Chapter 2.

NC/CNC Machine Tools

AN OVERVIEW OF CNC MACHINES

(1) Historical Perspective

The word NC which stands for numerical control refer to control of a machine or a process using
symbolic codes consisting of characters and numerals. The word CNC came into existence in
seventies when microprocessors and microcomputers replaced integrated circuit IC based
controls used for NC machines. The development of numerical control owes much to the United
States air force. The concept of NC was proposed in the late 1940s by John Parsons who
recommended a method of automatic machine control that would guide a milling cutter to
produce a curvilinear motion in order to generate smooth profiles on the work-pieces. In 1949, the
U.S Air Force awarded Parsons a contract to develop new type of machine tool that would be
able to speed up production methods.

Parsons sub-contracted the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to develop a practical

implementation of his concept. Scientists and engineers at M.I.T built a control system for a two-
axis milling machine that used a perforated paper tape as the input media. This prototype was
produced by retrofitting a conventional tracer mill with numerical control servomechanisms for
the three axes of the machine. By 1955, these machines were available to industries with some
small modifications.

The machine tool builders gradually began developing their own projects to introduce
commercial NC units. Also, certain industry users, especially airframe builders, worked to devise
numerical control machines to satisfy their own particular production needs. The Air force
continued its encouragement of NC development by sponsoring additional research at MIT to
design a part programming language that could be used in controlling N.C. machines.

In a short period of time, all the major machine tool manufacturers were producing some
machines with NC, but it was not until late 1970s that computer-based NC became widely used.
NC matured as an automation technology when electronics industry developed new products. At
first, miniature electronic tubes were developed, but the controls were big, bulky, and not very
reliable. Then solid-state circuitry and eventually modular or integrated circuits were developed.
The control unit became smaller, more reliable, and less expensive.

(2) Computer Numerical Control

Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical control system in which a dedicated
computer is built into the control to perform basic and advanced NC functions. CNC controls are
also referred to as soft-wired NC systems because most of their control functions are implemented
by the control software programs. CNC is a computer assisted process to control general purpose
machines from instructions generated by a processor and stored in a memory system. It is a
specific form of control system where position is the principal-controlled variable. All numerical
control machines manufactured since the seventies are of CNC type. The computer allows for the
following: storage of additional programs, program editing, running of program from memory,
machine and control diagnostics, special routines, inch/metric, incremental/absolute
switchability.

CNC machines can be used as stand alone units or in a network of machines such as flexible
machine centres. The controller uses a permanent resident program called an executive program
to process the codes into the electrical pulses that control the machine. In any CNC machine,
executive program resides in ROM and all the NC codes in RAM. The information in ROM is written
into the electronic chips and cannot be erased and they become active whenever the machine
is on. The contents in RAM are lost when the controller is turned off. Some use special type of RAM
called CMOS memory, which retains its contents even when the power is turned off.

Figure 1 CNC milling machine

(1.3) Direct Numerical Control

In a Direct Numerical Control system (DNC), a mainframe computer is used to coordinate the
simultaneous operations of a number NC machines as shown in the figures 21.2 & 21.3. The main
tasks performed by the computer are to program and edit part programs as well as download
part programs to NC machines. Machine tool controllers have limited memory and a part
program may contain few thousands of blocks. So, the program is stored in a separate computer
and sent directly to the machine, one block at a time.
First DNC system developed was Molins System 24 in 1967 by Cincinnati Milacron and General
Electric. They are now referred to as flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). The computers that
were used at those times were quite expensive.

Figure 2 DNC System

21.4 Advantages & Disadvantages of CNC machine tools

Figure 3 Manually operated milling

 Figure 4 Computer controlled machine milling machine

Some of the dominant advantages of the CNC machines are:

 CNC machines can be used continuously and only need to be switched off for occasional
maintenance.
 These machines require less skilled people to operate unlike manual lathes / milling
machines etc.
 CNC machines can be updated by improving the software used to drive the machines.
 Training for the use of CNC machines can be done through the use of 'virtual software'.
 The manufacturing process can be simulated virtually and no need to make a prototype or
a model. This saves time and money.
 Once programmed, these machines can be left and do not require any human
intervention, except for work loading and unloading.
 These machines can manufacture several components to the required accuracy without
any fatigue as in the case of manually operated machines.
 Savings in time that could be achieved with the CNC machines are quite significant.

