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Recycling of PVC and Mixed Plastics Wastes by F. P. La Mantia
Recycling of PVC and Mixed Plastics Wastes by F. P. La Mantia
Recycling of PVC and Mixed Plastics Wastes by F. P. La Mantia
Recycling of PVC
and
Mixed Plastic Waste
0CP
ChemTec Publishing
Copyright © 1996 by ChemTec Publishing
ISBN 1-895198-11-9
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Recycling of PVC: Effect of the Processing Operation 1
Gerald Scott
1 Polymers in Waste Management 1
1.1 Photo-biodegradation of Plastics Litter 2
1.2 Composting of Plastics in Mixed Household and Garden Waste 2
1.3 Materials Recycling of Segregated, Clean Industrial Waste 3
1.4 Chemical Recovery from Mixed Plastics Waste 3
1.5 Incineration with Heat Recovery 4
1.6 Sanitary Landfill 4
2 Polymer Processing: A Damaging Operation 4
3 Mechanodegradation of PVC 5
4 The Effects of Plasticisers, Impact Modifyers and “Compatibilisers”
on PVC Performance 7
4.1 Plasticisers 7
4.2 Impact Modifiers 8
4.3. “Compatibiliser” (Solid Phase Dispersants) 9
5 Stabilisation of PVC 10
5.1 HCl Scavenging 10
5.2 Removal of Conjugated Unsaturation 11
5.3 Removal of Monoenic Unsaturation 11
5.4 Hydroperoxide Decomposition 13
5.5 Chain-breaking Antioxidants 13
5.6 Reagents for Allylic Chlorine 14
6 Antagonism and Synergism 15
7 Antioxidant-modification of Polymers During Processing 16
8 Conclusions 18
Acknowledgment 19
References 19
Mechanical Properties 97
PVC Determination 97
Results and Discussion 98
Effect of Stabilizers and Lubricants 98
Fillers 102
Modifying Agents 105
Compatibilizers 107
Comparison Between Different Systems 109
Conclusions 114
Acknowledgment 116
References 116
6 Conclusions 163
References 163
Recycling of PVC:
Effect of the Processing Operation
Gerald Scott
Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK
PVC presents particular difficulties in disposal due to the potential environmental hazards associated
with the chlorine content of the polymer. In principle materials recycling provides an ecologically ac-
ceptable way of re-utilising the energy content of the polymer but the processing operation is damag-
ing to the durability of recycled artifacts unless the provenance of the waste is known.
The principles involved in the protection of PVC against the mechanochemical damage that occurs
during processing are discussed for both rigid PVC and its modified forms. The importance of knowing
the previous history of PVC waste is emphasised, with particular reference to the stabilisers used. It is
suggested that the most effective method of recycling PVC is in a “closed loop”, so that the previous his-
tory and particularly the stabiliser formulation of the recovered polymer is known.
2
not as a waste but as a resource. In this case, closed loop recycling to the original
3
application with additional stabilisers is a realistic possibility.
1.1 PHOTO-BIODEGRADATION OF PLASTICS LITTER
The cost and energy usage in the collection and disposal of plastics which appear
as litter is unacceptable. Much of this arises from agriculture in the form of
mulching film, binder twine and increasingly irrigation tubing, silage bags, and
fertiliser packaging. Non-degradable plastics in agricultural land have an ad-
verse affect on the fertility of the soil and on the economics of automated agricul-
4
ture. Controlled photo-biodegradability is the only viable solution to this kind
of waste which is almost always heavily contaminated and thus unsuitable for
recycling even if it could be economically collected and segregated. By the same
token, the only way to reduce plastics packaging litter in the sea and on the
5
seashore is to ensure that it photodegrades and/or biodegrades rapidly. Some
polymers, notably those containing chlorine, present problems in
photo-biodegradation due to the potentially dangerous nature of the ultimate
low molecular weight degradation products, almost certainly containing chlo-
rine, that may be released into the environment. It has to be said, then that PVC
would not be the first choice for agricultural applications and this must be taken
into consideration at the materials design stage.
1.2 COMPOSTING OF PLASTICS IN MIXED HOUSEHOLD AND GARDEN WASTE
Clean, segregated plastics arising from industrial operations (including the ulti-
mate disposal of motor car components) should be recycled in a closed loop sys-
3
tem into the primary application. Some packaging, notably film wrap, that can
be easily collected in bulk from industrial waste may be economically resourced
8
in the same way. Clean PVC waste can be effectively reprocessed in this way
provided the nature of the plasticiser/stabiliser formulation is known. This will
be discussed in detail in the following sections.
Mixed plastics packaging is best dealt with in one of the following ways.
1.4 CHEMICAL RECOVERY FROM MIXED PLASTICS WASTE
Many plastics have a higher calorific value than coal and in principle it would
seem logical to use waste plastics instead of fossil fuels. However, in Europe (al-
though not in Japan) public opinion is turning away from burning waste be-
cause of the perceived (although not necessarily real) dangers of toxic effluent.
PVC and the other chlorinated polymers present a particular problem in incin-
eration because of the massive evolution of hydrogen chloride. Nevertheless, it
can be readily accommodated in many modern incinerators by the use of calcium
oxide to absorb the hydrogen chloride if PVC is only a minor component of the
plastic waste. However, incineration is not seen by the public to be a safe process
in urban environments and as PVC is considered to be a major source of toxic ef-
fluent, PVC-containing wastes should be directed into recycling or landfill.
1.6 SANITARY LANDFILL
recycling since the chemical defects introduced during the first processing oper-
ation and during subsequent use sensitise the polymer to further degrada-
8,12,13
tion. Stabilising systems have been developed to minimise degradative ef-
fects during the first processing operation (processing stabilisers) and during
use (heat and light stabilisers). Multicomponent stabiliser “package” are formu-
lated not only for individual polymers and their blends but more particularly for
specific applications. The constituent chemicals of most commercial antioxi-
dant/stabiliser packages are generally not disclosed and are almost always em-
pirical in origin.
However, the mechanochemistry involved in polymer processing is now
well understood and this provides a rational basis for design of antioxidants and
2
stabilisers for products which are to be recycled.
3 MECHANODEGRADATION OF PVC
Repeated recycling through the manufacturing process and exposure to the en-
vironment inflicts incremental chemical damage on the macromolecular struc-
ture of polymers and reduces the durability of fabricated products. Screw
extrusion involves the mechanical scission of the polymer chain in its viscous en-
vironment in the polymer melt. This produces highly reactive macroradicals at
the ends of the chain which, in the presence of the small amounts of oxygen dis-
solved in the polymer, cannot recombine but form peroxyl radicals and
11-18
hydroperoxides. This process, which is common to all polymers, is illustrated
16-18
for PVC in Scheme 1, reactions (a) and (b). However, in this case, other reac-
tions occur in addition to oxidation, of which the most important is loss of hydro-
gen chloride (Scheme 1, reactions (c) and (d)) to give unsaturation. This is the
major cause of discolouration in PVC due to “unzipping” of hydrogen chloride
from the polymer backbone. (Scheme 1). The two major products of
mechanodegradation, namely HCl and hydroperoxides (ROOH) react together
in a redox reaction (reaction 1) to give new and highly reactive oxygen radicals
and chlorine atoms which in turn attack the polymer chain to initiate further
elimination of HCI or initiate further oxidation in the PVC backbone (see
18
Scheme 2).
. .
PO2H + HCl → PO + H2O + Cl [1]
6 Recycling of PVC: effect of the processing operation
Alkoxyl radicals and chlorine atoms are highly reactive in hydrogen ab-
.
straction leading to the formation of macroalkyl radicals (P ), which in turn react
with almost zero activation energy with ground state oxygen which is itself a
diradical (reaction 2);
G. Scott 7
Figure 1. Relation between the initial rate of photooxidation of PVC and the concentration of func-
tional groups after processing. (Reproduced with permission from Developments in Polymer Sta-
bilisation-2, Ed. G. Scott, App. Sci. Pub. p. 61, 1980.)
