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Integrated Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Cauvery Basin, South India

Article  in  Stratigraphy · January 2019

DOI: 10.29041/strat.15.4.245-259

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 Integrated Cretaceous stratigraphy of the
Cauvery Basin, South India
Raghavendramurthy Nagendra1, Addula Nallapa Reddy2, Bomma Chikkanarayan Jaiprakash3,
Harry Gilbert4, Yuri D. Zakharov5 and Mamilla Venkateshwarlu6
1
Department of Geology, Anna University, Chennai-600025, India
2
OIDB-Chair, Anna University, Chennai-600025, India
3,4
Regional Geosciences Laboratories, Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Ltd, Chennai-600049, India
5
Far Eastern Geological Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences (Far Eastern Branch),
Stoletiya Prospect 159, Vladivostok 690022, Russia
6
CSIR – National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad-500007, India
email: geonag@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Cretaceous sequences of the Cauvery Basin, South India, can serve as an analogue to understand the subsurface successions
with proven potential for commercial hydrocarbon exploration. In this area, the distribution of hydrocarbon reservoir and source rock fa-
cies was profoundly influenced by relative sea level changes amplified by rifting and related tectonic activities. Of particular interest are
the sedimentary strata exposed in mines, quarries and outcrops around the Ariyalur area of Tamil Nadu, that mirror subsurface strata. This
study reviews and integrates the stratigraphic studies based on this area and published over the past three decades. In particular, we concen-
trate on lithological features, macrofossils, microfossils, ichnofossils, magnetic polarity and sequence stratigraphy to reveal the geologic
history of the Cauvery Basin. Age control, paleoenvironmental interpretations, paleobathymetry, paleoecology and paleotemperature are
based on ammonites, belemnites, brachiopods, mollusks, nannofossils, and foraminifera. Key results include an integrated stratigraphic
framework, paleobathymetry and sea level history that shows seven second/third-order depositional sequences, and major sea level falls
during the late Turonian and late Maastrichtian linked to the Marion and Reunion mantle plumes, respectively.

Key words: Cauvery Basin, Cretaceous, integrated stratigraphy, sea level changes, paleoenvironment, South India

INTRODUCTION
The pericratonic Cauvery Basin, located along the south-eastern
coast of India, developed during the breakup of Gondwana in the
Late Jurassic (Rangaraju et al. 1993). This basin records four ma-
jor tectonic phases during its evolution including: (1) an early
sheared rift extensional faulting that initiated during Late Juras-
sic/Early Cretaceous, (2) end-phase rifting that concluded dur-
ing the late Aptian an d which resulted in a marine transgression
(Reddy et al. 2013), ( 3) late Turonian basinal uplift caused by
the Marion plume activity (Raju et al. 2005) resulted in wide-
spread volcanic intrusions in the southern part of the basin that
was linked to the separation of Madagascar from India, and ( 4 )
major eastward tilt of the basin was linked to the Deccan volca-
nic rise in central India and which led to a major sea level fall
and lateral withdrawal of the sea by about 50 km (Raju et al.
1993). These major tectonic events profoundly influenced rela-
tive sea level changes and the distribution of hydrocarbon reser-
voirs and source rock facies in the Cauvery Basin (Reddy et al.
2013).
Over the past three decades, the Cauvery Basin has been the cen-
ter of exploration activities for limestone and lignite in Tamil
Nadu where Cretaceous sediments are exposed in isolated out-
crops, mines, and quarries exposed along the western margin of
the Archaean basement. Drilling of exploratory deep wells re-
vealed nearly 7 km thick sedimentary successions ranging in age
from Late Jurassic to Recent, with two thirds deposited in the
Cretaceous. In land outcrops, late Aptian through Maastrichtian
marine deposits are divided into the Kovandankurichchi Forma-
tion, Terani Formation, and the Uttatur, Trichinopoly, and
Ariyalur groups (text-fig. 1). Low-angle unconformities and con-
glomerate beds mark interruptions in sediment deposition
(Nagendra et al. 2011).
The main purpose of this review is to develop a lithostratigraphic
framework and geologic history of the Cauvery Basin based on the
integration of published research, including lithostratigraphy,
biostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphic
records. In addition, we aim to standardize the various strati-
graphic classifications with updated nomenclatures and link cur-
rently disparate surface and subsurface data through age and
paleoenvironmental correlations. The results will have applica-
tions for petroleum exploration in the Cauvery Basin as well as
for academic research and future investigations of yet unexplored
deposits.
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
Lithostratigraphy orders layers of different rocks into easily iden-
tifiable units that can be regionally correlated and reflect the same
or similar depositional environments, such as beds of shale,
sands, limestones or conglomerates that can be traced over some
geographic distance. However, rock lithostratigraphic units are
time transgressive as they reflect specific depositional environ-
ments and cannot be used for age correlation, except in the broad-
est sense (e.g., Lower, Middle and Upper Cretaceous or
sub-stages).

