.42) en to lag in phase behind V by the + 1/oC)?)'”. el can be considered in the same way as (series) (2.44) (2.45) Alternating currents oo With an increase in the value of R, the curve becomes broader and shal- lower and its shape is characterized by the quality or 2 factor as defined by 2= woL[R = 1]woCR. (2.47) A comparison of equations (2.47) and (2.35) shows that 2= 1/6, where 6 is the logarithmic decrement for free oscillations of the circuit. It can easily be shown that 2= wo/ (w2 — w1), where w; and w2 are the angular frequen- cies on each side of the peak where Jo reduces to a fraction 1/2'” of its maximum, i.e. to half-power or by 3 dB (sections 2.5.5 and 2.5.6). 1 Figure 2.9 Frequency response curves, showing the effects of varying the resistance R, for a series LRC circuit energized by an alterna- ting EMF having an amplitude remaining constant with changes in frequency. For a parallel resonance circuit, i.e. when L and R ins! with C, it can be shown from equatio 6b th inverted and resonance occurs Fundamental theory a circuit containing only a pure resistor for which y Vamslams or (Iams). dB) scale is often useful for expressing quantities with respect ce level. Let Po represent a reference power and Ag the corre- iplitude or RMS value, e.g. for voltage or current. A power P pressed relative to Po as 10 logio(P/Po) dB. Because the tional to the square of both the amplitude and root mean V in dB is equal to 20 logio(A/Ao). In the example lecrease in peak current by a fraction of 27!”2 tion to half maximum power, is equal ssed in section 2.4.2 to estab- agnetic quantities, and later f its contribution to electrical inductance L of a coil having multiple d, depends on the number of turns, n, the ea, A, and is given by the approximate Circuit networks 31 where / is the current induced in the secondary coil. The value of depends on the coupling factor k between the coils, i.e. M=k(LyL2)? (2.51) and 100 per cent coupling occurs when k= 1. The voltage gain is equal to the turns ratio 2/m, where m, and nz are the respective number of turns of the primary and secondary coils. Thus if V; is the potential difference across the primary and }2 that across the secondary coil, the ratio of their magnitudes is given by V2] Vi. = n/m. (2.52.a) Potential differences are related to currents as follows V2 = jwoMI, and joMI. Hence hI, = ni] n2 from which it can be seen that the impedance ratio is given by | Zz |] | Zi | = (afm). Q Fundamental theory it current (J; — J2) flows from B direct to E. Applying the Vn 2) Ui )23 Za Up — 1) )Z3. ! figure 2.11(b) gives is equal to V/J;, i.e. Z’, the compo- (w?C?R* + 1)] 1JwC — wCRL| (w*C?R? + 1). e coupling of two circuits by means of a C second law, we have Circuit networks 33 a DC source of EMF is commonly used. The imaginary terms in equation (2.54) then disappear and the conditions for balance reduce to R,f[R2 = R3| Ra. (255) The device used is known as the Wheatstone Bridge. Fundamental theory void unwanted signals such as those caused by interactions bridge components, capacitances to earth and electromagnetic form of an AC bridge which often appears, in various forms, in it and other NDT equipment is the Maxwell inductance bridge . Z; and Z> are purely resistive ratio arms, with resistances known and usually equal value, Z; contains the unknown ing an unknown resistance R3, and Z, contains a known sistance, i.e. L4 and Ry. Balance is achieved Raf Ra = L/L. (2.56) y under specified conditions, it is often es of the inductance and resistance of a coil 9solute values. For small changes of impedance; it can 1981) that the values of two components, in quadra- out-of-balance detector voltage are directly proportional to the id resistive components, respectively, of the coil. ‘Ferromagnetic materials 35 Another basic form of an AC bridge is a capacitance bridge in which the arms | and 2 contain pure resistors R; and R). The arms 3 and 4 contain pure capacitors, i.e. C3, which is being measured, ard C4, which is vari- able. Thus Z;=Ri, Z2=R2, Z3= —j/wC3 and Z,= —j/wC,. Balance is achieved when Ri[R2 = Caf C3. (2.57a) If C3 has a resistive component R;3 (section 2.3.2), a variable resistance R; should be inserted in series with C, so that Z3 = R3 — j/wC3 and Le = Ra — jfwC, and the conditions of balance become _ Ri] R2 = R3]R4 = Cy] C3. (2.576) 2.7 FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS 2.7.1 Magnetization and hysteresis The nondestructive testing