. .
P + O2→ PO .2 → P + PO2H [2]
18
Photooxidation of PVC is initiated primarily by hydroperoxides. There is
a direct relationship between the hydroperoxide content of PVC after processing
and its rate of photooxidation as measured by carbonyl formation (see Figure 1).
Photolysis of in-chain hydroperoxides leads to rapid reduction in molecular
weight, with associated impairment of mechanical properties, notably elonga-
tion at break and impact resistance.
4 THE EFFECTS OF PLASTICISERS, IMPACT MODIFYERS
AND “COMPATIBILISERS” ON PVC PERFORMANCE
Modifying agents are added to PVC, sometimes in appreciable quantities in or-
der to improve performance in specific applications. Many of these have an ad-
verse effect on the stability of the polymer both during processing and on its
durability during subsequent exposure to the environment.
4.1 PLASTICISERS
Plasticisers have been used for very many years in order to reduce the glass
transition temperature of the polymer and give it rubbery properties at normal
8 Recycling of PVC: effect of the processing operation
19
temperatures. Plasticisers may have both positive and negative effects on PVC
during the processing operation. The advantage is that the temperature of the
processing operation may be substantially less than in the case of rigid PVC.
The disadvantage is that many plasticisers are readily oxidisable materials
forming hydroperoxides, which, as discussed in Section 3 lead to further oxida-
tion of the polymer substrate and reduction of mechanical properties. This is
particularly true when plasticised PVC is exposed to light and in this context,
the branched chain alkyl phthalate and phosphate esters are much more readily
19,20
photooxidised than the straight chain or aromatic esters. The use of conven-
tional chain-breaking antioxidant (e.g. hindered and semi-hindered phenols)
are essential for the protection of plasticisers from oxidation during mixing and
calendering processes. These operations are particularly damaging to the poly-
mer since the latter is readily accessible to oxygen of the atmosphere at the rela-
tively high temperatures involved. Recycling of plasticised PVC must therefore
be undertaken with considerable circumspection. It is not enough to simply add
new antioxidants and/or stabilisers to collected PVC waste. It is necessary to
know whether the mechanical properties and durability have been impaired
during first use. If they have it must be concluded that the stabilisation system
has been depleted or was not adequate in the first place. The cost involved in this
type of analytical investigation may be much more than the value of the product
made from the PVC waste.
4.2 IMPACT MODIFIERS
A major deficiency of PVC for many applications (for example in the building in-
21
dustry) is its poor resistance to impact. Consequently it became a common
practice during the 1970s to incorporate rubber-based modifiers such as ABS,
MRS, and MARS to improve the toughness of PVC. In this particular respect,
they were very successful and much higher levels of initial impact resistance
were achieved. However, PVC impact modifiers all contain butadiene segments
which are oxidatively very unstable, particularly at high temperatures and in
22-27 28,29
sunlight, so that their effect on the durability of PVC is catastrophic. Fig-
ure 2 shows that the incorporation of 10% of ABS into PVC causes a rapid decay
29
of impact strength during the first few hours of exposure in a weatherometer.
Degradation is initiated during the processing operation due to the formation of
24,25
hydroperoxides and although it can be retarded by the use of effective perox-
23
ide decomposing antioxidants, it cannot be eliminated. Recent research has
G. Scott 9
Figure 2. Effect of photooxidation on the falling weight impact resistance of PVC and impact modi-
fied PVC (10% ABS). £ unmodified PVC, , ∆ modified PVC (duplicate results). (Reproduced with
permission from European Polymer Journal, 13, 997 (1977)).
5 STABILISATION OF PVC
In most polymers (e.g. polyolefins) process stabilisation for first use can be
achieved with relatively low concentrations (0.05-0.1%) of hindered phenol or
phosphite antioxidant. The stabilisation of PVC requires much higher concen-
trations (generally 2-4% on the PVC content) in order to combat the mechani-
cally initiated HCl elimination referred to in Section 3. Some of them may also
stabilise the polymer to the environment, but their ability to do this depends en-
tirely on the amount of stabiliser that remains after the reprocessing operation
and how much chemical damage has been done to the polymer during the pri-
mary processing operation and in subsequent service.
It follows from the mechanism of mechanodegradation of PVC discussed
above that PVC may be stabilised in one or more of the following possible ways
18
during reprocessing.
5.1 HCl SCAVENGING
It has long been recognised that maleic anhydride and its derivatives interrupt
the conjugated unsaturation in PVC and thus remove the colour due to this
20
mechanodegradation product, reaction 5.
As indicated above, isolated olefin groups are the first to be formed in PVC dur-
ing processing. The resulting allylic methylene groups are very readily oxidised
and their selective removal represents a very powerful preventive stabilisation
25,31
mechanism. Thiols are known to behave in this, way and it seems likely that
the heat stabilising effect of the dialkyl tin thioglycolate esters is due in part to
the liberation of thioglycolic esters, reaction 4, followed by their reaction with
32
monoenic unsaturation, reaction 6, and phosphite esters have been reported to
33
fulfill a similar function.
12 Recycling of PVC: effect of the processing operation
Figure 3. Decay of tin maleate i.r. carboxylate absorbance (1575 cm-1) during the processing of
PVC containing a synergistic mixture of dibutyl tin maleate (2.5 g/100 g) and Wax E (0.65 g/100 g.
− total sample; --- soluble phase. Processing temperatures are indicated on the curves. (Repro-
duced with permission from European Polymer Journal, 14, 913 (1978)).
Figure 4. Effect of processing time (at 210oC) on the photooxidation of PVC containing a tin
maleate stabiliser (numbers on curves indicate processing times in min.) (Reproduced with per-
mission from European Polymer Journal, 15, 51 (1979)).
G. Scott 13
For many years it was believed that an important mechanism of PVC stabilisa-
tion was the replacement of labile chlorine atoms adjacent to double bonds in the
35
main chain. This conclusion was primarily based on the thermal stability of
model chlorine-containing compounds (e.g. V, VI) designed to simulate the
olefinic imperfections of the PVC molecule.
the α-chloroallyl groups in V and VI. Although the metal carboxylates do dis-
place chlorine from PVC during processing (reaction 7), it is not now clear how
important this reaction is in stabilising PVC in practice.
G. Scott 15
tion during manufacture and grafting to an existing polymer chain. The first is
expensive compared with the use of conventional additives and can only be justi-
fied when antioxidant permanence cannot be achieved any other way. The sec-
ond is economically more attractive but generally suffers from the disadvantage
that conventional grafting normally gives relatively low yields of adduct due to
49
competition from homopolymerisation and homopolymerised vinyl antioxi-
50
dants are normally incompatible with the main polymer phase.
However, it has been found possible to use the relatively low levels of
monoeneic unsaturation formed in PVC during processing (Scheme 1) to give a
very high level of chemical binding of thiol antioxidants (e.g. XII, XIII) by the ad-
48
dition reaction shown in Scheme 4. Table 2 illustrates the effective synergism
between these polymer-reactive stabilisers and conventional processing stabi-
lisers, DBTM and DOTG in an accelerated weathering test when added during a
42,51
normal processing operation. Both thiols were found to be completely bound
51
to the polymer within the first few minutes of processing.
8 CONCLUSIONS
• Due to the high chlorine content of PVC some of the techniques at present
being considered in the “Systems” waste disposal options are unfavour-
G. Scott 19
32. G. Scott in Atmospheric Oxidation and Antioxidants, Ed. G. Scott, Elsevier Sci.
Pub., Vol II, p. 184 et seq., 1993.