Some of the disadvantages of the CNC machines are:

 CNC machines are generally more expensive than manually operated machines.
 The CNC machine operator only needs basic training and skills, enough to supervise several
machines.
 Increase in electrical maintenance, high initial investment and high per hour operating
costs than the traditional systems.
 Fewer workers are required to operate CNC machines compared to manually operated
machines. Investment in CNC machines can lead to unemployment.

( 5 ) Applications of NC/CNC machine tools

CNC was initially applied to metal working machinery: Mills, Drills, boring machines, punch presses
etc and now expanded to robotics, grinders, welding machinery, EDM's, flame cutters and also for
inspection equipment etc. The machines controlled by CNC can be classified into the following
categories: CNC mills and machining centres.
  CNC lathes and turning centers
 CNC EDM
 CNC grinding machines
 CNC cutting machines (laser, plasma, electron, or flame)
 CNC fabrication machines (sheet metal punch press, bending machine, or press brake)
 CNC welding machines
 CNC coordinate measuring machines

CNC Coordinate Measuring Machines:

A coordinate measuring machine is a dimensional measuring device, designed to move the

measuring probe to determine the coordinates along the surface of the work piece. Apart from
dimensional measurement, these machines are also used for profile measurement, angularity,
digitizing or imaging.
A CMM consists of four main components: the machine, measuring probe, control system and the
measuring software. The control system in a CMM performs the function of a live interaction
between various machine drives, displacement transducers, probing systems and the peripheral
devices. Control systems can be classified according to the following groups of CMMs.

1. Manually driven CMMs

2. Motorized CMMs with automatic probing systems
3. Direct computer controlled (DCC) CMMs
4. CMMs linked with CAD, CAM and FMS etc.
The first two methods are very common and self-explanatory. In the case of DCC CMMs, the
computer control is responsible for the movement of the slides, readout from displacement
transducers and data communication. CMM are of different configurations-fixed bridge, moving
bridge, cantilever arm figure 21.5(a), horizontal arm and gantry type CMM as shown in figure
21.5(b).

Figure 5 Cantilever type CMM

 Figure 6 Gantry type CMM

CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS

( 1) Based on the motion type ' Point-to-point & Contouring systems

There are two main types of machine tools and the control systems required for use with them differ because
of the basic differences in the functions of the machines to be controlled. They are known as point-to-point
and contouring controls.

( 1.1) Point-to-point systems

Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc, require the cutter and the work
piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative position at which they must remain while the cutter does its
work. These machines are known as point-to-point machines as shown in figure 22.1 (a) and the control
equipment for use with them are known as point-to-point control equipment. Feed rates need not to be
programmed. In these machine tools, each axis is driven separately. In a point-to-point control system, the
dimensional information that must be given to the machine tool will be a series of required position of the
two slides. Servo systems can be used to move the slides and no attempt is made to move the slide until the
cutter has been retracted back.

( 1.2) Contouring systems (Continuous path systems)

Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the cutter while cutting operation
is taking place. These machine tools include milling, routing machines etc. and are known as contouring
machines as shown in figure 22.1 (b) and the controls required for their control are known as contouring
control.
Contouring machines can also be used as point-to-point machines, but it will be uneconomical to use them
unless the work piece also requires having a contouring operation to be performed on it. These machines
require simultaneous control of axes. In contouring machines, relative positions of the work piece and the
tool should be continuously controlled. The control system must be able to accept information regarding
velocities and positions of the machines slides. Feed rates should be programmed.

Figure 22.1 (a) Point-to-point system Figure 22.1 (b) Contouring system
 Figure 22.1 (c) Contouring systems
22.2 Based on the control loops ' Open loop & Closed loop systems

22.2.1 Open loop systems:

Programmed instructions are fed into the controller through an input device. These instructions are then
converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller and sent to the servo amplifier to energize the servo
motors. The primary drawback of the open-loop system is that there is no feedback system to check whether
the program position and velocity has been achieved. If the system performance is affected by load,
temperature, humidity, or lubrication then the actual output could deviate from the desired output. For these
reasons the open -loop system is generally used in point-to-point systems where the accuracy requirements
are not critical. Very few continuous-path systems utilize open-loop control.

