Three-Point Bending Test

Related terms:

Carbon Fiber, Cementitious Matrix, Deflections, Fiber-Reinforced Polymer, Carbon

Fibre Composite, Delaminations

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Ultra-high performance concrete-filled

steel tubular columns
Chengqing Wu, ... Yu Su, in Development of Ultra-High Performance Concrete
Against Blasts, 2018

5.2.1.2 Three-point bending test

Three-point bending tests were carried out to investigate the static behaviors of CFST
columns subjected to combined axial and lateral loads. As shown in Fig. 5.1, the test
specimen was simply supported during the test.
Figure 5.1. Experimental setup for three-point bending test.

In total, three CFST columns were tested including one square CFST column and two
circular CFST columns. Table 5.2 summarizes the experimental results of three-point
bending tests and their corresponding theoretical values calculated from theoretical
equations as given in the following [32]:

Table 5.2. Results of the three-point bending tests

Column no. Cross-section Applied axial load Lateral load (kN) Error (%)
(kN)
Test Theoretical
TS1 Square (200- 514 168 181 7.7
 mm×200 mm)
TC1 Circular (194- 414 95 96 0
 mm diameter)
TC2 Circular (194- 0 88 109 19.2
 mm diameter)

If , then

(5.1a)

Otherwise,

(5.1b)

where N is the applied axial load and is the designed axial load capacity:

(5.2)
in which

M is the applied moment and is the designed moment capacity:

(5.3)

V is the applied shear force and is the designed shear capacity:

(5.4)

is the cross-sectional area of the CFST column; and are the cross-sectional areas
of the steel tube and the concrete, respectively.

and are the yield strength of the steel tube and the characteristic strength of the
concrete, respectively.

is the restraining factor and

For both axially loaded specimen TS1 and TC1, the theoretical formulae can well
predict the experimental results, whereas for axial-load–free specimen TC2, the
theoretical prediction was 19.2% larger than the experimental results and this might
be due to variation of concrete strength.

Fig. 5.2 depicts the force–displacement histories of the three-point bending tests. It
is evident that the tested square specimen TS1 exhibited a larger lateral load capacity
than the circular specimen TC1 due to a larger plastic moment capacity. Also, the
axially loaded specimen TC1 showed slightly larger lateral load capacity but less
ductile behavior than its axial-load–free counterpart TC2.

Figure 5.2. Force–displacement histories of the three-point bending tests.

> Read full chapter

Severe Plastic Deformation – Accumula-
tive Roll Bonding1
John G. Lenard, in Primer on Flat Rolling (Second Edition), 2014

13.4.2.3 The Bending Strength

Three-point bending tests were performed in order to observe the behaviour of
the multi-layered strips in a potential sheet metal forming operation. These tests
subject the sample to significant tensile and compressive stresses in their plane in
addition to shear stresses which vary from maximum at the neutral axis to zero at
the outermost surfaces. The results of the tests are given in Figure 13.4, plotting the
force/sample width versus the vertical displacement. Up to the displacement shown
in the figure the tensile strains were not excessive and no fractures occurred. Some,
but not excessive, delamination of the bonded layers was observed. As the number
of layers increased, fewer instances of delamination were noted, indicating that the
bond strength increased after repeated rolling passes.

Figure 13.4. The results of the three-point bending tests.

> Read full chapter

Sustainability of vegetable fibres in con-

struction
H. SavastanoJr., ... V. Agopyan, in Sustainability of Construction Materials, 2009
3.5.3 Test methods
Three-point bending tests were performed for the determination of modulus of
rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE) and toughness. A span of 100 mm and
a deflection rate of 0.5 mm/min were used for all tests in an Instron model 1185
testing machine. Fracture energy was calculated by integration of the load–defle-
ction curve to the point corresponding to a reduction in load carrying capacity to
50% of the maximum observed. For the purpose of this study, the toughness was
measured as the fracture energy divided by specimen width and depth at the failure
location. The mechanical test procedures employed are described in greater detail
by Savastano et al. (2000). Water absorption and bulk density values were obtained
from tested flexural specimens following the procedures specified in ASTM C 948–81
(ASTM, 2000).

The experimental data were subjected to one-way analysis of variance using Tukey’s
multiple comparison method to determine the significance of observed differences
between sample means at the 95% confidence level (  = 0.05).