33. K. S. Minsker, M. I. Abdullin, S. V. Kolesov, and G. E. Zaikov in Developments in
Polymer Stabilisation-6, Ed. G. Scott, App. Sci. Pub., Chapter 5, 1983.
34. S. Al-Malaika, K. B. Chakraborty, and G. Scott in Developments in Polymer
Stabilisation-6, Ed. G. Scott, App. Sci. Pub., p. 73, 1983.
35. B. B. Cooray and G. Scott, Polym. Deg. and Stab., 2, 35 (1980).
36. A. H. Frye and R. W. Horst, J. Polym. Sci., 40, 419 (1959).
37. K. S. Minsker, V. V. Listiskii, and G. E. Zaikov, Polym. Sci. USSR, 23, 535 (1981).
38. V. V. Lisitiskii, S. V. Kolesov, R. F. Grataullin, and K. S. Minsker, Z. Analit. Khimii,
33, 2202 (1978).
39. E. N. Zilberman, Perepletchikova, Y. N. Getmanenko, V. I. Zegelman, T. Molova, and
Y. A. Zvereva, Plast. Massy, 3, 9 (1975).
40. K. S. Minsker, A. A. Berlin, V. V. Lisitskii, and S. V. Kolesov, Vysokomol. Soed., 19, 32
(1975).
41. A. Guyot and A. Michel in Developments in Polymer Stabilisation-2, Ed. G. Scott, App.
Sci. Pub., p. 89, 1980.
42. G. Scott in Atmospheric Oxidation and Antioxidants, Ed. G. Scott, Elsevier Sci.
Pub., Vol. II, Chapter 9, 1993.
43. B. B. Cooray and G. Scott, Europ. Polym. J., 17, 229 (1981); G. Scott in
Developments in Polymer Stabilisation-6, Ed. G. Scott, App. Sci. Pub., p. 67, 1983.
44. G. Scott, Pure & App. Chem., 30, 267 (1972).
45. N. C. Billingham in Atmospheric Oxidation and Antioxidants, Ed. G. Scott,
Second Edition, Elsevier Sci. Pub., Vol. II, Chapter 4, 1993.
46. G. Scott in Developments in Polymer Stabilisation-1, Ed. G. Scott, App. Sci. Pub.,
Chapter 9, 1979.
47. G. Scott in Developments in Polymer Stabilisation-4, Ed. G. Scott, App. Sci. Pub.,
Chapter 6, 1981.
48. G. Scott in Developments in Polymer Stabilisation-8, Ed. G. Scott, Elsevier App.
Sci., Chapter 5, 1987.
49. D. Munteanu in Developments in Polymer Stabilisation-8, Ed. G. Scott, Elsevier
App. Sci., Chapter 4, 1987.
50. B. W. Evans and G. Scott, Europ. Polym. J., 10, 453 (1974).
51. B. B. Cooray and G. Scott, Europ. Polym. J., 17, 385 (1981).
52. J. Li, G. Scott, and X. Xing, unpublished work.
D. Braun and K. Krämer 23
Investigations
on the Recycling Ability
of Used PVC
INTRODUCTION
With a present world-wide annual production of approximately 19 million
tones, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) is the second largest volume thermoplastic
1
only to polyethylene as volume leader in the plastics industry. Its ability to be
compounded with many additives to a wide range of flexible and rigid forms con-
stitutes the major factor responsible for the versatility of PVC. Because of a low
cost and the processability by a wide variety of techniques (e.g. calendering, ex-
trusion, injection molding, and plastisol techniques) combined with good physi-
cal, chemical, and weathering properties, PVC has become a universal
2
polymer. There are many applications of rigid and plasticized PVC, e.g., pipes,
profiles, floor coverings, cable insulation, roofing sheets, packaging foils, bot-
tles, and medical products.
At the end of the service-time of these articles, large amounts of scrap
arises. Today, the question of the disposal of used plastics has gained increasing
importance in the public discussion because of the environmental problems re-
sulting from the rapid growth of the plastic waste during the last years.
Landfilling of municipal solid waste is becoming a burden as for example in the
United States about 80% of waste is dumped into landfills. A continuation at the
24 Investigations on recycling ability of used PVC
3
present rate could exhaust the U.S. landfill capacity in a decade. Also some Eu-
ropean countries are faced with a similar dilemma because the availability of
4
suitable sites is limited. Thus, landfilling as a disposal process is increasingly
seen as a last option.
The energy recovery by incineration is another way to dispose the munici-
5
pal solid wastes. But environmental argumentation, such as toxic emissions
from inadequate equipment or inappropriate incineration conditions, are build-
6
ing up a public resistance against these techniques. Especially, PVC incinera-
tion is connected with some technological problems due to the high chlorine
content of this polymer which yields large amounts of hydrogen chloride during
thermal decomposition, beside the possibility of formation of toxic dioxines and
furans. Therefore, plans to expand capacities of such installations meet with
growing difficulties.
The recycling activities can be separated to chemical and material recy-
cling. The chemical recycling is based on the idea of converting polymers back
into short-chain chemicals for re-use in polymerization or other petrochemical
processes. Four different process technologies are currently considered for
7
chemical recycling: cracking, gasification, hydrogenation and pyrolysis. In the
meantime, a few commercial-scale plants are working and some interesting
8-10
studies about investigations with these techniques are available. At the end,
the economic efficiency will be decisive for the application as any recycling pro-
cess in the future.
The material recycling is already practiced in plastics industry over many
years in regard to post-manufacturing waste. These experiences can be used to
develop new concepts for material recycling of post-consumer waste. The major
problem in the recycling of used plastics is connected to a great inhomogeneity of
11
such polymers present in the waste. A statistical study by the Information Sys-
tem on Plastics Recycling in Western Europe shows that about 7.4% of the 9 mil-
lion tones of municipal solid waste in Western Europe in 1990 are plastics
materials. Figure 1 illustrates the percentage of different polymer types in the
total plastics portion.
The incompatibility of these components is the reason of the difficult pro-
cessing and inferior mechanical properties of the resulting products from mixed,
chemically different polymers. Therefore, it is necessary to separate various
polymers to boost their value. Although, there are some practical problems,
12,13
some interesting developments for plastics waste separation were found.
D. Braun and K. Krämer 25
Figure 1. Percentage of different polymer types in the total plastics portion of municipal solid
waste.
In the future, a clean PVC-stream of the municipal solid wastes and the
building sector wastes ready for material recycling can be expected. This evolu-
tion will be accelerated by new ordinances made by the government of some
countries. In Germany the first item of legislation to be introduced was the “Act
15
on the Avoidance of Packaging Waste”. The aim of this legislation is to reduce
the large amounts of packaging through avoidance and material recycling. An-
other fact is that the manufacturers and traders are made responsible for their
used packaging to relieve the local authorities of the burden to dispose the
waste.
Generally, one can say that material recycling is a necessary way to reduce
the municipal solid waste problem. This paper shows a concept of integrated
steps required to make recycling happen. The special problems of PVC recycling
will be presented and illustrated by a number of practical examples.
CHARACTERIZATION OF PVC WASTE
Many different grades and types of PVC are available allowing applica-
tions as diverse as flexible sheets, pressure pipes, transparent bottles, and med-
26 Investigations on recycling ability of used PVC
ical products to be produced. For these articles, a lot of different additives and
stabilizer systems are used to get suitable properties for the respective applica-
16
tions. Moreover, during a high temperature processing and throughout a ser-
17
vice live of the product the polymer might be subjected to degradation.
Therefore, a characterization of the PVC waste is necessary to obtain informa-
tion on properties such as the residual stability, molecular weight, and content
of additives of the individual PVC species.
MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STABILITY
The thermal stability of PVC is considerably lower than that of its low-mo-
lecular weight model analogues. Initial sites, such as allylic chlorines adjacent
to internal double bonds, tertiary chlorines at branched carbons, head-to-head
units, and oxygen-containing structures are believed to be responsible for the in-
stability. The mechanisms, which occur during degradation are not yet fully un-
derstood. There are radical or ionic mechanisms suggested, and it seems that
the type of reaction depends on the conditions (temperature, presence of oxygen,
etc.) during the decomposition.
D. Braun and K. Krämer 27
Figure 3. PVC degradation measuring apparatus. a. rotameter, b. degradation vessel with PVC
sample, c. thermostat (180oC), d. conductivity cell (25oC), e. conductivity-meter, f. computer.
PVC products. As an example, for plasticized PVC, the analysis of PVC roofing
25
sheets is described and shown in Figure 5.
give enough information about the material. For the qualitative analysis the
IR-spectroscopy is particularly suited because the main additives, including co-
26
polymers and impact modifiers, have typical IR-bands. Also other spectro-
scopic methods can be used for identification but the expenditures of sample
preparation and equipment are higher. A complete qualitative and quantitative
27
analysis of all ingredients of a PVC compound was previously discussed.
Finally, the determination of the heat stabilizer, as an important point in
the analysis of PVC waste, is particularly considered. The selection of a stabi-
lizer system for PVC depends on many factors including application, tradition of
28
the market, and local legislation. Lead stabilizers are the most widely used
PVC heat stabilizers because they provide cost-effective stabilization systems
and easy processing. They maintain volume resistivity in plasticized PVC cable
insulation and are the principal stabilizers for many general-purpose applica-
tions. Several metal carboxylate soaps are used in combination as PVC stabiliz-
ers, e.g., barium-cadmium, barium-zinc, calcium-zinc. Since many years,
barium-cadmium systems were used in Europe in white window frames with
good weathering properties. But the utilization of cadmium in stabilizers or pig-
ments recently comes under increasing scrutiny. At present, all manufacturers
29,30
are looking for alternative systems such as calcium-zinc stabilizers. They
are applied for food packaging, water bottles, and medical products. The number
of applications is likely to increase with the availability of less toxic additives.
The organotin compounds form another large group of stabilizer systems where
mono- and dialkyltins are the most widely used. Their properties depend on the
nature of the alkyl and acid groups present. The toxicity of the dialkyltin de-
creases rapidly with the chain length of the alkyl group, so that octyl tin com-
pounds are accepted for food contact applications. Also, some sulfur-containing
organotin-stabilizers are used because of their excellent heat stability and clar-
ity. The relatively high costs is the main drawback of tin stabilizers.
A simple possibility to obtain a detailed information about the stabilizer
system in PVC waste can be seen in the classic analysis methods which are com-
mon practice in inorganic chemistry of the separation and determination of cat-
ions. The only difficulty is to find an easily practical way to get the metallic
cations into water phase. For this purpose, the PVC sample is dissolved in
cyclohexanone and the received solution used for a liquid/liquid-extraction with
nitric acid containing water. After phase separation, the different cations are
found in water solution.
D. Braun and K. Krämer 31
Figure 6. Degradation curve of a post-manufacturing window frame waste and an old window
frame scrap (180oC, nitrogen); post-manufacturing waste: —-; window frame scrap: ---.
lizer or the remaining active heat stabilizer in PVC waste. The lower HCl-elimi-
nation rate can be explained by the fact that hydrogen chloride, which reacts
with the filler, has no more the well-known catalytic effect on the further PVC
37
degradation.
Figure 7. Dehydrochlorination of PVC at 180oC under nitrogen. PVC filled with 10 phr chalk —-,
PVC without filler ---.
Figure 8. UV-VIS-spectra of PVC in THF (2 g/l. before (d) and after (a,b,c) thermal degradation (30
min at 180oC under nitrogen).
also to determine the strength of the resulting products and to measure the re-
tention of mechanical strength on outdoor or accelerated exposure.
Stress-strain measurements are generally made in tension, e.g., according to
DIN 53455. The standard test piece is stretched at a uniform rate until it breaks.
From the x-y plot, the tensile strength, the elongation at break, and the modulus
of elasticity are obtained. The toughness is a further important mechanical
38
property of a polymer material which can be determined by an impact test. The
testers are pendulum instruments that break the specimen with a hammer. For
36 Investigations on recycling ability of used PVC
this purpose the Charpy-method, according to DIN 53735, with notched stan-
dard test pieces can be used.
Table 1: Results of the mechanical measurements of the filled and unfilled PVC,
according to DIN 53455 and DIN 53735
ductile to brittle with rising amount of chalk connected with lower values of
elongation at break and impact strength.
Figure 9. Conversion-time curve of the two processed PVC samples; Stabilized PVC with 10 phr
chalk —-; Stabilized PVC without filler ---.
are slightly higher for the modified specimens of the materials 1 and 3, whereas
the filled sample of material 2 has a lower value.
The following Table 4 shows the induction time of the processed samples
and the original PVC waste.
D. Braun and K. Krämer 39
Figure 10. Degradation curves of material 2; Original PVC waste —-; Processed PVC waste with-
out addition of chalk ....; Processed PVC waste with additional 10 phr of chalk - - -.
CONCLUSIONS
• The studies on the recycling-ability of used PVC show the importance of a
careful characterization, especially if mixed PVC from the municipal solid
waste separation should be recycled. The analysis of the composition and a
detailed knowledge of the heat history and the molecular weight of a PVC
scrap are necessary before reprocessing can be applied.
• The suggested additional stabilization with calcium carbonate is an effec-
tive method for the recycling of PVC waste with a low remaining
thermostability. The addition of chalk, up to a content of 10 phr, does not
significantly change the mechanical properties, whereas it remarkably in-
creases the heat stability.
• A number of schemes have been initiated to collect plastics and to reprocess
them to useful articles. The most advantageous situation occurs when a
source of a single material type can be identified, for example, particular
types of packaging, bottles, or window profiles. Such materials can often be
simply reformulated and converted into high quality products.
• Nevertheless, new material recycling concepts for PVC mixtures have to be
established because in future the environmental preferences will play a
larger role in a material’s selection. A practical re-use of PVC requires a
continuous stream of suitable scrap and the further development of tech-
nologies to reach the specifications for the intended applications. Another
D. Braun and K. Krämer 41
important point is that markets for the secondary products must exist to
make the material recycling a successful economical enterprise.
REFERENCES
1. I. P. Coates, Eng. Plast., 5, 362 (1992).
2. K. H. Felger, Ed., Kunststoff-Handbuch, Vol. 2/1, Polyvinylchlorid,
Hanser-Verlag, München, Wien, 1986.
3. J. W. Summers, B. K. Mikofalvy, G. V. Wooton, and W. A. Sell, J. Vinyl Technol.,
12, 154 (1990).
4. V. Matthews, Plast. Rubber Compos. Process. Appl., 19, 197 (1993).
5. L. R. Brecker, Polym. Prepr., 32(2), 125 (1991).
6. W. Freiesleben, Role and Importance of Material Recycling in Plastics Waste
Management during the Next Decade in Western Europe, G. Menges,
W. Michaeli, and M. Bittner, Eds., Recycling von Kunststoffen, Hanser Verlag,
München, Wien,1992.
7. P. Mapleston, Mod. Plast. Ind., 23(8), 32 (1993).
8. R. Holighaus and K. Niemann, Kunststoffberater, 38(4) 51 (1993).
9. M. W. Meszaros, Eng. Plast., 5, 335 (1992).
10. Anonymous, Neue Verpack., 45(10), 58 (1992).
11. F. P. La Mantia, Polym. Degrad. Stabil., 37, 145 (1992).
12. Anonymous, Gummi, Fasern, Kunstst., 44, 38 (1991).
13. R. T. Gottesman, Makromol. Chem., Macromol. Symp., 57, 133 (1992).
14. A. Schimpf, Kunststoffe, 82, 908 (1992).
15. M. Bittner and W. Michaeli, Annu. Tech. Conf. Soc. Plast. Eng., 252 (1992).
16. R. Gächter, H. Müller, Ed., Taschenbuch der Kunststoff-Additive, 3rd Ed., Hanser
Verlag, München, Wien, 1989.