Stratigraphy, vol. 15, no. 4, text-figures 1–3, pages 245–259, 2018 DOI: 10.29041/strat.15.4.245-259 245
Raghavendramurthy Nagendra et al.: Integrated Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Cauvery Basin, South India
Blanford (1862) published the first lithostratigraphic study of the
Cauvery Basin. Between 1943 and the 1990s a series of
publications concentrated on outcrops and sections exposed by
mining (e.g., Banerji 1982; Krishnan 1943; Nair 1974;
Ramanathan 1968; Sastri, Raju, Sinha, Venkatachala and
Banerji 1977; Ramasamy and Banerji 1991; Sundaram and Rao
1979; Sundaram and Rao 1986; Tewari, Hart, and Watkinson
1996a). Through this time authors developed differing
lithostratigraphic classifications and modified earlier strati-
graphic framework studies. During the past 15 years, the authors
re-investigated all available mines, quarries and outcrop sections
to integrate and develop a comprehensive lithostratigraphic and
biostratigraphic scheme (text-figs. 2a, 2b).
Kovandankurichchi Formation
The informally labeled Kovandankurichchi Conglomerate mem-
ber of Tewari et al. (1996) is herein raised to formation status and
renamed the Kovandankurichchi Formation (text-fig. 2b) fol-
lowing the guidelines of the International Stratigraphic Guide
(Murphy and Salvador 1999). The Kovandankurichchi Forma-
tion is the oldest (Berriasian(?)) sedimentary unit of the Creta-
ceous system in and around Ariyalur where it reaches a thickness
of 175 m (Sundaram et al. 2001) (text-figs. 2a, 2b) and has a
mappable extent. This formation is named after Kovandan-
kurichchi Village and is best exposed at its type section in the
Kovandankurichchi Quarry II where it overlies basement rocks
(Sundaram and Rao 1986) (text-fig. 3b). The Kovandankurichchi
is a conglomerate with inversely graded fanglomerate features.
The clasts are comprised of buff colored feldspar, sub-angular to
sub-rounded quartz, boulders, cobbles and pebbles derived from
Archean Gneiss (Govindan et al. 1998). The Terani Formation
unconformably overlies the Kovandankurichchi Formation.
Terani Formation
The Terani Formation is Neocomian- Aptian in age, is about 60
m thick and is well-exposed in the Terani Clay Mine located
near Karai Village (Ramasamy and Banerji 1991) (text-fig. 1,
2b). Stratigraphically, the Terani Formation unconformably un-
derlies the Dalmiapuram Formation and consists of two mem-
bers: the Terani Claystone Member with sandstone
intercalations at the base, and the Terani Gritty Ferruginous
Sandstone Member at the top. These sediments consist of
quartzose and feldspathic, gritty and ferruginous sandstones
with intercalated claystones (text-figs. 2a, 2b). The sandstone
contains pebbles and boulders of igneous (gneiss) rock. The
Terani Claystone Member contains rare and poorly preserved
plant fossils of Ptilophyllum acutifolium, whereas the shale and
clay layers of the Terani Gritty Ferruginous Sandstone Member
contain arenaceous foraminifera that indicate an Early Creta-
ceous (Neocomian–Aptian) age (Banerji 1982; Sastry et al.
1963).
Uttatur Group
The Uttatur Group consists of the Dalmiapuram and Karai For-
mations, which are time equivalent but lithologically dissimilar
(text-figs. 2a, 2b). These two formations were deposited during
the Albian through middle Turonian (Chiplonkar 1985; Raju et
al. 1993) and para-conformably overlie the Terani Formation.
The upper contact unconformably underlies the Garuda-
mangalam Formation of the Trichinopoly Group. The geology
and stratigraphy of the Dalmiapuram region has been studied by
many researchers (Gowda 1964; Rama Rao 1956; Ramasamy
and Banerji, 1991; Sundaram and Rao 1979) who separated the
Dalmiapuram Formation into three members: the Coral Algal
246
Limestone (CAL), the Marl Bedded Limestone (MBL), and the
Marl Member (ML) in ascending order. The Karai Formation
consists of variegated shales associated with gypsum veins,
phosphatic nodules and abundant belemnite guards. Phosphatic
nodules, locally known as “Uttatur potatoes”, are normally en-
cased in chalky surfaces. The lateral facies equivalent of the up-
per Karai Formation is known as the Odhiyam Sandstone and
Maruvattur Claystone members exposed at Odhiyam and
Maruvattur (text-fig. 1).
Trichinopoly Group
The Trichinopoly Group consists of the Garudamangalam For-
mation in the Ariyalur area. The contact between the
Garudamangalam and overlying Sillakkudi Formation is uncon-
formable. Sundaram et al. (2001) and Tewari et al. (1996a) di-
vided the Garudamangalam Formation into three members: the
Kulakkalnattam Sandstone, the Anaipadi Calcarenite and the
Saturbhugam Sandstone Member (text-figs. 2a, 2b). The
Kulakkalnattam Sandstone Member is extensively burrowed by
Skolithos, Ophiomorpha, and Thalassinoides. The Anaipadi
Calcarenite Member consists of concretionary siltstone,
mudstone and fine-grained micaceous sandstone in the lower
part and well-sorted calcareous medium to coarse sandstone in
the upper part with scattered bivalves and sporadic lenticular
interbeds of sandy coquina (Sundaram et al. 2001). Fossil wood
concretions are common in stream channel outcrops near
Saturbhugam. The overlying Saturbhugam Sandstone Member
consists of fluvial sandstones and silty sandstones with re-
worked pebbles and cobbles (Sundaram and Rao 1986).
Large-scale trough cross-bedding (less than 3m thick) in the
sandstone member is indicative of a fluvial channel fill. To the
northeast and down-dip, the Kulakkalnattam Sandstone laterally
grades into the Anaipadi Calcarenite facies. Four facies associa-
tions are identified in sandstone of the Garudamangalam For-
mation by Sarkar et al. 2014. These facies associations with
genetically different components indicate deposition occurred
in the nearshore zone (Sarkar et al. 2014).
Ariyalur Group
The Ariyalur Group is represented by the Sillakkudi,
Kallankurichchi, Ottakovil, and Kallamedu formations in as-
cending stratigraphic order (Sundaram and Rao 1986) (text-fig.
2b). At the base, the Sillakkudi Formation is dominated by
sandstones that are well exposed in the Mettol and Nochikulam
areas (text-fig. 1). Sedimentological studies indicate that the
sandstones are mineralogically and texturally immature and
poorly sorted. An abundance of feldspar, especially plagioclase,
indicates rapid deposition from a nearby granite/gneiss source.
The Sillakkudi Formation is characterized by clastic sediments
with a carbonate fraction in the Kilapalavur area. The sediments
consist of off-white to buff colored, coarse-grained, texturally
immature, poorly sorted, friable to hard sandstone with occa-
sional calcareous cement. The presence of glauconitic pellets in
the sandstones suggests deposition during a transgressive epi-
sode at paleo water depths of 30-60 m (Nagendra et al. 2001).
The presence of angular grains indicates transport was from a
nearby source (Nagendra et al. 2001). The Sillakkudi sandstone
underlies the Kallar Conglomerate Member, which is exposed
in stream sections near Kallar (text-figs. 1, 3b). Orange to yel-
low pebbles with abundant sub-angular to angular, pink to white
pebbles and cobbles characterize the conglomerate bed, which
is non-calcareous and indicative of sub-aerial deposition that
marks a hiatus during the late Campanian. The Kallar Conglom-
 Stratigraphy, vol. 15, no. 4, 2018

TEXT-FIGURE 1
Geological map of Cretaceous formations, Ariyalur area, Cauvery Basin, South India.