Figure 22.2 (a) Open loop control system Figure 22.2 (b) Closed loop control system

Courtesy: http://jjjtrain.kanabco.com/vms/Media/glossary_o/cnc_opencloseloop.gif
Courtesy: http://jjjtrain.kanabco.com/vms/Media/glossary_o/cnc_opencloseloop.gif
 Figure 22.2 (c) Open loop system

22.2.1 Closed loop systems:

The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual output and correct any discrepancy
from the programmed input. These systems use position and velocity feed back. The feedback system could
be either analog or digital. The analog systems measure the variation of physical variables such as position
and velocity in terms of voltage levels. Digital systems monitor output variations by means of electrical
pulses. To control the dynamic behavior and the final position of the machine slides, a variety of position
transducers are employed. Majority of CNC systems operate on servo mechanism, a closed loop principle. If
a discrepancy is revealed between where the machine element should be and where it actually is, the sensing
device signals the driving unit to make an adjustment, bringing the movable component to the required
location.
Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate because they are capable of monitoring operating
conditions through feedback subsystems and automatically compensating for any variations in real-time.

(3 ) Based on the number of axes ' 2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC machines.

( 3.1) 2& 3 axes CNC machines:

CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines. There will be two axes along which motion takes place.
The saddle will be moving longitudinally on the bed (Z-axis) and the cross slide moves transversely on the
saddle (along X-axis). In 3-axes machines, there will be one more axis, perpendicular to the above two axes.
By the simultaneous control of all the 3 axes, complex surfaces can be machined.

( 3.2 ) 4 & 5 axes CNC machines:

4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis machining capabilities beyond the standard 3-axis CNC tool
path movements. A 5-axis milling centre includes the three X, Y, Z axes, the A axis which is rotary tilting of
the spindle and the B-axis, which can be a rotary index table.
 Figure 22.3 Five axes CNC machine

Importance of higher axes machining :

Reduced cycle time by machining complex components using a single setup. In addition to time savings,
improved accuracy can also be achieved as positioning errors between setups are eliminated.

 Improved surface finish and tool life by tilting the tool to maintain optimum tool to part contact all
the times.
 Improved access to under cuts and deep pockets. By tilting the tool, the tool can be made normal to
the work surface and the errors may be reduced as the major component of cutting force will be
along the tool axis.
 Higher axes machining has been widely used for machining sculptures surfaces in aerospace and
automobile industry.

(3.3) Turning centre:

Traditional centre lathes have horizontal beds. The saddle moves longitudinally and the cross slide moves
transversely. Although the tools can be clearly seen, the operator must lean over the tool post to position
them accurately. Concentration of chips may be creating a heat source and there may be temperature
gradients in the machine tool. Keeping the above points in view, developments in the structure of the
turning centres lead to the positioning the saddle and the cross slide behind the spindle on a slant bed as
shown in the figure 22.4. Chips fall freely because of slant bed configuration which is more ergonomically
acceptable from operator's point of view.
 Figure 22.4 Slant bed turning centre
22.4 Based on the power supply ' Electric, Hydraulic & Pneumatic systems

Mechanical power unit refers to a device which transforms some form of energy to mechanical power which
may be used for driving slides, saddles or gantries forming a part of machine tool. The input power may be
of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.

22.4.1 Electric systems:

Electric motors may be used for controlling both positioning and contouring machines. They may be either
a.c. or d.c. motor and the torque and direction of rotation need to be controlled. The speed of a d.c. motor
can be controlled by varying either the field or the armature supply. The clutch-controlled motor can either
be an a.c. or d.c. motor. They are generally used for small machine tools because of heat losses in the
clutches. Split field motors are the simplest form of motors and can be controlled in a manner according to
the machine tool. These are small and generally run at high maximum speeds and so require reduction gears
of high ratio. Separately excited motors are used with control systems for driving the slides of large machine
tools.
22.4.2 Hydraulic systems:

These hydraulic systems may be used with positioning and contouring machine tools of all sizes. These
systems may be either in the form of rams or motors. Hydraulic motors are smaller than electric motors of
equivalent power. There are several types of hydraulic motors. The advantage of using hydraulic motors is
that they can be very small and have considerable torque. This means that they may be incorporated in
servosystems which require having a rapid response.