17. S. H. Hamid, M. B. Amin, A. G. Maadhah, and A. M. Al-Jarallah, Annu. Tech. Conf.
Soc. Plast. Eng., 215 (1992).
18. D. Braun, Thermal Degradation of Poly(vinyl chloride), N. Grassie, Ed.,
Developments in Polymer Degradation-3, Applied Science Publishers Ltd., London,
1981.
19. D. Braun, Recent Progress in the Thermal and Photochemical Degradation of
Poly(vinyl chloride), G. Geuskens, Ed., Degradation and Stabilization of
Polymers, Applied Science Publishers Ltd., London, 1975.
20. T. Kelen, Polymer Degradation, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1983.
21. J. Wypych, Polyvinyl Chloride Degradation, A. D. Jenkins, Ed., Polymer Science
Library 3, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1985.
22. D. Braun, Makromol. Chem., Macromol. Symp., 57, 265 (1992).
23. D. Braun and M. Thallmaier, Kunststoffe, 56, 80 (1966).
24. H. H. Meyer, Kunststoffe, 83, 744 (1993).
25. J. Deinert, Diploma Thesis, TH, Darmstadt, 1991
26. W. Kimmer and R. Schmolke, Plaste Kautsch., 32, 145 (1985).
27. D. Braun and E. Bezdadea, Angew. Makromol. Chem., 113, 77 (1983).
42 Investigations on recycling ability of used PVC
Herbert Uhlen
INTRODUCTION
Three basic materials are used for window frames: wood, aluminum, and
PVC. For approximately 30 years window frames of PVC have been used in Ger-
many. Even if the products of the first generation were not absolutely perfect,
PVC windows have still achieved a substantial percentage in the marketplace
because of their advantages: they are long-lasting, have low maintenance re-
quirements, and use only small amounts of material. In Germany, they have a
market share of 45%; this means 10,000,000 units are installed per year. It is ex-
pected that the share of PVC-windows will remain the same in the next few
years.
The durability and low maintenance is connected with the fact that PVC
does not rot. At the same time, even long-lasting building-products will fall into
disuse at some time, thus the question of waste management of old windows will
arise. Landfill disposal demands space and is not desirable. The incineration of
frames is also not desirable. The waste management of old plastic windows is
currently not sorted out. Some disposal sites accept the waste without problems
and due to the durability of the material the number of old windows is currently
still low.
44 Recycling of complete PVC window
Complete windows are composed as follows: 38% PVC, 34% glass, 24%
metal, 4% other material. A window contains on average approx. 18 kg of PVC.
The plastic fraction of the window frame is a mixture of plastic and various
additives. A typical formulation is reported in Table 1.
For a long time, it has been common practice to grind the profile segments
remaining after cutting profile to size. Regrind obtained from this source is typi-
cally used in manufacturing of new profiles.
There have been attempts to refurbish old windows. Panes of glass were re-
moved, metal parts were taken off, gaskets were taken out, the plastic frames
were cut open and reinforcements were removed out of the profile pieces. This
method is labor intensive and, therefore, expensive.
At VEKA we have come to the conclusion that only a fully automatic dis-
mantling of the complete old windows can be made economical, considering that
the number of returned old windows will grow in the near future.
H. Uhlen 45
Figure 2. Separation.
A similar eddy current separator operates in the line to process the mate-
rial of 4-15 mm particle size.
In this line, after metals were separated, we have a mixture of PVC, glass,
rubber, and possibly splinters of wood.
The rubber separator removes most of the rubber. The particles of the mix-
ture fall on a rotating cylinder which is covered with rubber. Particles made out
of rubber stop motion because of friction and fall down vertically. Particles made
of PVC, glass or wood bounce off and fall down further away.
After the rubber has been removed the mixture is conveyed back to the
shredder to be crushed again so that particle sizes of 4-15 mm is obtained.
The resulting mixture having particle size of 4-15 mm and consisting of
PVC, glass, residues of mortar, possibly splinters of wood reaches another sieve
drum (Figure 2). In this sieve drum a separation is carried out into two ranges of
particle size 4-8 mm and 8-15 mm.
For each fraction there is a bunker for intermediate storing. From each
bunker two parallel processing lines begin (all together four processing lines). In
each of these four lines, separation of wood and glass is carried out.
The separation of wood takes place on vibrating tables with sloping sur-
faces. Air is blown through holes in the tables. The lightweight wood particles
H. Uhlen 47
Figure 3. Sorting.
move downwards on the air stream whereas the heavy particles, PVC and glass,
are carried away upwards. The wood fraction is conveyed into containers.
The separation of glass particles takes place on similar vibrating tables.
The lightweight particles (PVC) move downwards on the air stream
whereas the heavy particles (this time: glass) are carried away upwards. The
glass fraction is conveyed into containers, too.
The PVC fraction free of wood and glass, is gathered together from all the
four processing lines (the two particle sizes range 4-8 mm and 8-15 mm are
mixed again).
Particles of metal which accidentally have not yet been sorted out are now
found by an electric coil for metal detecting (Figure 3). Each portion of PVC in
which a metal particle is found, is also collected. The material collected in such
way is put into the separation process again from time to time. Only PVC which
is absolutely free of metals undergoes the further process.
48 Recycling of complete PVC window
The PVC particles are crushed by means of a cutting mill to particle sizes of
2-8 mm. In the cutting mill the material is washed with water for the first time.
Another washing of the granules is carried out subsequently, see Figure 3.
A drying process with heated air is carried out in two steps. By means of
sieves, the PVC granules are then separated into 4 fractions having particle
sizes of <2 mm, 2-4 mm, 4-6 mm, and 6-8 mm. Small quantities of grains above 8
mm undergo the milling process again. For each fraction a final separation of
rubber is carried out. On vibrating tables, fine particles of rubber are sorted out.
Each fraction then undergoes a process of separation according to color
where white PVC grains are separated from non-white grains. A beam of light
touches every single grain. The reflected light is detected so that every grain is
recognized as being white or non-white. Non-white grains which pass the detec-
tor are deflected by air pulses while falling whereas white grains simply fall
down.
The dry PVC granules are stored in five big outdoor silos. Four of them con-
tain white PVC sorted according to particle size. The other one contains
non-white PVC.
The PVC granules are suitable for the production of new profiles. It is ad-
vantageous to have grains of the same size, therefore, we produce four ranges of
particle size as for the white granules. As for the non-white granules separation
according to particle size is not worthwhile because the total amount of
non-white PVC is small. The capacity of PVC reclamation is 2 tons per hour.
We are going to incorporate the granules into new window profiles by car-
rying out co-extrusion. The inner areas of the profiles then consist of recycled
material, whereas we use fresh material for the outer areas. The maximum per-
centage of recycled material is 80%.
We will incorporate the recycling PVC in new profiles first of all in our
plant in Sendenhorst.
Table 2 shows some properties of profiles made from virgin PVC compound
in comparison to the same profiles made of regenerated PVC covered with the
same virgin compound.
The results are mean values of 10 tests. All tested profiles perform accord-
ing to specification.