247
Raghavendramurthy Nagendra et al.: Integrated Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Cauvery Basin, South India

TEXT-FIGURE 2a
Lithostratigraphic classifications of Cretaceous succession of Ariyalur area, Cauvery Basin, South India

248
 Stratigraphy, vol. 15, no. 4, 2018

TEXT-FIGURE 2b
Lithostratigraphic classifications of Cretaceous succession of Ariyalur area, Cauvery Basin, South India.

249
Raghavendramurthy Nagendra et al.: Integrated Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Cauvery Basin, South India
erate is considered to be the upper member of the Sillakkudi
Formation.
The Kallankurichchi Formation and its three members are
marked by marine carbonates and conformably overlie the
Sillakkudi Formation (text-fig. 3b). The lowermost Ferruginous
Limestone (FL) Member consists of fine- to medium-grained
massive biomicrite, rich in benthic foraminifera. Above the FL
Member is the Lower Arenaceous Limestone (LAL) Member
marked by yellowish, massive, compact limestone rich in silica.
Overlying the LAL is the Gryphaea Limestone (GL) Member
identified by its reddish- brown color and fine- to me-
dium-grained carbonate. At the top is the Upper Arenaceous
Limestone (UAL) Member marked by high terrigenous influx.
The Ottakovil Formation contains mollusks, bryozoans and
rare burrows. The lower contact with the Kallankurichchi For-
mation is conformable whereas the upper contact with the over-
lying Kallamedu Formation is unconformable. The Kallamedu
Formation contains cross-bedded sandstones indicative of flu-
vial channel deposits that mark the end of the Cretaceous in the
Ariyalur area (Nagendra et al. 2002a).
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY AND PALEOENVIRONMENT
Biostratigraphy is based on fossils present in rock layers and
sediments and is the most commonly used method for relative
age dating in geological studies. Age control is based on
short-lived species, evolution and extinction (first and last ap-
pearances) that are unique bio-events with proven coeval re-
gional and/or global occurrences. Biostratigraphy thus provides
reliable relative age control in any environment globally, inde-
pendent of the nature of sediment deposition or paleo-
environment. In this study, biostratigraphic age control is based
on both macro and microfossils, including ammonites, belem-
nites, brachiopods, mollusks, calcareous nannofossils and
foraminifera. These fossils also provide information on
paleoenvironment (e.g., near-shore, shelf, slope, and deep) and
paleoecology (e.g., warm, cool, oxic, dysoxic, anoxic, degree of
salinity etc.) (Pratul et al. 2016).
The oldest lithostratigraphic unit, the Kovandankurichchi For-
mation, is devoid of fauna and flora and thus age dating is un-
available. Ptilophyllum acutifolium a plant fossil of
Neocomian–Aptian age, is reported from a shale horizon of the
Terani Formation (Mamgain et al. 1973; Sundaram et al. 2001;
Venkatarengan et al.1993). The upper sandstone member of the
Terani Formation yielded planktic foraminifera, including
Hedbergella trocoidea, H. planispira and H. delrioensis, sug-
gestive of a late Aptian-early Albian age (Reddy et al . 2013).
The occurrence of planktic foraminifera and ammonite frag-
ments marks the first marine transgression in the basin margin
(text-fig. 3a). The presence of poorly preserved, low diversity
arenaceous foraminifera in the Terani Formation suggests
brackish, low salinity waters indicative of estuary to restricted
bay environments. It is also possible that the low salinity waters
may have resulted from tidal wave incursions into a fresh water
basin. Based on t h e arenaceous foraminiferal assemblages, an
Early Cretaceous (Neocomian–Aptian) age is assigned to the
Terani Gritty Ferruginous Sandstone Member (text-fig. 3b).
