4.

2 Cayley’s †
Theorem
Cayley’s Theorem ! Week 8

At the opening of Section 3.5, we stated that permutation groups can serve as models for
Remark.
★
all groups. A more precise statement is that every group is isomorphic to a group of per-
mutations; this is the reason for the fundamental importance of permutation groups in
★
algebra.
★

rem 4.7 ■ Cayley’s

Theorem 4.7 Theorem

Every group is isomorphic

isomorphic to
to aagroup
groupof
ofpermutations.
permutations.

p⇒q Proof Let G be a given group. The permutations that we use in the proof will be map-
pings defined on the set of all elements in G.
For each element a in G, we define a mapping fa: G S G by
fa(x) 5 ax for all x in G.
That is, the image of each x in G is obtained by multiplying x on the left by a. Now fa is
one-to-one since
fa(x) 5 fa(y) ⇒ ax 5 ay
⇒ x 5 y.
To see that fa is onto, let b be arbitrary in G. Then x 5 a21b is in G, and for this particular
x we have
fa(x) 5 ax
5 a(a21b) 5 b.
Thus fa is a permutation on the set of elements of G.
We shall show that the set
Gr 5 5 fa 0 a [ G 6
actually forms a group of permutations. Since mapping composition is always associative,
we need only show that Gr is closed, has an identity, and contains inverses.
For any fa and fb in Gr, we have
fa fb(x) 5 fa( fb(x)) 5 fa(bx) 5 a(bx) 5 (ab)(x) 5 fab(x)
for all x in G. Thus fa fb 5 fab , and Gr is closed. Since
fe(x) 5 ex 5 x
for all x in G, fe is the identity permutation, fe 5 IG. Using the result fa fb 5 fab , we have
fa fa21 5 faa21 5 fe

†
A biographical sketch of Author Cayley (1821–1895) is given at the end of Chapter 1.

1
 and
Chapter
Chapter 44 More
More on
on Groups
Groups
Cayley’s Theorem !
fa21 fa 5 fa21a 5 fe. Week 8
21
Thus ( fa) 5 fa 21 is in Gr, and Gr is a group of permutations.
and
and All that remains is to show that G is isomorphic to Gr. The mapping f: G S Gr
defined by ffaa21
21 f 5 ffaa21
faa 5 21a 5 f.
a 5 fee.
21
Thus
Thus (( ffaa))21 5
5 ffaa2121 is
is in Gr,, and
in Gr Gr is
and Gr is aa group
f(a)of
group of5permutations.
fa
permutations.
All
All that
that remains
remains is
is to
to show
show that
that GG is
is isomorphic
isomorphic to The mapping
Gr. The
to Gr. mapping f: GS
f: G S Gr
Gr
is clearly onto. It is one-to-one since
defined
defined by by
f(a) 5 f(b) ⇒ fa 5 fb
f(a) 5 ffaa
f(a) 5
⇒ fa(x) 5 fb(x) for all x [ G
is
is clearly
clearly onto.
onto. It
It isis one-to-one
one-to-one since
since⇒ ax 5 bx for all x [ G
f(a)
f(a) 5 f(b) ⇒
5 f(b) ⇒ ffaaa 5 ffbb
5 b.
⇒ f (x) 5 f (x) for all x [ G
Finally, f is an isomorphism since ⇒ faa(x) 5 fbb(x) for all x [ G
⇒
⇒ ax
ax 5 5 bxbx for
for all
all xx [
[GG
f(a)f(b) 5 fa fb 5 fab 5 f(ab)
⇒
⇒ aa 5 5 b.
b.
for all a, b in G.
Finally, f is an isomorphism since

Note that the group Gr 5f(a)f(b) G}faaisfbba5

{fa 0 a [ 5 fab 5 f(ab)
subgroup
ab of the group S(G) of all permuta-
tions
for allon G. Gr 2 S(G) in most cases.
b inand
a, G,