Figure 22.2 (d) Closed loop system

( 1 ) Different components related to CNC machine tools

Any CNC machine tool essentially consists of the following parts:

( 1.1 ) Part program:

A part program is a series of coded instructions required to produce a part. It controls the movement of the
machine tool and on/off control of auxiliary functions such as spindle rotation and coolant. The coded
instructions are composed of letters, numbers and symbols.

( 1.2 ) Program input device:

The program input device is the means for part program to be entered into the CNC control. Three
commonly used program input devices are punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader, and computer via RS-
232-C communication.

( 1.3 ) Machine Control Unit:

The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC system. It is used to perform the following functions:

 To read the coded instructions.

 To decode the coded instructions.
 To implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to generate axis motion commands.
 To feed the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis mechanisms.
 To receive the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
  To implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and tool change.

( 1.4 ) Drive System:

A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors, and ball lead-screws. The MCU feeds the control
signals (position and speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits. The control signals are augmented to
actuate drive motors which in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to position the machine table.

( 1.5 ) Machine Tool:

CNC controls are used to control various types of machine tools. Regardless of which type of machine tool
is controlled, it always has a slide table and a spindle to control of position and speed. The machine table is
controlled in the X and Y axes, while the spindle runs along the Z axis.

( 1.6 ) Feed Back System:

The feedback system is also referred to as the measuring system. It uses position and speed transducers to
continuously monitor the position at which the cutting tool is located at any particular instant. The MCU
uses the difference between reference signals and feedback signals to generate the control signals for
correcting position and speed errors.

( 2 ) Machine axes designation

Machine axes are designated according to the "right-hand rule", When the thumb of right hand points in the
direction of the positive X axis, the index finger points toward the positive Y axis, and the middle finger
toward the positive Z axis. Figure 10 shows the right-hand rule applied to vertical machines, while Figure
23.1 applies to horizontal machines.

Figure 23.1: Right hand rule for vertical and horizontal machine

CNC SYSTEMS - ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

(1) Power units

In machine tools, power is generally required for

 For driving the main spindle

 For driving the saddles and carriages.
 For providing power for some ancillary units.

The motors used for CNC system are of two kinds

 Electrical - AC , DC or Stepper motors

 Fluid - Hydraulic or Pneumatic

Electric motors are by far the most common component to supply mechanical input to a linear motion system. Stepper motors and
servo motors are the popular choices in linear motion machinery due to their accuracy and controllability. They exhibit
favourable torque-speed characteristics and are relatively inexpensive.

(1.1) Stepper motors

Stepper motors convert digital pulse and direction signals into rotary motion and are easily controlled.
Although stepper motors can be used in combination with analog or digital feedback signals, they are usually
used without feedback (open loop). Stepper motors require motor driving voltage and control electronics.
The rotor of a typical hybrid stepper motor has two soft iron cups that surround a permanent magnet which is
axially magnetized. The rotor cups have 50 teeth on their surfaces and guide the flux through the rotor- stator
air gap. In most cases, the teeth of one set are offset from the teeth of the other by one-half tooth pitch for a
two phase stepper motor.

Figure 24.1 Unipolar and Bipolar Stepper Motor

The stator generally has the same number of teeth as the rotor, but can have two fewer depending upon the
motor's design. When the teeth on the stator pole are energized with North polarity, the corresponding teeth
on the rotor with South polarity align with them. Similarly, teeth on the stator pole energized with South
polarity attract corresponding teeth on the rotor that are energized with North polarity. By changing the
polarity of neighbouring stator teeth one after the other in a rotating sequence, the rotor begins to turn
correspondingly as its teeth try to align themselves with the stator teeth. The strength of the magnetic fields
can be precisely controlled by the amount of current through the windings, thus the position of the rotor can
be precisely controlled by these attractive and repulsive forces.
There are many advantages to using stepper motors. Since maximum dynamic torque occurs at low pulse
rates (low speeds), stepper motors can easily accelerate a load. Stepper motors have large holding torque and
stiffness, so there is usually no need for clutches and brakes (unless a large external load is acting, such as
gravity). Stepper motors are inherently digital. The number of pulses determines position while the pulse
frequency determines velocity. Additional advantages are that they are inexpensive, easily and accurately
controlled, and there are no brushes to maintain. Also, they offer excellent heat dissipation, and they are very
stiff motors with high holding torques for their size. The digital nature of stepper motors also eliminates
tuning parameters.