The lower Coral Algal Limestone Member of the Dalmiapuram
Formation, Uttatur Group, is rich in algae and contains
Parachaetetes asvapattii, Sporolithon sp., Lithothamnion sp.,
Lithophyllum sp., Pseudoamphiroa propria, Neomeris creta-
250
ceae, Salpingoporella verticelata and Agardioliopsis cretaceae,
which are indicative of an Albian age (Mishra et al. 2004)
(text-fig. 3a). In addition, bryozoans, rare coral fragments and
foraminifera are present (Mishra et al. 2004). Marine cephalo-
pods, such as Acanthoceras sp., Mammites conciliatus, Nautilus
huxleyanus and Turrilites costatus, are abundant in the Marl
Bedded Limestone Member (Kossmat 1897; Govindan et al.
1998). The basal part of the Marl Bedded Limestone Members
contains lenticular gray shale layers immediately overlying the
Coral Algal Limestone. The age of the gray shale is well- con-
strained based on planktic foraminifera and dinoflagellates. A
latest Albian age is indicated for the gray shale of the Kallakudi
mine based on dinoflagellate index species Odontochitina
costata, Epelidosphaeridia spinosa, Cyclonephelium cf. C.
vannophorum, Dioxya sp., Kiokansium unituberculatum,
Ovoidinium verrucosum and Batioladinium micropodium
(Nagendra et al. 2002a) (text-fig. 3a). A latest Albian age is also
indicated by moderately well-preserved planktic foraminiferal
index taxa, including Rotalipora gandolfi, Rotalipora brotzeni,
Praeglobotruncana stephani, P. delrioensis, Hedbergella
planispira and Globigerinelloides bentonensis (Caron, 1985)
and corroborates the age assigned based on dinoflagellates
(Nagendra et al. 2002a; Nagendra et al. 2013).
The lower part of the Marl Bedded Limestone yielded the
planktic foraminiferal index species Rotalipora reicheli,
whereas the upper part of the Marl Limestone Member contains
index species Praeglobotruncana delrioensis and P. stephani,
which suggests a Cenomanian to mid-Turonian age (text-fig.
3a). T h e benthic foraminifera Anomalinoides, Gavelinella
plummerae, Gyroidinoides globosa, Lenticulina, and Quadri-
morphina are common in both the Marl Bedded Limestone and
the Marl Limestone member. Similar foraminiferal assemblages
of Rotalipora, Preaglobotruncana, Whiteinella and
Hedbergella (Govindan et al.1996) are documented from the
Karai Formation, in addition to belemnites, ammonites and
worm tubes. The presence o f the planktic foraminifera
Planomalina buxtorfi, Rotalipora reicheli, Praeglobotruncana
stephani, and Hedbergella portsdownensis (Nagendra et al.
2013) suggests a late Albian to middle Turonian age.
Ferruginous material infills the chambers of the foraminifers
and other fossils tests in the mudstone-wackestone facies of the
lithostratigraphic units in the Dalmiapuram Formation. This
suggests sediment deposition occurred in a low energy environ-
ment marked by diagenetic alteration (Nagendra et al. 2002b).
The Kulakkalnattam Sandstone of the Garudamangalam Forma-
tion, Trichinopoly Group, contains c haracteristic ichnofossils,
such as Skolithos, Ophiomorpha and Thalassinoides (text-fig.
3a). The Anaipadi Calcarenite Member contains abundant gas-
tropod shells and ammonites, such as Kossmaticeras theo-
baldianum and Placenticeras tamulicum, which indicate a
Coniacian-Santonian age (Ayyasami and Jagannatha Rao 1978).
The overlying Sillakkudi Formation, Ariyalur Group, includes
inoceramids and gastropod shells. Rasheed and Ravindran
(1978) recorded t h e presence of the benthic foraminifera
Bolivinoides decoratus and based on this species assigned a
Campanian age. Well-preserved ichnofossils of Ophiomorpha
and Thalassinoides are also observed in the upper part of this
formation (text-fig. 3a). The Kallankurichchi Formation con-
tains smaller benthic foraminifera, including Gavelinopsis
bembix, Gyroidinoides globosa, Lingulogavelinella and