> Read full chapter

Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Com-

posite Design with Controlled Distrib-
ution and Orientation of Fibers Using
Three-Dimensional Printing Technolo-
gy
Young Jun Nam, ... Yun Mook Lim, in 3D Concrete Printing Technology, 2019

4.4 Results and Discussion

Three-point bending tests were performed using an Instron 3369 instrument (Fig.
4.12). In Fig. 4.13, the experimental responses of each type of specimens are plotted.
The strengths of the RFs and FFs structures were lower than that of the control
specimen which did not have any reinforcement inside; on the other hand, the
RM and FM specimens exhibited higher strengths compared to the control one.
Moreover, the specimens (FFs and FM) with functional reinforcements showed lower
strength than the ones (RFs and RM) with no functional distribution. These strength
order could be explained by the number of fibers intersecting near the crack plane.
Fig. 4.14 roughly describes the locations of cracks obtained for each model and
the corresponding numbers of intersecting fibers. Unlike the fiber-based models,
the mesh models contain several points where many fibers converge, and therefore
the corresponding distribution plots exhibit several peaks (they illustrate how many
fibers cross each particular plane which explains why different values of strengths
were obtained for different models). The number of intersecting fibers at the crack
plane of each model was proportional to the composite strength.

Figure 4.12. Results of the three-point bending tests performed: (A) Control speci-
men, (B) RM, (C) FM, (D) RFs, and (E) FFs.

Figure 4.13. The corresponding load-displacement curves [20].

Figure 4.14. Locations of the crack planes from each specimen and the correspond-
ing numbers of intersecting fibers [20].

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Minimum Reinforcement in Concrete

Members
A. Carpinteri, ... M. Elkatieb, in European Structural Integrity Society, 1999

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Three point bending tests on 45 reinforced concrete beams had been planned at the
Department of Structural Engineering of the Politecnico di Torino. Ten beams were
cracked prior to loading due to the movement, so that only 35 beams have been really
tested. Three values of slenderness L/h= 6, 12, 18 (span to depth ratio) were taken
into account. The beams were subdivided into three series, according to the different
cross-sections: (A) 100×100 mm, (B) 100×200 mm and (C) 200×400 mm, while the
effective depth to total depth ratio d/h was equal to 0.9 (Fig.4). The beams were
reinforced only in tension with five different percentages: 0.12%, 0.25%, 0.50%,
1.00% and 2.00%. All the beams were cast from the same batch and no shear
reinforcement in the central part of the beams was provided.
Figure 4. Arrangement of reinforcement.

A closed-loop servo-controlled testing machine was used. The tests were performed
in displacement control for the beams with percentage of reinforcement larger than
0.50%, while for the others the crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) control
was used, in order to avoid sudden failure in the event of snap-back phenomena
occurring. Top and bottom edge deformation were measured by means of poten-
tiometric transducers with gauges of length equal to the depth of the beam, placed
at 1/10 of the depth of the cross-section from both the beam extrados and intrados.
The transducers had a 20 mm measuring range, while vertical displacements were
measured by means of two transducers placed at midspan (Fig.5). Two additional
transducers were used to measure the settlements at the supports, so that the real
value of the midspan deflection was obtained by subtracting the average readings at
the supports from the average readings at midspan. The end supports consisted in
a fixed hinge and a roller enabling the beam to move horizontally, as shown in Fig.5.
The load was transferred onto the beams by means of a platen having a length equal
to half the beam depth and the same width in order to reduce stress concentration
effects.

Figure 5. Setup of transducers.

The compressive strength of concrete was obtained from eight cubic specimens
measuring 100 mm in side and the average value fcm was 48.2 N/mm2. The
elastic modulus of concrete was determined from four specimens measuring
100×100×300 mm, which provided an average value equal to 35,000 N/mm2. The
fracture energy of concrete, determined according to RILEM recommendation [14]
on six specimens, presented an average value F equal to 0.115 N/mm. The critical
value of the stress-intensity factor can then be evaluated as:

(36)

The steel bars had nominal diameters of 5, 8, 16 and 20 mm, respectively. Originally,
the smallest bars should have a diameter of 4 mm; however from the post-mortem
analysis on the beams the effective diameter came out to be equal to 5 mm. For
this reason the percentages of reinforcement, reported in Table 1, are different from
the prefixed ones. The 5 mm bars did not exhibit a well-defined yield point and the
conventional yield limit, obtained from the stress-strain curve at 0.2% of permanent
deformation, was equal to 604 N/mm2. On the other hand, the yield strength for
the bars of 8, 16 and 20 mm, equalled 643 N/mm2, 518 N/mm2 and 567 N/mm2,
respectively. The geometrical characteristics and steel reinforcement percentages of
beams are reported in Table 1. The experimental setups and typical failure modes of
some characteristic beams, are reported in Figs. 6-13.