There are disadvantages associated with stepper motors. One of the largest disadvantages is that the torque
decreases as velocity is increased. Because most stepper motors operate open loop with no position sensing
devices, the motor can stall or lose position if the load torque exceeds the motor's available torque. Open
loop stepper motor systems should not be used for high-performance or high-load applications, unless they
are significantly derated. Another drawback is that damping may be required when load inertia is very high
to prevent motor shaft oscillation at resonance points. Finally, stepper motors may perform poorly in high-
speed applications. The maximum steps/sec rate of the motor and drive system should be considered,
carefully.

( 1.2) Servo Motors

Servo motors are more robust than stepper motors, but pose a more difficult control problem. They are
primarily used in applications where speed, power, noise level as well as velocity and positional accuracy are
important. Servo motors are not functional without sensor feedback. They are designed and intended to be
applied in combination with resolvers, tachometers, or encoders (closed loop). There are several types of
servo motors, and three of the more common types are described as follows. The DC brush type servo
motors are most commonly found in low-end to mid-range CNC machinery. The "brush" refers to brushes
that pass electric current to the rotor of the rotating core of the motor. The construction consists of a magnet
stator outside and a coil rotor inside. A brush DC motor has more than one coil. Each coil is angularly
displaced from one another so when the torque from one coil has dropped off, current is automatically
switched to another coil which is properly located to produce maximum torque. The switching is
accomplished mechanically by the brushes and a commutator as shown below.

There are distinct advantages to using DC brush servo motors. They are very inexpensive to apply. The
motor commutates itself with the brushes and it appears as a simple, two-terminal device that is easily
controlled. Among the disadvantages it is the fact that they are thermally inefficient, because the heat must
dissipate through the external magnets. This condition reduces the torque to volume ratio, and the motor
performance may suffer inefficiencies. Also, the brushed motor will require maintenance, as the brushes will
wear and need replacement. Brushed servo motors are usually operated under 5000 rpm.

The DC brushless type offers a higher level of performance. They are often referred to as "inside out" DC
motors because of their design. The windings of a brushless motor are located in the outer portion of the
motor (stator), and the rotor is constructed from permanent magnets as shown below. DC brushless motors
are typically applied to high-end CNC machinery, but the future may see midrange machinery use brushless
technology due to the narrowing cost gap.

AC servo motors are another variety that offers high-end performance. Their physical construction is
similar to that of the brushless DC motor; however, there are no magnets in the AC motor. Instead, both the
rotor and stator are constructed from coils. Again, there are no brushes or contacts anywhere in the motor
which means they are maintenance-free. They are capable of delivering very high torque at very high speeds;
they are very light and there is no possibility of demagnetization.

.However, due to the electronic commutation, they are extremely complex and expensive to control. Perhaps
the largest advantage of using servo motors is that they are used in closed loop form, which allows for very
accurate position information and also allows for high output torque to be realized at high speeds. The motor
will draw the required current to maintain the desired path, velocity, or torque, and is controlled according to
the requirements of the application rather than by the limitations of the motor. Servo motors put out
enormous peak torque at or near stall conditions. They provide smooth, quiet operation, and depending upon
the resolution of the feedback mechanism, can have very small resolutions. Among the disadvantages of
servo motors are the increased cost, the added feedback component, and the increased control complexity.
The closed loop feature can be a disadvantage for the case when there is a physical obstacle blocking the
path of motion. Rather than stalling, the servo motor will continue to draw current to overcome the obstacle.
As a result, the system hardware, control electronics, signal amplifier and motor may become damaged
unless safety precautions are taken.

( 2 ) Encoders

An encoder is a device used to change a signal or data into a code. These encoders are used in metrology
instruments and high precision machining tools ranging from digital calipers to CNC machine tools.

( 2.1) Incremental encoders

With incremental linear encoders, the current position is determined by stating a datum and counting
measuring steps. The output signals of incremental rotary encoders are evaluated by an electronic counter in
which the measured value is determined by counting "increments". These encoders form the majority of all
rotary encoders. Incremental rotary encoders with integral couplings used for length measurement are also in
the market.