Example
Note that1theWe
group 5 {faa 0 athe
Gr follow
shall G} is aofsubgroup
[ proof Cayley’sofTheorem S(G)the
the groupwith group
of all G5
permuta-
tions
{1, i, on
21,G,2i} 2 S(G)
andtoGrobtain in most
a group cases.
of permutations Gr that is isomorphic to G and an isomor-
phism from G to Gr.
With fa: G S G defined by fa(x) 5 ax for each a [ G, we obtain the following permu-
Example 1 We shall follow the proof of Cayley’s Theorem with the group G 5
tations on the set of elements of G:
{1, i, 21, 2i} to obtain a group of permutations Gr that is isomorphic to G and an isomor-
phism from G to Gr. f1(1) 5 1 fi(1) 5 i
With faa: G S G defined by f (x)
f1(i)a 5 i 5 ax for each a f[ G, we obtain the following permu-
i (i) 5 21
a
f :
tations on the set of elements
1 d of GG:: 5 21 f i : d
f1(21) fi(21) 5 2i
f11(1)
(2i)551 2i fii(1)
(2i)55i 1
f (i) 5 i f (i) 5 21
f11: d f1121(1) 5 21 fii : d fii2i(1) 5 2i
ff11(21) 5 21 ffii(21) 5 2i
21 (i) 5 2i 2i (i) 5 1
f21: d f1(2i) 5 2i f2i : d fi(2i) 5 1
f1 (21) 5 1
21 2i fi (21) 5 i
f21 (1) 5 21
21 (2i) 5 i
f2i (1) 5 2i
2i (2i) 5 21.
f21 (i) 5 2i f2i(i) 5 1
In a more compact form,
f21 :we
d write
21
f2i : d 2i
21
f21
21
(21) 5 1 2i
f2i
2i
(21) 5 i
f1 5 (1) f (2i) 5 i (1, i, 21, 2i)
fif 5(2i)
21
21 2i
2i 5 21.
f21 5 (1, 21)(i, 2i) f2i 5 (1, 2i, 21, i).
In a more compact form, we write
According to the proof of Cayley’s Theorem, the set
f11 5 (1) fii 5 (1, i, 21, 2i)
Gr 5 5 f1, fi, f21, f2i6
f21
21
5 (1, 21)(i, 2i) f2i
2i
5 (1, 2i, 21, i).
According to the proof of Cayley’s Theorem, the set
Gr 5 5 f11, fii, f21, f2i6
21 2i

2
 4.2 Cayley’s Theorem 207
Cayley’s Theorem ! Week 8

is a group of permutations, and the mapping f: G S Gr defined by

f(1) 5 f1
f(i) 5 fi
f: d
f(21) 5 f21
f(2i) 5 f2i

is an isomorphism from G to Gr. ■

Example. Write out the elements of a group of permutations that is isomorphic to G , and
Exercises 4.2
exhibit an isomorphism from G to this group.

TrueG orbeFalse
Let the additive group  3 .
Label the following statement as either true or false.
Solution.
1. Every finite group G of order n is isomorphic to a subgroup of order n of the group
S(G) of all permutations on G.

Exercises
In Exercises 1–7, let G be the given group. Write out the elements of a group of permuta-
tions that is isomorphic to G, and exhibit an isomorphism from G to this group.
1. Let G be the additive group Z3.
2. Let G be the cyclic group HaI of order 5.
3.5, #10 @ 3. Let G be the Klein four group {e, a, b, ab} with its multiplication table given in Fig-
ure 4.2.

. e a b ab
e e a b ab
a a e ab b
b b ab e a
ab ab b a e
■ Figure 4.2

4. Let G be the multiplicative group of units U5 5 5 314, 324, 334, 344 6 8 Z5.
5. Let G be the multiplicative group 5 324, 344, 364, 384 6 8 Z10.
3.1, #29 @ 6. Let G be the group of permutations matrices {I3, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5} as given in
Exercise 29 of Section 3.1.
7. Let G be the octic group 5e, a, a2, a3, b, g, D, u6.

3
Cayley’s Theorem ! Week 8

 is an isomorphism.
HW. Show that φ :G → G