Cibicides. The presence of planktic foraminifera Globo-
truncana linneiana, G. aegyptiaca and G. arca indicate an early
Maastrichtian age. Similarly, Tewari et al. (1996a, b) assigned
an early Maastrichtian age based on the larger foraminifera Si-
derolites. Macrofossils represented by mollusks, such as
Gryphaea, Alectronia, a n d Pecten, as well as bryozoans are
abundant in this formation. A diverse assemblage of late
Maastrichtian calcareous nannoplankton is reported from the
Ottakovil Formation by Jyotsana and Ramkumar (2007), in-
cluding Arkhangelskiella cymbiformis, Braarudosphaera
bigelowii, Ceratolithoides aculeus, Chiastozygus litterarius,
Cyclagelosphaera deflandrei, Cribrosphaerella ehrenbgergii,
Cribrosphaera sp., Eiffellithus gorkae, E. parallelus, E.
turriseiffeli, M. staurophora, M. swastica, Petrobrasiella?
bownii, Prediscosphaera cretacea, P. spinosa, Stradneria
crenulata, Staurolithites crux, Zygodiscus minimus and Z.
spiralis.
Diverse vertebrate fossils are reported from the Kallamedu For-
mation, including ganoid fishes, amphibians, turtles, croco-
diles, and dinosaurs that suggest a Late Cretaceous link
between India and other Gondwanan landmasses. Teeth of
abelisaurid dinosaurs, known previously from the Middle Juras-
sic of South America and the Late Cretaceous of Africa, Mada-
gascar, and central and western India, support a
pan-Gondwanan distribution for these groups of theropod dino-
saurs. Of greatest significance, however, is the discovery of a
Simosuchus-like notosuchian crocodile outside of Madagascar
(Prasad et al. 2013). This report of the first Indian Simo-
suchus-like notosuchian crocodile further strengthens the idea
that a link existed between India and Madagascar during the
Late Cretaceous. Vertebrate dispersal most likely was facili-
tated via the Seychelles block, Amirante Ridge, and Providence
Bank (Ali and Aitchison 2008).
ICHNOSTRATIGRAPHY
Ichnofossils are relatively well preserved in two sedimentary
sequences of the Ariyalur area. The Kulakkalnattam Sandstone
Member of the Garudamangalam Formation is intensely bur-
rowed and well-preserved ichnofossils were used to reconstruct
a paleobathymetry using the model of Seilacher (1967). Frey
and Pemberton (1985) have constructed ichnofacies that are
representative of environmental gradients. They illustrate eight
ichnofacies spanning from the rocky coast to the deep abyssal
environment. In semi-consolidated substrates, Frey and Pem-
berton ( 1985) report an abundance of vertical burrows with
both smooth and reinforced walls with ‘U’-, ‘J’-, ‘Y’-, and
‘T’-shaped structures that are characteristic of foreshore, mod-
erate to high energy conditions (Frey and Goldring 1992;
Reddy et al. 1992; Sathyanarayana et al. 1999; Seilacher 1967).
The ichnological study on the Kulakkalnattam Sandstone Mem-
ber by Nagendra et al. (2010) revealed the dominant occurrence
of vertical burrows in association with horizontal burrows. The
vertical burrows are predominantly represented by Ophio-
morpha nodosa and Skolithos linearis, which are produced by
suspension feeding animals and preserved in full relief (text-fig.
3a). These structures are part of the Skolithos ichnofacies of
Frey and Pemberton ( 1985). Abundant biogenic structures indi-
cate moderate to high energy conditions and a shifting substrate
exploited by opportunistic burrowing animals in foreshore en-
vironments. Alternatively, the Kulakkalnattam Sandstone has a
fine-grained, immature grain texture and is bioturbated with
well-preserved horizontal structures of deposit-feeding commu-
Stratigraphy, vol. 15, no. 4, 2018
nities. These communities are dominated by cylindrical,
branched, large-sized three-dimensional horizontal burrows of
Thalassinoides horizontalis and Thalassinoides suevicus, and un-
branched horizontal burrows indicative of Planolites beverly-
ensis and Palaeophycus tubularis (text-fig. 3a).
Horizontal structures of Planolites and Palaeophycus were
formed a few centimeters below the sediment-water interface
where their producers lived, suggesting an unconsolidated sub-
strate in a moderate to low energy sub-tidal environment. In the
Kulakkalnattam sandstone abundant bioturbation obscures the
physical sedimentary structures. Ichnofossils in the Kulak-
kalnattam Sandstone Member are represented by the Skolithos
ichnofacies, which were probably made by crustaceans, poly-
chaetes, etc. in shallow marine environments. The Skolithos
ichnofacies indicates, moderate to high energy conditions and un-
consolidated shifting substrate. Petrography reveals poorly sorted
grains that are free floating, angular to sub-angular. Sediment
characteristics and biogenic (feeding/dwelling) activity suggest
normal salinity in a fully marine foreshore-shoreface environ-
ment during the deposition of the Kulakkalnattam Sandstone
Member (Nagendra et al. 2010).
The Ottakovil Formation contains macrofossils, including
echinoids and bivalves along with few burrowing trace fossils of
Thalassinoides and Ophiomorpha, which are characteristic of the
Skolithos ichnofacies and indicative of high energy conditions.
This formation marks the terminal marine Cretaceous in the Ari-
yalur area (Tewari et al. 1996a).
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY AND GEOCHRONOLOGY
India began its separation and drifted northward from the
supercontinent Gondwana during the middle Cretaceous, approx-
imately 100 my ago (Chatterjee et al. 2017). By the Late Creta-
ceous, India separated from Australia and Africa and continued
northward towards Asia. During the late Maastrichtian, prior to
the Deccan Trap eruptions, uplift in southern India resulted in
sedimentation in the adjacent nascent Indian Ocean. Among all
the Gondwana continents India moved at a relatively high rate of
20–25 cm/yr (Poornachandra et al.1981). India collided with the
Eurasian plate about 55 my. ago, which resulted in the rise of the
Himalayan mountain chain.
The rapid northward movement of the Indian plate is recorded in
marine magnetic anomalies, such as the Rajmahal–Sylhet Traps
and the Deccan Traps. The geochronology is well established
for the Deccan and Malwa Traps, but less so for the Rajmahal
Traps. The Rajmahal Traps yield an 40Ar/39Ar age of 117+1 Ma
(Baksi et al. 1987; McDougall and McElhinny 1970). No recent
analyses with improved methods have been done, hence the error
bar is likely significantly larger for ages determined 30-40 years
ago. The major phase of the Deccan Trap eruptions occurred dur-
ing magnetochron C29r and has recently been dated based on
U-Pb geochronology (zircons) to span from 66.288± 0.027 Ma to
65.552 ± 0.026 Ma, which encompasses the Cretaceous-
Paleogene boundary (Schoene et al. 2015). U-Pb geochronology
for the Deccan Traps greatly improves earlier age estimates based
on 40Ar/39Ar dating of 65.5± 2 . 5 Ma (Vandamme et al. 1991).
40
Ar/39Ar geochronology of the Malwa Plateau (Northern Deccan
Traps) based on plateau ages of multiple samples recently yielded
an age of 67.12± 0.044 Ma, which shows that these eruptions
started during magnetochron C30n preceding the main Deccan
Traps eruptions (Schobel et al. 2014).
251
Raghavendramurthy Nagendra et al.: Integrated Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Cauvery Basin, South India