The resolution of these encoders can be increased by means of electronic interpolation. There are, of course,
the precision rotary encoders specifically designed for angle measurement. If finer resolution is required,
standard rotary encoders often utilize electronic signal interpolation. Rotary encoders for applications in
dividing heads and rotary tables, with very small measuring steps (down to 0.36 arc second) have in
principle the same basic design features as standard rotary encoders, but incorporate some overall varying
construction.

Figure 24.2 Rotary encoders

( 2.2 ) Absolute encoders

Absolute linear encoders require no previous transfer to provide the current position value. Absolute rotary
encoders provide an angular position value which is derived from the pattern of the coded disc. The code
signal is processed within a computer or in a numerical control. After system switch-on, such as following a
power interruption, the position value is immediately available. Since these encoder types require more
sophisticated optics and electronics than incremental versions, a higher price is normally to be expected.
Apart from these two codes, a range of other codes have been employed, though they are losing their
significance since modern computer programs usually are based on the binary system for reasons of high
speed. There are many versions of absolute encoders available today, such as single-turn or multi-stage
versions to name only two, and each must be evaluated based on its intended application.

( 2.3 ) Rotary and Linear encoders

A linear encoder is a sensor, transducer paired with a scale that encodes position. The sensor reads the scale
in order to convert the encoded position by a digital readout (DRO). Linear encoder technologies include
capacitive, inductive, eddy current, magnetic and optical.

A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device used to convert the angular
position of a shaft to a digital code, making it a sort of a transducer.
Rotary encoders serve as measuring sensors for rotary motion, and for linear motion when used in
conjunction with mechanical measuring standards such as lead screws. There are two main types: absolute
and relative rotary encoders. Incremental rotary encoder uses a disc attached to a shaft. The disc has several
radial lines. An optical switch, such as a photodiode, generates an electric pulse whenever one of the lines
passes through its field of view. An electronic control circuit counts the pulses to determine the angle
through which the shaft has turned.

As the present trend of machine tools evolves toward increasingly higher accuracy and resolution, increased
reliability and speeds, and more efficient working ranges, so too must feedback systems. Currently, linear
feedback systems are available that will achieve resolutions in the submicron range.

Figure 24.3: Exposed and sealed linear encoders

Submicron resolutions, for example, are required in the semiconductor industry and in ultra-precision
machining. Achieving these resolutions is possible with the use of linear scales which transmit displacement
information directly to a digital readout. As in rotary, linear scales operate on the same photoelectric
scanning principle, but the linear scales are comprised in an overall straight construction, and their output
signals are interpolated or digitized differently in a direct manner. One of these signals is always used by the
accompanying digital readout or numerical control to determine and establish home position on the linear
machine axis in case of a power interruption or for workpiece referencing. Overall, there are two physical
versions of a linear scale: exposed or enclosed as shown in the figure 24.3. With an enclosed or "sealed"
scale, the scanning unit is mounted on a small carriage guided by ball bearings along the glass scale; the
carriage is connected to the machine slide by a backlash-free coupling that compensates for alignment errors
between the scale and the machine tool guide ways.

A set of sealing lips protects the scale from contamination. The typical applications for the enclosed linear
encoders are primarily machine tools. Exposed linear encoders also consist of a glass scale and scanning
unit, but the two components are physically separated. The typical advantages of the non-contact system are
easier mounting and higher traversing speeds since no contact or friction between the scanning unit and scale
exists. Exposed linear scales can be found in coordinate measuring machines, translation stages, and material
handling equipment.

Another version of the scale and scanning unit arrangement is one that uses a metal base rather than glass for
the scale. With a metal scale, the line grating is a deposit of highly reflective material such as gold that
reflects light back to the scanning unit onto the photovoltaic cells. The advantage of this type of scale is that
it can be manufactured in extremely great lengths, up to 30 meters, for larger machines. Glass scales are
limited in length, typically three meters. There are several mechanical considerations that need to be
understood when discussing linear encoders. It is not a simple matter to select an encoder based just on
length or dimensional profile and install the encoder onto a machine. These characteristic considerations
include permissible traversing speeds, accuracy and resolution requirements, thermal behaviour and
mounting guidelines.