Table 1. Geometrical characteristics and steel reinforcement percentages of tested

beams

Beam Tension reinforcement As/(bh) P

A012-06 1 5 0.20 % 0.187

A025-06 2 5 0.39 % 0.374

A100-06 2 8 1.00 % 1.019

A200-06 4 8 2.00 % 2.038

A012-12 1 5 0.20 % 0.187

A025-12 2 5 0.39 % 0.374

A050-12 1 8 0.50 % 0.510

A100-12 2 8 1.00 % 1.019

A200-12 4 8 2.00 % 2.038

A025-18 2 5 0.39 % 0.374

A050-18 1 8 0.50 % 0.510

A100-18 2 8 1.00 % 1.019

A200-18 4 8 2.00 % 2.381

B012-06 2 5 0.20 % 0.265

B025-06 1 8 0.25 % 0.360

B050-06 2 8 0.50 % 0.721

B100-06 4 8 1.00 % 1.441

B200-06 2 16 2.00 % 2.322

B025-12 1 8 0.25 % 0.360

B100-12 4 8 1.00 % 1.441

B200-12 2 16 2.00 % 2.322

C012-06 2 8 0.12 % 0.255

C025-06 4 8 0.25 % 0.510

C050-06 2 16 0.50 % 0.821

C100-06 4 16 1.00 % 1.642

C200-06 4 20 2.00 % 2.810

C012-12 2 8 0.12 % 0.255

C100-12 4 16 1.00 % 1.642

C200-12 4 20 2.00 % 2.810

C012-18 2 8 0.12 % 0.255

C050-18 2 16 0.50 % 0.821

C100-18 4 16 1.00 % 1.642

C200-18 4 20 2.00 % 2.810

Figure 6. Experimental setup of the beam A100-06.

Figure 7. Experimental setup of the beam B100-12.

Figure 8. Experimental setup of the beam C100-06.

Figure 9. Brittle failure mode of the beam B012-06.

Figure 10. Brittle failure mode of the beam C100-06.

Figure 11. Shear failure mode of the beam C100-12.

Figure 12. Brittle failure mode (crushing in compression) of the beam B200-12.

Figure 13. Brittle failure mode (crushing in compression) of the beam B200-06.

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Accelerated testing methodology for

long-term creep and fatigue strengths
of polymer composites
Masayuki Nakada, in Creep and Fatigue in Polymer Matrix Composites (Second
Edition), 2019

11.3.1 Specimen and testing method

The three-point bending tests for CSR, creep, and fatigue loadings were conducted
for various temperatures on satin-woven CFRP laminates referred to as T400/3601.
The satin-woven CFRP laminates are made from carbon fibers T400 and a matrix
epoxy resin 3601 with a high glass transition temperature of Tg = 236°C. Eight
prepreg sheets were stacked symmetrically about the midplane. The CFRP laminates
T400/3601 were formed by hot pressing these prepreg sheets into 2.7-mm thick
plates. The volume fraction of the fibers in the composites is approximately 65.5%.

Three-point bending tests for CSR, creep, and fatigue for T400/3601 were conducted
where the span, width, and the thickness used in the tests are L = 50 mm, b = 15 mm,
and h = 2.7 mm, respectively.

The CSR tests were carried out at four deflection rates and 10 uniform temperatures
on an Instron type testing machine. A creep testing machine with a constant temper-
ature chamber was used to perform the creep tests at three uniform temperatures.
The fatigue tests were performed by using an electroservo-controlled hydrotesting
machine with a constant temperature chamber at various frequencies, temperatures,
and stress ratios.

> Read full chapter

Crack Propagation in Continuous Glass

Fiber/Polypropylene Composites: Ma-
trix Microstructure Effect
M.N. Bureau, ... J.I. Dickson, in Plastics Failure Analysis and Prevention, 2001

THREE-POINT BENDING TESTS

The three-point bending tests were performed following the ASTM D-790M stan-
dard test method at 23°C using a computer-controlled mechanical tester. These tests
were done at a crosshead speed of 1.3 mm/min with a ratio of span to specimen
thickness of 16. The flexural2 modulus, the flexural strength and the strain at failure
on the tensile stress side of the three-point bending specimen (lower fiber) were
respectively calculated according to ASTM D-790M. A minimum of five tests was
performed for each reported value and the standard deviation was less or equal to
5%.