TEXT- FIGURE 3a
Lithological description and depositional environment of Cretaceous succession of Ariyalur area, Cauvery Basin, South India.

252
 Stratigraphy, vol. 15, no. 4, 2018

TEXT- FIGURE 3b
Stratigraphic characteristics of Cretaceous succession of Ariyalur area, Cauvery Basin, South India.

253
Raghavendramurthy Nagendra et al.: Integrated Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Cauvery Basin, South India
Paleomagnetic studies on the Rajmahal, Malwa and Deccan
volcanic episodes indicate the drift of the Indian plate during
the Early and Late Cretaceous. During the Early Cretaceous
eruptions of the Rajmahal Traps (~117±1 Ma, Aptian) the In-
dian subcontinent was situated at paleolatitude 43ºS. By the lat-
est Cretaceous (late Maastrichtian) the Malwa and Deccan
Traps were deposited at a paleolatitude of 30ºS.
Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Cenomanian-Maas-
trichtian outcrops in the Cauvery Basin is reviewed to construct
a composite magnetic polarity scale t h at helps understand the
continental drift history (text-fig. 3b). Outcrop samples from 29
locations in the vicinity of the Ariyalur district were treated for
thermal demagnetization (100–700°C) after measuring their
natural remanent magnetization. The calculated declinations
and inclinations of the Characteristic Remnant Magnetism
(ChRM) components were used to derive the paleolatitudes of
the virtual geomagnetic pole of outcrops (Papanna et al. 2014).
The constructed magnetic polarity scale f o r the Cenomanian
–Maastrichtian sediments of the Cauvery Basin is correlated
with the standard Geological Time Scale (Gradstein et al. 2004;
Ogg et al.2008).
The composite magnetic polarity scale of the Dalmiapuram,
Karai, Garudamangalam, Kallankurichchi, Ottakovil, and
Kallamedu formations comprise 13 magnetozones, 7 normal
and 6 reversal events, which correlate to chron C34n to chron
C30n. The Cauvery Basin was located in the southern latitude
during Late Cretaceous period. Isothermal remanent magnetis-
ation measurements indicate that the remanence carrier is he-
matite which resides in these sediments.
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
The sequence stratigraphic concepts followed in this work are
based on the concepts of Vail et al. 1977 and Van Wagoner et al.
1988. Outcrop sections are widespread and include locations in
Terani, Karai, Kallakudi quarry, Kovandankurichchi mines,
Melarasur, Kulakkalnattam, Anaipadi, Saradamangalam, Garu-
damangalam, Seeranattam, Karumbiyam, Sillakkudi, Kallan-
kurichchi TANCEM mines, TAMIN mines, GRASIM mines
and Srinivasapuram limestone quarries, Ottakovil, and
Kallamedu (Tewari et al. 1996a; Nagendra et al. 2002b)
(text-fig. 1). Wherever the lithological contacts were hidden,
the succession of vertical facies (stratigraphic and environmen-
tal) was determined based on lithology and biostratigraphy reg-
iment, to ascertain the nature of the contact. Seven sequence
boundaries and seven second/third order sequences are identi-
fied (text-fig. 3b; Nagendra et al. 2011).
The oldest sedimentary unit overlying the granitic basement is
the Kovandankurichchi Formation with fanglomerate facies
(Govindan et.al. 1998). This unit is overlain by the Terani For-
mation of fluvial to littoral origins (Banerji 1982). The contact
between the Archaean basement and Kovandankurichchi For-
mation forms sequence boundary-1 (SB1) and the upper contact
with the Terani Formation forms sequence boundary-2 (SB2),
based on lithofacies and sedimentary environments (text-fig.
3b; Sarkar et al. 2014) The Ptilophyllum acutifolium bearing
Terani Claystone with sandstone intercalations, foraminifera,
and ammonite shells is conformably overlain by the Terani
Gritty Ferruginous Sandstone Member. This surface likely rep-
resents sequence boundary-3 (SB3), w hich separates marine
from non-marine facies. SB3 merges with the transgressive sur-
face (TS), which marks the first marine transgression at the ba-
254
sin margin (text-fig. 3b). This surface closely coincides with the
Aptian/Albian boundary (Reddy et al. 2013).
The Dalmiapuram and Karai formations of the Uttatur Group,
successively developed in a marine environment during the
Albian to middle Turonian and overlie the Terani Formation.
The para-conformable contact lies between the Terani Forma-
tion and the Coral Algal Limestone Member of the Dalmia-
puram Formation. The abrupt termination of the Coral Algal
Limestone is inferred to represent a drowning surface, which
occurred due to clastic input and relative rise in sea level
(Nagendra et al. 2002a). The upper surface of the Karai Forma-
tion has an unconformable relationship with the overlying
Garudamangalam Formation and represents upper sequence
boundary-4 (SB4) (Nagendra et al. 2002b; Nagendra et al.
2011). SB4 represents a hiatus of about 2.10 Ma that developed
as a result of basin uplift caused by the rising Marion hot mantle
plume during late Turonian (Nagendra et al. 2002a, 2011; Raju
et al. 2005).
The Garudamangalam Formation overlies SB4. The relative sea
level (RSL) fall during the late Santonian produced fluvial
channel deposits as part of the highstand system tract (HST),
and is represented by the Saturbhugam Sandstone; the erosion
surface at the top of t h i s sandstone is sequence boundary- 5
(SB5) (Nagendra et al. 2011; Reddy et al. 2013). The base of the
Kallar Conglomerate, which overlies the Saturbhugam Sand-
stone, delineates an unconformity surface and forms sequence
boundary-6 (SB6) (text-fig. 3b). The conglomerate was devel-
oped after weathering and erosion of the exposed Sillakkudi
sandstones.
The base of the Ferruginous Limestone is a transgressive sur-
face marked by the presence of smaller benthic foraminifera, in-
dicating marine flooding at the base of the Kallankurichchi
Formation. The transgressive systems tract consists of the
Ferruginous L imestone, Lower Arenaceous Limestone and the
Gryphaea Limestone. The stacking patterns of these three mem-
bers appears to represent a retrogradational parasequence corre-
sponding to intermittent flooding events (text-fig. 3b)
(Nagendra et al. 2002b). Macro- and microfossil assemblages
and the frequency and preservation of microfossil tests indicate
a deepening water depth up section. The Gryphaea Limestone
Member, which is very rich in macrofossils, represents one of
the best developed maximum flooding surfaces (MFS) in the
area (text-fig. 3b). The MFS is sharp, located between the
Gryphaea Limestone and the Upper Arenaceous Limestone,
and corresponds to the upper surface of the Gryphaea shell bed.
Abundant large–sized Gryphaea shells suggest a tranquil envi-
ronment. High silica content and reduced micro- and macro-
fossil abundance suggest shallowing towards the top of the
Upper Arenaceous Limestone, which represents a HST. The
shallowing trend continues into the Ottakovil Formation, which
marks the end of the marine phase, which terminated due to ma-
jor sea-level fall caused by the eastward tilt of the basin. This tilt
is attributed to the rise of the Reunion mantle plume and Deccan
eruptions causing uplift in central India (Jaiprakash et al. 2016;
Nagendra and Reddy 2017; Raju et al. 1993). The top of the
Ottakovil Formation is interpreted as sequence boundary-7
(SB7).
PALAEOTEMPERATURE
The stable oxygen isotope paleotemperature record is an impor-
tant tool used to reconstruct environmental interpretation