Figure 24.4: Principle of rotary and linear encoders

( 3 ) CNC Controller

There are two types of CNC controllers, namely closed loop and open loop controllers. These have been
discussed in details in section 22.2.

( 3.1 ) Controller Architecture:

Most of the CNC machine tools were built around proprietary architecture and could not be changed or
updated without an expensive company upgrade. This method of protecting their market share worked well
for many years when the control technology enjoyed a four-to-five year life cycle. Now a day the controller
life cycle is only eight-to-twelve months. So CNC manufacturers are forced to find better and less expensive
ways of upgrading their controllers.

Open architecture is the less costly than the alternatives. GE Fanuc and other manufacturers introduced
control architecture with PC connectivity to allow users to take advantage of the new information
technologies that were slowly gaining acceptance on the shop floor. They created an open platform that
could easily communicate with other devices over commercially available MS Windows operating system,
while maintaining the performance and reliability of the CNC machine tool.

CNC SYSTEMS - MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

The drive units of the carriages in NC machine tools are generally the screw & the nut mechanism. There
are different types of screws and nuts used on NC machine tools which provide low wear, higher
efficiency, low friction and better reliability.

(1) Recirculating ball screw

The recirculating ball screw assembly shown in figure 25.1 has the flanged nut attached to the moving
chamber and the screw to the fixed casting. Thus the moving member will move during rotational
movement of the screw. These recirculating ball screw designs can have ball gages of internal or external
return, but all of them are based upon the "Ogival" or "Gothic arc".
In these types of screws, balls rotate between the screw and nut and convert the sliding friction (as in
conventional nut & screw) to the rolling friction. As a consequence wear will be reduced and reliability of
the system will be increased. The traditional ACME thread used in conventional machine tool has
efficiency ranging from 20% to 30% whereas the efficiency of ball screws may reach up to 90%.

Figure 25.1: Recirculating ball screw assembly

Figure 25.2: Preloaded recirculating ball screw

There are two types of ball screws. In the first type, balls are returned through an external tube after few
threads. In another type, the balls are returned to the start through a channel inside the nut after only one
thread. To make the carriage movement bidirectional, backlash between the screw and nut should be
minimum. One of the methods to achieve zero backlash is by fitting two nuts. The nuts are preloaded by an
amount which exceeds the maximum operating load. These nuts are either forced apart or squeezed
together, so that the balls in one of the nuts contact the opposite side of the threads.

These ball screws have the problem that minimum diameter of the ball (60 to 70% of the lead screw) must
be used, limiting the rate of movement of the screw.

(2) Roller screw

Figure 25.3: Roller screw

These types of screws provide backlash-free movement and their efficiency is same as that of ball screws.
These are capable of providing more accurate position control. Cost of the roller screws are more compared
to ball screws. The thread form is triangular with an included angle of 90 degrees. There are two types of
roller screws: planetary and recirculating screws.

Planetary roller screws:

Planetary roller screws are shown in figure 25.3. The rollers are threaded with a single start thread. Teeth
are cut at the ends of the roller, which meshes with the internal tooth cut inside the nut. The rollers are
equally spaced around and are retained in their positions by spigots or spacer rings. There is no axial
movement of the rollers relative to the nut and they are capable of transmitting high load at fast speed.

Recirculating roller screws:

The rollers in this case are not threaded and are provided with a circular groove and are positioned
circumferentially by a cage. There is some axial movement of the rollers relative to the nut. Each roller
moves by a distance equal to the pitch of the screw for each rotation of the screw or nut and moves into an
axial recess cut inside the nut and disengage from the threads on the screw and the nut and the other roller
provides the driving power. Rollers in the recess are moved back by an edge cam in the nut. Recirculating
roller screws are slower in operation, but are capable of transmitting high loads with greater accuracy.

(1) Tool changing arrangements

There are two types of tool changing arrangements: manual and automatic. Machining centres incorporate
automatic tool changer (ATC). It is the automatic tool changing capability that distinguishes CNC
machining centres from CNC milling machines.