H. Uhlen 49
Regenerated
Test Method Unit Requirement Virgin PVC
PVC
DIN 53 753 2
Impact strength kJ/m 40 65 62
(double-V notch)
Impact strength by DIN-EN 477
o no break no break no break
falling weight (T=-20 C, m=1 kg)
Thermal shrinkage DIN-EN 479 % 2 1.6-1.7 1.4-1.6
Appearance after
DIN-EN 478 OK OK
heating at 150oC
Strength of welded
DIN-EN 514 N 5300 8000 7700
corners
CONCLUSIONS
Removed windows with plastic frames should not be brought to disposal
sites and they should not be incinerated. They should rather undergo reprocess-
ing and the reclaimed PVC in form of granules should be used for manufacturing
of the same product. The technical facilities for a fully automatic and clean recla-
mation of PVC are given. It is now up to authorities to assure that removed win-
dows are returned to recycling process in order to enable resource saving
production of new window profiles.
G. Voituron 51
Georges Voituron
Solvay Research & Technology, Rue de Ransbeek 310, B-1120 Brussels, Belgium
INTRODUCTION
In our increasingly affluent society, concern for the environment as well as
for the quality of life is growing. A fraction of the public opinion is not far from
imagining that suppressing plastics would definitely solve the waste problem.
There is no doubt that mankind has to care for the future of this, his foster earth,
but this must be done scientifically and realistically, and not emotionally.
Nevertheless, in spite of their very important efforts towards a better envi-
ronment, efficient production to reduce energy consumption, significant reduc-
tion in pollution by using efficient modern affluent treatments, participation in
collecting and recycling of post-consumer and industrial waste, the chemical,
plastics, automotive, and other industries are often the scapegoats for this situ-
ation.
The only way for industry to change this situation is to inform as many peo-
ple as possible and as often as possible about its numerous environmental activi-
ties and achievements. That is the challenge that Solvay as polymers producer
and converter intends to achieve. The double goal to solve the plastics wastes
problem and save natural resources can be served by several strategies, for
which the E.C. has already set priorities. These priorities are as follows:
52 Recycling of PVC bottles and pipes by coextrusion
Recycling
• mechanical recycling
• item→item
• cascade: item to another item
Chemical recycling
• pyrolysis - partial or complete→fuel or gas
• hydrogenation→fuel
• dehydrochlorination
• complete pyrolysis→initial molecules →purification→polymerisation
Thermal recycling
• specific combustion (mono combustion: only plastics)
• clean (system)
• dehydrochlorination
Destruction in incinerators
• (Plastics in the municipal wastes)
• gas cleaning
• smoke
• energy recovering vapor electricity, hot water
Safe landfilling
Although, recycling is very popular, it cannot be achieved regardless of spe-
cific ecological and economic constraints. In particular, the viability of mechani-
cal recycling implies a subtle match between the available volumes of recyclable
materials, the quality and the cost of sorting and regeneration.
Some years of experience also clearly show that a sound policy must neces-
sarily combine several approaches, whereas in the field only well defined and re-
alistic objectives must be selected. This work describes the mechanical recycling
1
of PVC bottles and/or pipes to non-pressure coextruded three-layer pipes. In a
first step the material (bottles or pipes) must be regenerated and in the second
step, re-used. The coextrusion process also describes the modification of the pro-
duction equipment required by multilayer coextrusion.
G. Voituron 53
MECHANICAL RECYCLING
GENERAL APPROACHES
• the material is ground, to reduce the particles size, and also to liberate the
admixtures which can be entangled; the material is sieved for the second
time to eliminate sand and other fine particles
• the material is purified from ferrous metals in a magnetic separator oper-
ating with an overband
• the material is then sieved in a classifier which accepts PVC powder be-
tween 1.5 mm and 15 mm
• after the last purification to remove very small particles of aluminum,
sand, and glass by shaking, the PVC powder is ground again until a parti-
cle size of less than 8 mm is reached, and finally micronised to 800 microns
• homogenization
portant, its presence in the holes would disturb the elimination of the contami-
nants.
An in-depth investigation of the grinding operation has been done, to-
gether with a precise balance of all incoming material flow in the pilot line (see
the examples of a material balance and a diagram of the particle size optimiza-
tion).
The following parameters have been studied:
• dry and under water grinding, cold and hot water, water flow
• size of the holes in the grinder sieve
• speed of the grinder
• flow rate of the material.
After this purification, the material is submitted to another separation by
density (sink and float).
In this step, the light material (caps from PE or PP float) and the heavy ma-
terial (PVC but also PET sink). In the next operation, PVC is dried and stocked
in a silo homogenizer. At this stage of regeneration two possible ways existed,
the continuous melt filtration operated on a Knaus filter or the micronization.
We consider that the level of contamination of the PVC by the PET must be less
than 100 ppm. This level of purity can only be reached by an upstream auto-
matic system followed by a manual final tuning. Nowadays, PET flakes are of-
ten separated through “micronization” and sieving, based on the difference in
brittleness of both materials, with an exception for the non-bioriented parts of
PET bottles (neck and bottom), which micronize similar to PVC, thereby causing
residual contamination, as their melting temperature lies much higher than the
processing temperature of PVC. We consider this approach as insufficient.
As PVC-PET separation is an important step for both PVC and PET regen-
erators, research is being carried out in unconventional ways, i.e., electrostatic
separation (differential triboelectrification) and froth flotation are currently ex-
amined.
Aluminum caps are the only other contaminant. Although aluminum has
been widely replaced by PE, its separation still requires some development (e.g.,
hydrocyclones, Eddy currents, conductor/non-conductor electrostatic separa-
tion, or active metal detectors). The pilot plant is equipped with the Eddy cur-
rents separation.
G. Voituron 57
A typical coextrusion line for pipes is shown Figure 3. It differs from classi-
cal PVC lines:
• the line includes two extruders
• a “feedblock” is introduced to merge the flows coming from the two extrud-
ers and to make a three layer annular parison (see Figure 4).
The feedblock is followed by a sizing device, designed to give the parison a
shape close to its final diameter and wall thickness. The rest of the line (calibra-
tion unit, cooling bath, saw, haul-off, socketing and packaging machines) does
not differ from conventional pipe extrusion lines.
THERMAL STABILITY
The formulation of all three layers (compact inner layer, foamed or compact
intermediate layer, and compact outer layer) must take into account that be-
cause of the length of feedblock, the polymer average residence times are much
longer in coextrusion than in conventional pipe extrusion. Thus, thermal stabil-
ity has to be increased.
58 Recycling of PVC bottles and pipes by coextrusion
Figure 4. Feed-block.
G. Voituron 59
LUBRICATION
The pressure drop in the feedblock is important because the balance be-
tween the fluxes for the three layers is achieved by a strong annular restriction
in the flow channel. This restriction is similar to a chocker bar on a flat die. Lu-
brication (external and internal) is used to reduce the pressure drop in the
feedblock-die assembly and hence, to reduce the outlet pressure at the extruder.
Adjustment of the lubrication is necessary to reduce the pressure drop in
the feedblock and in the die. Optimization of the lubrication level is done by ex-
truding different formulations through two dies on a laboratory scale extruder.
The first die has smooth walls and the other, grooved walls. In the first die, be-
cause of lubrication at the interface with the metal, the polymer is allowed to slip
as is the case in the feedblock and die used for tube coextrusion. In the second
die, the grooves prevent slipping. Comparison between the behavior of the two
dies (with and without slipping) allows for the calculation of the slip velocity.
The influence of slip velocity on feedblock and die pressure drop has been mea-
sured experimentally and confirmed by numerical flow simulations. After up-
grading, only minor differences in slip velocity remain between different
batches.
IMPACT RESISTANCE
The acrylic modifiers already present in the recycled PVC have a positive
effect on stretching behavior and no further modification needs to be made. The
gelation level has a major influence on the draw behavior of the hot PVC melt.
The influence of the formulation on the gelation has been measured.
Information have been collected regarding gelation time and maximum
torque for some formulations. One of them have been chosen as the best compro-
mise, i.e., it provides sufficient lubrication to reduce pressure drop in the
feedblock and the die, while allowing for sufficient gelation. The foam is pro-
duced with chemical blowing agents. Azodicarbonamide is often used with PVC.