from sedimentary facies and fossils. The late Albian
paleotemperature for the Dalmiapuram Formation ranges be-
tween 16.5°C and 17.4°C (Bowen 1961a), similar to tempera-
tures based on Parahibolites blanfordi rostra from the
Karai-Bad Land locality of south India. Shallow-water
paleotemperatures calculated by Zakharov et al. (2011) for the
late Albian interval of the Karai Shale Formation in the same
area have a similar range (14.3°C–18.5°C). Oxygen isotopic
paleotemperatures estimated from analyses of Albian cephalo-
pods from southern India and Madagascar are consistent with
paleotemperature data obtained from Albian cephalopods from
the Pas-de-Calais area (21.9°C–22.8°C) and Normandy
(19.3°C–22.8°C) (Zakharov et al. 2006d). However, these
paleotemperatures are much higher than those calculated from
Albian belemnites from Lago San Martin, Argentina
(7.7°C–10.9°C), James Ross Basin, Antarctica (6.1°C–10.7°C)
and Carnarvon Basin, Australia (7.8°C–11.3°C) (Pirrie & Mar-
shall 2004). There are many reasons for this discrepancy, in-
cluding comparison of different time intervals within the
Albian, latitude differences (e.g., cooler temperatures for higher
latitudes), and diagenetic effects. Cenomanian–Turonian
paleotemperature values calculated from benthic foraminifera
(21°C–29°C) (Gupta et al. 2007) and a Belemnite rostrum
(~20.7°C) of southern India (Ayyasami 2006) show similar val-
ues. Oxygen isotope paleotemperatures from late Bathonian
brachiopod shells from the Kachchh Basin, north-western India
(19.6°C–24.2°C) (Fürsich, et al. 2005), Oxfordian bivalves
(19.5°C–23.1°C), and ammonoid shells (17.1°C–29.9°C) from
Madagascar (Lécuyer and Bucher 2006) are also comparable.
These paleotemperatures suggest that southern India and Mada-
gascar resided in middle latitudes during the Albian and within
the tropical-subtropical climatic zone. Maximum oxygen iso-
tope values (-2.2 to -1.9 ) obtained from Lopha shells from the
Kallankurichchi Formation of the Trichinopoly area, suggest
that the paleotemperatures in shallow water basins of South In-
dia probably ranged between 19.8° C and 21.2°C during the
early Maastrichtian.
DISCUSSION
Over 60 surface outcrops in natural surface exposures, mines
and quarries have been investigated in the Cauvery Basin, often
based on multiple disciplines, but no studies employed an inte-
grated multidisciplinary approach to evaluate the sum of the age
and the paleoenvironment. In this study, we reviewed and eval-
uated these outcrops from the Cretaceous (Neocomian-Aptian
to Maastrichtian) of the Ariyalur area of the Cauvery Basin
based on an interdisciplinary approach that integrates multiple
stratigraphic schemes ranging from lithostratigraphy, biostrati-
graphy, ichnostratigraphy magnetostratigraphy, and sequence
stratigraphy. Diverse multiple biostratigraphic schemes em-
ployed in relative age correlations include ammonites, larger
foraminifera, benthic foraminifera, planktic foraminifera,
ichnofossils, dinoflagellates and nannofossils. Results of this
study provide a direct calibration of lithologic, biostratigraphic
and sequence stratigraphic events for the Aptian to Maas-
trichtian and paleomagnetic polarity events for the Ceno-
manian-Maastrichtian interval (text-fig. 3b).
Lithological observations of various outcrop sections reveal 8
lithostratigraphic formations and 5 members (text-fig. 3b). The
inversely graded fanglomerate, previously recognized as the in-
formal Boulder bed, is hereby raised to formation status and is
named the Kovandankurichchi Formation, which is an excellent
Stratigraphy, vol. 15, no. 4, 2018
regional lithostratigraphic marker. Likewise, the Kallar conglom-
erate, which is present in the upper Sillakkudi formation, permits
easy regional correlation. A subtle unconformity across the
Terani and Dalmiapuram Formations (Aptian/Albian) and major
unconformities across the Karai and Garudamangalam
formations (late Turonian), Sillakkudi and Kallankurichchi For-
mations (late Campanian) have equivalents in the adjoining
Krishna-Godavari Basin (Raju and Reddy 2016).
Good preservation of very small planktic foraminifera, including
Hedbergella trocoidea, H. planispira and H. delrioensis, yield
important age control for the Aptian Terani Formation and for
recognizing the first marine transgression at the western margin
of the basin (Reddy et al. 2013). However, the relative abundance
of these species is lower in the upper sandstone layers of the
Terani Formation. This marine transgression event of the Terani
Formation is corollary to the terminal phase of syn-rift tectonics
in the Cauvery Basin. The Karai Formation, which is exposed at
the basin margin, contains diverse assemblages of ammonites,
foraminifera and radiolarian. This formation consists predomi-
nantly of shale facies with abundant calcareous benthic
foraminifera suggesting deposition in > 150m water depth
(Nagendra et al. 2013). The age equivalent of this shale facies in
the shallow neritic environment is the Dalmiapuram Formation,
which consists of algal and bryozoan limestone at the bottom, a
marl-bedded limestone in the middle, and marl at the top. The age
ranges from early Albian to middle Turonian (Nagendra et al.
2011; Reddy et al. 2013) and marks a major transgressive cycle
(text-fig. 2) (Nagendra et al. 2002; Raju and Reddy 2016). The
transgressive phase was terminated by rapid basin uplift caused
by the rising Marion hot mantle plume (Nagendra et al. 2011;
Reddy et al. 2013). The basin uplift led to a major unconformity
with a hiatus of about ~2Ma (=late Turonian) and is regionally
correlatable in east coast basins of India (Raju et al. 2005).
Well preserved dinoflagellates in the gray shale at the base of
marl-bedded limestone yielded index taxa Odontochitina costata,
Epelidosphaeridia spinosa, Cyclonephelium cf. C.vannophorum,
Dioxya sp., Kiokansium unituberculatum, Ovoidinium verru-
cosum, and Batioladinium micropodium (Nagendra et al. 2002a).
The index planktic foraminifer taxa recorded are Rotalipora
gandolfi, Rotalipora brotzeni, Praeglobotruncana stephani, P.
delrioensis, Hedbergella planispira and Globigerinelloides
bentonensis. Index taxa of both fossil groups suggest a latest
Albian age (Caron 1985; Nagendra et al. 2002a; Nagendra et al.
2013). This age date significantly improves the calibration of
OAE 1d in the Cauvery Basin (Nagendra and Reddy 2017).
In the Kulakkalnattam Sandstone Member of the Garuda-
mangalam Formation, the presence of low diversity but well