(1.1) Manual tool changing arrangement:

Tool changing time belongs to non-productive time. So, it should be kept as minimum as possible. Also the
tool must be located rigidly and accurately in the spindle to assure proper machining and should maintain
the same relation with the work piece each time. This is known as the repeatability of the tool. CNC milling
machines have some type of quick tool changing systems, which generally comprises of a quick release
chuck. The chuck is a different tool holding mechanism that will be inside the spindle and is operated either
hydraulically or pneumatically. The tool holder which fits into the chuck can be released by pressing a
button which releases the hydraulically operated chuck. The advantage of manual tool changing is that each
tool can be checked manually before loading the tools and there will be no limitation on the number of
tools from which selection can be made.

(1.2) Automatic tool changing arrangement

Tooling used with an automatic tool changer should be easy to center in the spindle, each for the tool
changer to grab the tool holder and the tool changer should safely disengage the tool holder after it is
secured properly. Figure 27.1 shows a tool holder used with ATC. The tool changer grips the tool at point
A and places it in a position aligned with the spindle. The tool changer will then insert the tool holder into
the spindle. A split bushing in the spindle will enclose the portion B. Tool changer releases the tool holder.
Tool holder is drawn inside the spindle and is tightened.
 Figure 27.1: Tool holder

( 2) Tool turrets

An advantage of using tool turrets is that the time taken for tool changing will be only the time taken for
indexing the turret. Only limited number of tools can be held in the turret. Tool turrets shown in figure 27.2
a, b & c are generally used in lathes. The entire turret can be removed from the machine for setting up of
tools.

Figure 27.2(a): Six station tool turret Figure 27.2(b): Eight station tool turret Figure 27.2(c): Twelve station tool turret

( 3 ) Tool magazines

Tool magazines are generally found on drilling and milling machines. When compared to tool turrets, tool
magazines can hold more number of tools and also more problems regarding the tool management.
Duplication of the tools is possible and a new tool of same type may be selected when ever a particular tool
has been worn off. Though a larger tool magazine can accommodate more number of tools, but the power
required to move the tool magazine will be more. Hence, a magazine with optimum number of tool holders
must be used. The following types of tool magazines exist: circular, chain and box type.

( 3.1 ) Chain magazine:

These magazines can hold large number of tools and may hold even up to 100 tools. Figures 27.3 a & b
show chain magazines holding 80 and 120 tools respectively. In these chain magazines, tools will be
identified either by their location in the tool holder or by means of some coding on the tool holder. In the
former it is followed for identifying the tool and then the tool must be exactly placed in its location. The
positioning of the magazine for the next tool transfer will take place during the machining operation.

Figure 27.3 (a) 80-tool chain magazine Figure 27.3 (b) 120-tool chain magazine

( 3.2) Circular magazine:

Circular magazines shown in figure 27.4 will be similar to tool turrets, but in the former the tools will be
transferred from the magazine to the spindle nose. Generally these will be holding about 30 tools. The
identification of the tool will be made either by its location in the tool magazine or by means of some code
on the tool holder. The most common type of circular magazine is known as carousel, which is similar to a
flat disc holding one row of tools around the periphery. Geneva mechanism is used for changing the tools.

Figuure 27.4: Circular magazine

( 3.3 ) Box magazine:

In these magazines, the tools are stored in open ended compartments. The tool holder must be removed
from the spindle before loading the new tool holder. Also the spindle should move to the tool storage
location rather than the tool to the spindle. Hence, more time will be consumed in tool changing. Box
magazines are of limited use as compared to circular and chain type of tool magazines.
( 4 ) Automatic tool changers :

Whenever controller encounters a tool change code, a signal will be sent to the control unit so that the
appropriate tool holder in the magazine comes to the transfer position. The tool holder will then be
transferred from the tool magazine to the spindle nose. This can be done by various mechanisms. One such
mechanism is a rotating arm mechanism.

Rotating arm mechanism:

Movement of the tool magazine to place the appropriate tool in the transfer position will take place during
the machining operation. The rotating arms with grippers at both the ends rotate to grip the tool holders in
the magazine and the spindle simultaneously. Then the tool holder clamping mechanism will be released
and the arm moves axially to remove the tool holder from the spindle. Then the arm will be rotated through
180 degrees and the arm will then move axially inwards to place the new tool holder into the spindle and
will clamped. Now the new tool holder is placed in the spindle and the other in the magazine. Figure 27.5
and 27.6 show various stages during tool change with a rotating arm mechanism.

Figure 27.5: Rotating arm mechanism

Figure 27.6: Rotating arm mechanism