of magnetic properties is confined mainly to fer- romagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials, which can have values of r magnetic permeabilities fer (ecenes (2.16)) ranging fi eee exists of steel, nickel and c metals ee Fundamental theory j from zero, there is a corresponding increase in B. curve relating B, and thus p,, with # in a selected ‘and the other expressions for permeability given in this to the relative and not the absolute values. esis curves for a ferro- Ferromagnetic materials 37 continues and then cuts the H axis at D where B is zero and A equals He, the coercive force or coercivity, again characteristic of the material of the bar. Beyond the point E, having coordinates (—H,, — Ba), saturation occurs (EF). The value of H is then brought to zero and, on reversing its direction, it is then increased until saturation again occurs, i.e. at A. The hysteresis loop ACDEGH’A is thus obtained. The zrea contained by the loop HB represents the energy loss per cycle for unit volume of the bar; this energy is converted into heat. A hysteresis cycle can also be obtained by passing an alternating current of suitable amplitude through the solenoid. Magnetic hysteresis can be performed without the need to reach satu- ration level. For example, a common method of demagnetizing, or ‘degaussing’ a magnetized object is to subject it to a sinusoidally varying magnetic field having an amplitude which is gradually decreased to The resultant curves then have progressively reducing are done by placing the object in the vicinity of a coil carrying high alternating current usually at mains frequency, ch saturation value of H, and to withdraw the object slowly a distance depending on the value of the current in it. It should be noted that, when magnetic hysteresis takes" subjected to an alternating field, eddy currents are induce result, there is a further energy loss with a corresponding in area of the loop (section 3.7.2). By starting at any point P (or curve, a minor hysteresis ee with ranges | of B and EE equal Fundamental theory Electromagnetic radiation 39 are orientated in a single direction when saturation occurs. The ‘changes in the magnetic flux density B are not continuous but take discrete steps, a phenomenon known as the Barkhausen effect. ce changes in B during magnetization and hysteresis are some materials by short sharp bursts of acoustic emission. ies of ferromagnetic materials. Information, presented he magnetic properties of ferromagnetics is difficult sresented below, which is approximate and es, must be taken only as being representative. c indicates coercivity, B, retentivity and Tc temperature. Figure 2.14 Magnetic circuit in magnetized ring. C: coil; 1: mild steel electromagnet; 2, 3: soft-iron pole pieces and 4: intervening medium. He By Bax iG . Can) @) (1) CC) 3x 105 4 1 15 70 A relevant example of a magnetic circuit is a mild steel electromagnet 5000 80 1.5 2 770 (i= 1) with soft-iron pole pieces (i = 2 and 3), between which is found either 1400 500 12 17 770 an air gap, a non-ferromagnetic metal or a ferromagnetic metal (i = 4). To 2000 120 0.3 0.6 360 obtain a large flux, the reluctance and, hence, /;/; should be made as small as possible. This may be difficult when a non-ferromagnetic material lies 0.8 1 n/a between the pole pieces because y; is equal to unity, even though it I 1.2 nfa have a value of some thousands for one or more of the othe: ‘om, <0.5 100-600 in the circuit. Hence /4 must be as BOE as possit i reluctance matching. It should be noted that 2.8 ELECTROMAGN 2.8.1 Wave propagation in a dielectric materi: For a homogeneous di Fundamental theory Electromagnetic radiation 4] analysis theory it can be shown for any vector v that: The speed co of the waves in free space has been shown to be equal to : : | 2.998 x 10° ms~'. Substituting the approximation co= 3x 10% ms~! and curl curl v= grad div v— Vv. (2.65) { . the magnetic permeability of free space, yo = 4x x 1077 Hm |, the elec- E and div E=0 (equation (2.61)), we have \ trical permittivity eo of free space becomes equal to 1/(36a x 107?) Fm7!. 5 ‘ "In general, the electrical permittivity of a dielectric material ¢ has two curl curl E= —V°E (2.66) i : components in quadrature, i.e. e’ and e”, so that ) and (2.64a) | E= 6! — je". 