preserved ichnofossil assemblages marks a significant paleo-
ecological event. These assemblages coincide with a rapid rela-
tive sea-level fall from deep outer neritic to inner neritic depth,
which was likely caused by basin uplift during the late Turonian
(text-fig. 3b) (Nagendra et al. 2011). The fossil assemblage con-
sists of Skolithos, Ophiomorpha, Thalassinoides, Planolites and
Paleophycus, which are characteristic of the Skolithos and
Cruziana ichnofacies that represent typical shore face, moderate
to high energy environments (Nagendra et al. 2010).
Marine carbonates with mudstone and wackestone facies domi-
nate the Kallankurichchi Formation, which consists of four lime-
stone units differentiated by their characteristic content. These
limestones were deposited during a major transgressive-regres-
255
Raghavendramurthy Nagendra et al.: Integrated Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Cauvery Basin, South India
sive (T–R) cycle. The Gryphaea unit is enriched in mollusks,
Gryphaea, Alectronia, a n d Pecten and bryozoans and repre-
sents a well-marked MFS (Nagendra et al. 2002b). This unit
also contains well preserved larger benthic foraminifera, partic-
ularly the Lepidorbitoides-Siderolites assemblage (Malarkodi
et al. 2017) and planktic foraminifera Globotruncana aegypti-
aca, G. linneiana and G. arca, which suggest zone CF6 of the
late early Maastrichtian (Li and Keller 1998a,b; Keller et al.
2016; Nagendra et al. 2017). The Ottakovil Formation contains
of rare burrows and a diverse nannoplankton assemblage
(=Gansserina gansseri Zone) indicative of the late
Maastrichtian (=CF5-3) (Jyotsana and Ramkumar 2007;
Nagendra et al. 2011; Nagendra et al. 2017). Note that Keller et
al. (2016) identified planktic foraminifera characteristic of
zones CF5 to CF3 in Cauvery Basin deep wells (ONGC); there-
fore, this age interval should also be present in outcrop sections.
The marine phase ends at the top of this formation in the
Ariyalur area of the Cauvery Basin.
Determination of paleolatitudes for the Cauvery Basin from the
Cenomanian through the Maastrichtian was based on the mag-
netic polarity time scale. Thirteen magnetozones comprising 7
normal and 6 reversal events were recognised for the Marl bed-
ded limestone of Dalmiapuram, Karai, Garudamangalam,
Kallankurichchi, Ottakovil and Kallamedu formations (text-fig.
3b). These polarity events corroborate well with chron C34n to
chron C30n of the Geologic Time Scale of Gradstein et al.
(2012). This permits us to infer a low? Southern latitude dur-
ing the Late Cretaceous period for the Cauvery Basin.
Integration of lithological contacts, the succession of vertical
facies (stratigraphic and environmental) and biostratigraphy de-
marcate seven sequence boundaries and seven second/third or-
der sequences (Nagendra et al. 2011; Reddy et al. 2013). Major
sea level fall during the late Turonian, late Santonian and late
Maastrichtian correlate well with global sea level falls reported
by Vail et al. (1977), Haq et al. (1987, 2014), Miller et al.
(2005). Late Turonian and late Maastrichtian sea level fall is
linked to the rise of Marion and Reunion mantle plumes, re-
spectively (Raju et al. 1993; Courtillot et al. 1988; Nagendra et
al. 2002a).
Paleotemperatures for the Dalmiapuram and Karai Formations
(upper Albian) and Kallankurichchi Formation (lower Maas-
trichtian) were determined using oxygen isotope analyses based
on cephalopods, belemnites and Lopha shells. The calculated
paleotemperatures range from 14.3–18.5°C for the late Albian
Karai Shale and between 19.8°C and 21.2°C for the
Kallankurichchi Formation. These paleotemperatures are con-
sistent with known paleotemperature data obtained from Albian
cephalopods from the Pas-de-Calais area (21.9–22.8°C) and
Normandy (19.3–22.8°C) (Zakharov et al. 2006d). The isotopic
paleotemperature data suggests that southern India and Mada-
gascar were located in middle latitudes during the Albian with
temperatures equivalent to the present day tropical-subtropical
climatic zone.
CONCLUSIONS
· We present a plausible lithostratigraphic framework and stan-
dardized stratigraphic nomenclatures based on a review of pub-
lished classifications systems.
256
· We raised the informally named Kovandankurichchi con-
glomerate (Lower Cretaceous) to formation status, to be re-
named the Kovandankurichchi Formation.
· Ichnofossil traces of the Kulakkalnattam Sandstone Member
(Garudamangalam Formation) represented by the Skolithos
ichnofacies suggest crustaceans and polychaetes burrows in a
shallow marine environment.
· A total of 13 magnetozones, 7 normal and 6 reversal events,
are identified for the Cauvery Basin spanning chron C34n to
C30n.
· The first marine transgression in the Cauvery Basin margin
occurred at the deposition of the upper member of the Terani
Formation (Aptian-Neocomian).
· The late Turonian thermal uplift caused by the Marion hot
mantle plume resulted in widespread volcanic intrusions in the
southern part of the Cauvery Basin and exposure of the Karai
Formation in the western margin of the basin, which resulted in
a hiatus (~2.1 Ma) spanning the late Turonian.
· Seven second/third order depositional sequences are recog-
nized within the Cretaceous sedimentary succession of the
Ariyalur area, Cauvery Basin.
· Stable oxygen isotopic paleotemperatures suggest that south-
ern India was located in middle latitudes during the Albian and
Maastrichtian.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors are thankful to Anna University, Chennai, CSIR-
NGRI, Hyderabad, ONGC, Chennai, UGC, DST, UGC-DRS-
Phase I-III, CPESS, India and Russian Academy of Sciences for
funding and facilities provided to carry out this research. R.
Nagendra is thankful to Satish Patel, MSU, India for his help in
ichnofossils studies and to Kamalk Kannan, Gargi Sen,
Nagarajan, Bakkiaraj, Papanna, Sathiyamoorthy and Gobala-
krishnan for their contribution during their Ph.D. program. Au-
thors are thankful to the IAR reviewers for critical comments
and suggestions for the improvement of the manuscript and to
standardize the lithostratigraphic framework of the Cauvery Ba-
sin. The authors are thankful to anonymous reviewers for criti-
cal evaluation which helped greatly improve the manuscript.
We also thank Gerta Keller for comments and suggestions to
improve this paper. We are thankful to IGCP-608 leaders Hisao
Ando and Sunil Bajpai for encouragement to publish this review
article.
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