60 Recycling of PVC bottles and pipes by coextrusion
The influence, of the blowing agent on the foam density at different tempera-
3
tures is an important factor. A foam density of 0.7-0.8 kg/dm is a good compro-
mise between weight reduction and impact resistance. The chosen blowing
agent gives a good density level and a low sensitivity to temperature.
FLOW STABILITY
Finally, we have seen that a low extrusion temperature was needed to con-
trol the viscosity of the foamed layer and maintain stability of flow for the
multilayer structure. Material temperature after 10 min of residence time in the
Brabender Plasticorder is used as an indicator of the melt temperature attained
in the extruder. Here again, the formulation chosen to maximize the
expandability gives a good compromise. Lubrication of the external compact lay-
ers could be used as an alternate means to reduce flow unstability, but the addi-
tion of lubricant is limited by the impact resistance.
MODIFICATION OF THE PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
PRODUCT EVALUATION
The pipes produced with a foamed layer made of recycled PVC satisfy the
requirements of ISO/DP 9970 for building discharge pipes and ISO/DP 9971 for
sewage pipes.
For building applications, diameters for soil, waste, drainage range from
32 mm to 200 mm with a wall thickness of about 3 mm. Sewage pipes have a di-
2
ameter between 125 and 500 mm; two different stiffness classes, 4 kN/m and 8
2
kN/m are used; wall thickness varies from 3 mm (125 mm diameter, stiffness 4
2 2
kN/m ) to 15 mm (500 mm diameter, stiffness 8 kN/m ). Impact resistance satis-
fies ISO standard 3127 for compact PVC pipes. Socketing of the pipe or separate
fittings are provided.
CONCLUSIONS
Coextruded light-weight pipes having an intermediate foamed layer have
been on the market for some time. This product has proven advantages over
compact single layer pipes or traditional pipes (clay or concrete):
• good mechanical properties
• good resistance to flattening due to soil loading or traffic
• long life
• high chemical inertia
62 Recycling of PVC bottles and pipes by coextrusion
The main problems in post-consumer plastics recycling are due to the degradation of polymers during
processing steps and during lifetime. In the recycling of heterogeneous waste, the incompatibility
among the different phases also poses substantial difficulty. The influence of both degradation and in-
compatibility on the structure and on the properties of the recycled “secondary materials” is shortly re-
viewed.
INTRODUCTION
Plastics recycling is a very recent technology, or rather a group of technologies,
1-4
which has not yet found firm base. In effect, the term recycling is generally
taken to mean a series of processing operations carried out on plastics to produce
“secondary materials” for manufacturing of various types of articles.
Post-consumer plastics recycling is not only a high-priority item for today’s
public opinion, it has become an urgent necessity. It is obvious that simple recy-
cling to produce “secondary materials” cannot by itself solve the environmental
problems caused by discarded plastics not only because of large quantities in-
volved, but also because of the many types of polymers difficult to separate or
process together. In the latter case, in particular, articles produced with the re-
cycled material would have poor mechanical properties and few possibilities of
application.
In this paper, the main problems arising during recycling of post-consumer
plastic materials are briefly discussed in order to form some basic concepts on
64 Basic concepts on the recycling
Figure 1. Molecular weight and elongation at break vs. number of extrusions of PET sample.
66 Basic concepts on the recycling
The influence of Mw, MWD, and branching, which can remarkably change
7,8
during recycling operations, on the rheological and mechanical properties of
the “secondary materials”, is discussed below.
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
The molecular weight has a strong influence on the rheological behavior of poly-
meric systems. This means that small changes in molecular weight can deeply
change the viscosity of molten polymer. It is worth noticing, however, that in
most processing operations, the variations of molecular weight induced by
thermomechanical stress are very small, as a consequence only the Newtonian
viscosity or the viscosity at low shear rates is strongly influenced by the molecu-
lar weight. In Figure 3, the flow curves of a polypropylene sample recycled sev-
eral times by injection molding are reported. It is evident that while the
Newtonian viscosity or the viscosity at low shear rates drastically decreases
with the number of recycling steps, (i.e., increasing the amount of degradation
and decreasing the molecular weight), the viscosity at high shear rates is, on the
contrary, less affected by the processing. In particular, in the shear rate range
-1
typical for the industrial processing operations (100-1000 s ), only a change of a
factor of about five in the viscosity occurs whereas the Newtonian viscosity dif-
fers by about two decades. This means, that during usual processing operations,
68 Basic concepts on the recycling
Figure 3. Flow curves of PP samples; virgin (TQ), and recycled one (S1), two (S2), three (S3), and
four (S4) times.
stress of drawing and its own weight, and the melt breaks. The formation of the
products becomes impossible. This behavior suggests that in most cases the re-
cycled polymers cannot be processed in the same processing operations used for
the virgin material.
BRANCHING
The formation of short and long chain branching can occur during melt process-
ing of polymers as a result of chain scission and recombination of radicals. The
polyethylenes are the typical polymers which can undergo this structural modi-
fication. As said previously, long chain branching strongly influences the rheo-
logical and mechanical properties, whereas the presence of short branches
influences mainly the solid properties. Both types of branches worsen the
photooxidation resistance.
The presence of long chain branching decreases viscosity, and in particular
the Newtonian viscosity, compared to linear polymers with about the same mo-
lecular weight, and, in general, gives rise to a more pronounced non-Newtonian
behavior and instability phenomena (melt fracture) at lower output flow rates.
As far as the mechanical properties are concerned, both short and long chain
branching, causing a dramatic reduction of crystallinity, give rise to a drastic
decrease of these characteristics. However, this feature is more remarkable
with the long chain branching. This behavior is evidenced in Table 2 where
modulus and tensile strength of three samples of polyethylene (linear and hav-
ing either short or long chain branching) of comparable molecular weight, are
reported.
70 Basic concepts on the recycling
Figure 6. Tensile strength and elongation at break vs. polyamide content in LDPE/polyamide-6
blends.
A third component may be added to the blend in a small amount to act as a
bonding agent between the two incompatible phases. This macromolecular com-
pound is, in most cases, a copolymer formed from the monomers of the two
homopolymers making up the mixture. The copolymer is thus miscible in the
72 Basic concepts on the recycling
two phases, creating a bond between the two completely immiscible phases.
Adding these compatibilizing agents produces an effect on several mechanical
12
properties which can be clearly seen in Figure 8, where the addition of poly-
propylene functionalized with maleic anhydride, PPmal, increases the elonga-
tion at break of incompatible polypropylene/polyamide-6 mixtures. In this case,
there is not only a physical bond produced by the compatibilizing agent, but also
a chemical bond, since the carbonyl groups in the functionalized polypropylene
react with the amine groups of polyamide, anchoring the two phases even more
firmly. The improvement of adhesion is evident from SEM micrographs of the
PP/Ny blend with and without compatibilizer, Figure 9 a and b, respectively.
Figure 9. SEM micrographs of a PP/Ny blend without (a) and (b) with compatibilizer.
Figure 10. Elongation at break vs. recycled PP content for PP/PPdeg blends. The degradation de-
gree increases from £, , l, to n.
CONCLUSIONS
• The recycling of homogeneous post-consumer plastics presents many prob-
lems mainly because of degradation of the polymeric materials during pro-
cessing and lifetime. The degradation processes, which can become very
important in recycled materials subjected to many repeated processing op-
erations, lead to drastic reductions of the mechanical properties of the sec-
ondary materials.
