The sampling

techniques
• Probabilistic samples

– Simple random sampling

– Systematic sampling
– Stratified sampling
– Cluster sampling
– Other sampling techniques

• Nonprobabilistic samples

– Convenience sampling
– Judgmental sampling
– Quota sampling
– Snowball sampling
 Simple random
sampling
• Each element of the population has a
known and equal probability of selection
• Every element is selected independently
from other elements
• The probability of selecting a given sample
of n elements is computable (known)

Advantages
– Statistical inference is possible
– It is easily understood

Disadvantages
– Representative samples are large and expensive
– Standard errors are larger than in other
probabilistic sampling techniques
– Sometimes it is difficult to execute a really
random sampling
 Systematic sampling
• A list of N elements in the population is
compiled, ordered according to a specified
variable
– Unrelated to the target variable
– Related to the target variable (increased
representativeness)

Advantages
– Cheaper and easier than SRS
– More representative if order is related to the
interest variable (monotone)
– Sampling frame not always necessary

Disadvantages
– Less representative (biased) if the order is
cyclical
 Stratified sampling
 A two-step process in which the population is
partitioned into subpopulations, or strata.
 The strata should be mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive in that every population
element should be assigned to one and only one
stratum and no population elements should be
omitted.
 Next, elements are selected from each stratum
by a random procedure, usually SRS.
 A major objective of stratified sampling is to
increase precision without increasing cost.

 The elements within a stratum should be as

homogeneous as possible, but the elements in
different strata should be as heterogeneous as
possible.
 The stratification variables should also be closely
related to the characteristic of interest.
 Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of
the stratification process by being easy to
measure and apply.

WORDING
1. Define the issue
2. Use ordinary words
3. Avoid ambiguous words (no “usually”, “a bit”…)
4. Avoid leading questions (suggesting the answer)
5. Avoid implicit alternatives (do you like to drive?)
6. Avoid implicit assumptions (are you in favour of
multiple choice tests? […if this reduces the likelihood
of top marks?]
7. Avoid generalisation and estimates (how much do
you spend in food every year?)
8. Use positive and negative statements (advisable to
use dual statements for different respondents; e.g. Is
this cheese soft? Is this cheese hard?)

ORDER OF QUESTIONS
• Use good opening questions
• Ask first basic information (target variables)
• Ask classification and identification questions at
the end
• Place difficult and sensitive question towards
the end
• General questions should precede specific
questions
• Follow a logical order (flow chart)

FORM AND LAYOUT

• Check position of questions in the page
• No use of different colours (little effect, more
complicated)
• Divide questionnaire into parts
• Number questions
• Number questionnaires (but risk of loss of
anonimity)

Reproduction of the questionnaire

Pretesting
• Test preliminary the questionnaire on a small
number of respondents, considering all previous
issues. Any questionnaire can be improved.
• Better by personal interview (regardless of the actual
survey method, a second pretesting may be carried
out for some methods)
• Use a variety of interviewers for personal interviews
• Respondent is asked “to think aloud”
• Debriefing (go through the questionnaire with the
respondent after he has finished to compile it)