> Read full chapter

Monitoring of crack propagation in re-

inforced concrete beams using embed-
ded piezoelectric transducers
C. Dumoulin, ... A. Deraemaeker, in Acoustic Emission and Related Non-Destructive
Evaluation Techniques in the Fracture Mechanics of Concrete, 2015

8.4.2 Loading and monitoring procedure

The three-point bending test was performed on a 200 kN hydraulic jack bending
testing machine (see Figure 8.8) in two different phases. The first loading phase
was aimed at initiating the crack at the center of the beam by successive small
loading steps (±1 kN) with a slow rate (±1 kN/min). This phase is summarized on
Figure 8.9(a). This loading procedure has allowed detection of the exact moment of
the crack initiation. The beam was unloaded slightly after the crack was observed.
Figure 8.9(b) illustrates the loading procedure of the second phase. The beam was
loaded close to the maximum acceptable load. The successive loading steps are
greater and faster than in the first phase. During this phase, LVDT extensometers
were used to estimate the crack width. Indeed, the use of such a sensor requires
knowing the exact location of the cracks, which was, of course, not possible during
the first phase.

Figure 8.8. Experimental setup. The three-point bending test has been performed
on a 200 kN hydraulic jack bending testing machine.
Figure 8.9. Loading procedure in two phases. (a) Phase 1: the beam is loaded up to
the crack initiation (15 kN). (b) The beam is loaded up to the failure (±50 kN).

> Read full chapter

Interlayer toughening mechanisms of

composite materials
K. Bilge, M. Papila, in Toughening Mechanisms in Composite Materials, 2015

10.4.2.1 Three-point bending tests

Comparison of three-point bending tests on laminates with and without fibrous
interlayers showed that their addition led to increase in both flexural strength
and modulus of the samples. The nanofibrous interlayers (denoted by I) within
the laminates (0/I/0/I/0) resulted in 10% increase in the flexural strength (Table
10.3). Introduction of the nanotubes by 1% weight to the copolymer fibers led to
a further improvement, adding up to 15% increase in flexural strength compared
to results without nanocomposite interlayers incorporated. Comparing (90/0/90)
versus (90/I/0/I/90) laminates, P(St-co-GMA) nanofibrous interlayers increased both
the flexural strength of the samples by 16%. The increase in these values was
22% with P(St-co-GMA)/MWCNT interlayers. Postfailure SEM analyses on a cross
section of the specimens revealed that the lamination sequence was a factor in the
fracture mode. Two distinct active failure mechanisms, transverse matrix cracking
and/or delamination, were observed in (0/0/0) laminates (Figures 10.15 and 10.16).
Coexistence of the two failure mechanisms on the samples is attributed to the
inability of the three-point bending test to create pure shear conditions.

Figure 10.15. Representative three-point bending curves for (0/0/0) laminates.

Figure 10.16. Representative three-point bending curves for (90/0/90) laminates.

 An example is shown in the SEM image of a (0/0) interface represented in Figure
10.17a, where the two corresponding mechanisms were indicated with arrows (1:
transverse matrix cracking and 2: delamination). Oblique intra-ply damage (Knops,
2008) initiated at the end of delamination growth occurred due to the presence
of high-stress regions at the contact of the loading tip. The flexural strength and
modulus increase reported by the three-point bending tests characterized both
delamination resistance and matrix toughening introduced by the addition of the
interlayer. This double effect of the interlayer was also studied and introduced by
Sihn et al. (2008).

Figure 10.17. Cross-sectional view of fractured three-point specimens. (a) (0/0/0) and
(b) (90/0/90).

With (90/0/90) lamination sequence, fracture mechanism was driven by 90° plies.
The presence of 90° plies at the outer surface ensured the interlaminar stresses at
90/0 interface due to the stiffness mismatch. In addition, the inherent weak links
of 90° plies to tensile loads triggered a matrix crack-induced failure on the bottom
ply during bending loading (Figure 10.17). Figure 10.16 shows the representative
flexural force–displacement curves of the specimens with and without nanofibrous
interlayers/interleafs. The initial load drop corresponds to the first ply failure due to
the critical matrix cracking on the bottom 90° ply subjected to tension. Note that the
local matrix failure did not cause the ultimate failure. Instead, a stable crack growth
characterized by the load drops was observed, and the final fracture occurred when
90 (degraded)/0 interface progressed to delamination. Hence, the overall flexural
performance was governed by two major failure mechanisms.

The increased resistance against initial matrix cracking may be noted by comparing
the first ply failure loads, whereas the delamination resistance of laminates may be
compared by the ultimate load values. It is clearly visible from Figure 10.16 that the
interlayer addition worked well for both mechanisms, as it was suggested for (0/0/0)
laminates.

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