0(curl H)/dr= — ped*E/ a0". (2.67) | This expression, as shown below, is indicative of attenuation of the waves : | : and an angle is defined to provide a dielectric loss factor given by tan 6 ae a ele te Ot? = (1/pe)V7E. (2.68) The solution to equation (2.68) can now be written as (2.68) is that of the general equation for the Ez = Ez exp(— az) exp j(wt — kz) (2.72) ted electromagnetic waves, i.e. : : sae : 2 oe where @ is defined as the attenuation coefficient and is analogous to a’, as 9°E/80? = 0V7E (2.69) defined in section 2.5.2, but it refers to attenuation with distance as e speed c is given by opposed to time. It should be noted in this context that the attenuation per cycle, i.e. the logarithmic decrement, can be expressed either as a or a'T, | where 7 is the time period. The 2 factor can then be expressed as 2= nlod= ar/a'T. = NG (2.70) ‘and F m7!, it is easily seen that uation (2.65) and continuing Substituting the derivatives of E; obtained from eq equation (2.68) gives (2.71) & and by e as the Real part and ka = w*ye"/2 as the Imaginary part. Eliminating a@ from the Fundamental theory cues (ae Vit (te"je'?)'2]. (2.81) €” = 0, equation (2.80) shows that c? = I/pe. agation in a conductor material does not support an electric field but can carry quently the following replaces equation (2.64a) _ curl H=J (2.640) e study of electromagnetic waves through tic flux leakage and eddy current at density J are the principal 2.64b) we see that Electromagnetic radiation 43 Only the positive value of the attenuation coefficient o is consistent with a decrease in amplitude as z increases, hence a=k = (wpo/2)'7 (2.88) from which the speed c of plane electromagnetic waves is given by c=a/k = (2u/pa)'?. a These solutions can also be obtained by using & as the variable instead o! H so that they can be applied to the current density J, using J = o£. The attenuation of the waves is often expressed in terms of the penetra- tion or standard penetration depth 64, or ‘skin depth’. This is not to be con- fused with either the logarithmic decrement (section 2.5.2) or the dielectric loss angle (section 2.8.1). It is defined as the depth 6 below the surface (where z = 0) at which the amplitude (e.g. Hzo or Jzo) reduces to I fewnines approximately 8.7 dB, of its surface value. Putting z = 6 in equation (2.86), we then have a6 = 1, so that 6 = (2/apo)'”?. (2.90) The reader is reminded that equation (2.90) is applicable on! thods of testing, a magnetic field is applied to the object |and any resulting changes of magnetic flux in the region observed. Applications are, of course, confined to ferromag- erials and include flaw detection, measuring dimensional changes serving variations in magnetic permeabilities brought about by in bulk phenomena such as hardness, grain structure and the pres- ves due to alloying and impurities. Either direct or alternating ver, with alternating fields, account may some- ion of eddy currents, but this can be c.g. up to a few Hz. On f eddy currents may occurs over a wider region. Flux-leakage methods 45 no apology for devoting a large part of this chapter to describing their excellent work. 3.2 FLUX-LEAKAGE METHODS 3.2.1 General considerations Localized phenomena such as surface or sub-surface cracks in ferritic steels and other ferromagnetic materials can be detected by means of a flux leakage method. The use of this type of method is advantageous, mainly because of a high degree of certainty of detection when properly applied and it provides a higher sensitivity when testing for small surface cracks, even on rough surfaces, than any other conventional NDT method. With flux leakage methods, a magnetic field is induced inside the object being tested, and the distribution of the resultant lines of magnetic flux is deter- mined by the values of magnetic permeability within the region of interest. Figure 3.1 shows how discontinuities of magnetic permeability, caused by the presence of a slot simulating a defect in a magnetized ferromagnetic bar, affect the distribution of the lines of induced magnetic flux. The latter are seen to cut through the surface; i.e. the flux ‘leaks’ out of the body Associated with this phenomenon is the appearance of N and S mi poles on opposite sides of the slot. i is seen that flux leakage where the leaked flux densiti: passes through the slot. Magnetic methods | Flux-leakage methods 47 kage can be detected by the following: in the gap, both of them coaxial with the ring (figure 3.3). By considering the magnetic circuit (section 2.7.2) it can be seen that, if t

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