• In the case of recycling of heterogeneous plastics, the situation is still more
complicated mainly due to the incompatibility between different polymeric
phases. The properties of the recycled materials are in general poor and can
not be predicted only on the basis of the properties of individual compo-
76 Basic concepts on the recycling
Compatibilization of Recycled
Polyethyleneterephthalate/Polypropylene
Blends Using a Functionalized Rubber
B. Ballauri
F.lli Maris SpA, 10090 Rosta (TO), Italy
M. Trabuio
Shell Italia, SpA, Via Chiese 74, 20126 Milano, Italy
F. P. La Mantia
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica dei Processi e dei Materiali,
Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128, Italy
The recycling of heterogeneous plastic waste gives, in general, a secondary materials with poor proper-
ties because of a scarce compatibility among the polymers present in the waste. Compatibilization of
heterogeneous blends is thus a primary aim of the research on recycling. Blends of polyolefins and
polyesters are particularly difficult to design due to the different chemical nature of the two classes of
polymers. In this work the goal is achieved by using a commercial maleic anhydride grafted SEBS rub-
ber. Blends of recycled polypropylene and polyethyleneterephthalate show a morphology with the
large voids, due to a limited adhesion between the two phases, and a brittle behavior with poor me-
chanical properties. By using small amounts of this functionalized rubber, the two phases become al-
most indistinguishable and some mechanical properties are also considerably improved. Tensile
strength and thermomechanical resistance are only marginally lower.
78 Compatibilization of recycled PET/PP blends
INTRODUCTION
Polymer blends offer the possibility to prepare polymeric materials with proper-
ties tailored to specific needs. In plastics recycling, blending of different poly-
mers is in some cases necessary because the separation of a single component
can be difficult or expensive. In most cases, however, the polymers are immisci-
ble and this leads to blends having poor properties.
Compatibilization through a third component, acting as a bridge between
the two incompatible phases, becomes necessary to stabilize the blend and to im-
prove its mechanical performance.
Copolymers synthesized from monomers miscible with two components of
the blends or formed by in situ reaction during processing reduce the interfacial
tension between the two phases.
Polyolefins, polyethylene and polypropylene, PE and PP, in particular, and
copolyesters, mostly polyethyleneterephthalate, PET, are frequently encoun-
tered in urban and industrial plastics waste and are recycled after separating
the polymers by flotation. It is true that the separation is quite easy and not ex-
pensive, but the heterogeneous recycling of these two classes of thermoplastics
can still lead to the obvious advantages. Beside the lower cost of the recycling,
the blends can give rise to secondary materials with interesting properties. In
particular, blends of polyolefins and PET can display good mechanical and per-
1
meation characteristics.
In order to obtain materials stable with good properties, the blends have to
1-7
be compatibilized. In this work, we have investigated the effects of the
compatibilization on the structure, rheological, and mechanical properties of
blends of PET and PP. The compatibilizer used in this study is a triblock copoly-
mer consisting of polystyrene end-blocks and poly(ethylene-butylene)
mid-blocks grafted with maleic anhydride, MA-g-SEBS. This copolymer was al-
5,8,9
ready used to compatibilize other blends of polar and apolar polymers with
satisfactory results.
EXPERIMENTAL
MATERIALS
The materials used in this work were two recycled thermoplastics (PET and PP)
and a virgin elastomer. PET has been obtained from a separate collection of
post-consumer bottles and has an average intrinsic viscosity of about 0.7 dl/g.
B. Ballauri, M. Trabuio, and F. P. La Mantia 79
PP has been recycled from industrial scraps. The melt flow index was about 5.5.
Kraton FG 1901X is a triblock copolymer consisting of polystyrene end-blocks
and a partly hydrogenated polybutadiene mid-blocks grafted with maleic anhy-
dride, and manufactured by Shell Chemicals.
Two blends were reprocessed, namely PET/PP 1 with equal amounts of the
two polymers and PET/PP 2 where the content of PET is two times that of PP.
The concentration of Kraton ranged from 0 to 10%.
RECYCLING
Recycling of the blends was carried out using a laboratory corotating twin screw
extruder R&D30 manufactured by Maris, Italy.
The thermal profile used for all the extrusions was 200-250
o o
270-285-285-260-250 C. The die temperature was 250 C, and the screws speed
ranged from 150 to 500 rpm. This thermal profile was chosen to induce a rapid
melting and degassing of the material and then to reduce the temperature to
minimize the degradation of PET. In fact, the temperature of the melt ranged
o
from 255 to 265 C. The torque was recorded during extrusion.
The specimens for the mechanical testing were prepared by injection mold-
o
ing using a Boy T 50 machine. The melt temperature was about 285 C and the
o o
mold temperature about 20 C. The materials were dried under vacuum at 110 C
for 2 h before molding.
STRUCTURAL DETERMINATIONS
Flow curves of the pure polymers were measured with a capillary viscometer
o
Rheoscope (CEAST, Italy) at 270 C with a capillary D=1 mm and length to diam-
eter ratio of 40.
Rheological properties of the blends were continuously monitored by
means of an on-line Gottfert Real Time Rheometer installed on the extruder
80 Compatibilization of recycled PET/PP blends
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION
The thermogram of the blend PET/PP 1 is reported in Figure 1. Three peaks are
displayed, namely: the melting points of PP and PET and the crystallization
o
temperature of PET at about 130 C. The two melting points are located at the
same temperatures as those of the pure polymers. This indicates that no interac-
tion occurs in crystalline phase. The glass transition temperature located at
B. Ballauri, M. Trabuio, and F. P. La Mantia 81
o
about 80 C is the same as Tg of pure PET, meaning that the two phases do not in-
teract also in amorphous phase.
The incompatibility of the two polymers is confirmed by the morphology of
the blend PET/PP 1 as revealed by the SEM micrograph of Figure 2. The contin-
uous phase is composed of polypropylene and the discrete particles of PET. This
has been established by X-ray energy dispersion analysis microprobe and was
expected on the basis of the viscosity of the two components in the processing
conditions. In the case of blends with equal amounts of the two components, the
10
low viscosity component forms the discrete phase.
o
The flow curves at 270 C of PET and PP are plotted in Figure 3. The tem-
perature has been chosen considering that the die temperature is lower than the
melting point of PET and that the morphology of the blend is probably the same
82 Compatibilization of recycled PET/PP blends
o
as that formed at 270 C (the temperature at which the melting of the PET is
complete) (see Figure 1).
-1
At the shear rate in the extruder (100-200 s ), PET shows viscosity lower
than PP which then becomes the dispersed phase. The two phases show a very
poor adhesion and the dispersed PET particles, having average dimensions of
about 1-10 µm, are completely separated by the continuous PP matrix.
Figure 4. SEM micrographs of the PET/PP 1 blend with 2.5 % Kraton (a) and 10% Kraton (b).
84 Compatibilization of recycled PET/PP blends
Figure 6. Average diameter of the PET particles in the PET/PP 1 blend as a function of the Kraton
concentration.
B. Ballauri, M. Trabuio, and F. P. La Mantia 85
the Kraton content increasing, the curves flatten and only small gain in the size
reduction results from higher Kraton concentrations. Similar results have been
obtained for the PET/PP 2 blend.
All structural determinations confirm the compatibilization action of the
functionalized MA-g-SEBS. A possible mechanism is reported in Figure 7. The
PET-MA-g-SEBS copolymers formed during processing act as a bridge between
the two phases improving adhesion of the two polymers and the properties of the
blend.
The torque during extrusion of the two blends is reported in Figure 8 as a func-
tion of Kraton content. The torque increases with the concentration of Kraton
but this increase is rather small. The increase of the torque, especially at high
86 Compatibilization of recycled PET/PP blends
Figure 9. Viscosity at fixed shear stress for the PET/PP 1 blend as a function of the Kraton concen-
tration.
Figure 10. Viscosity at fixed shear stress for the PET/PP 2 blend as a function of the Kraton con-
centration.
88 Compatibilization of recycled PET/PP blends
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Elongation at break, and impact strength are reported in Figures 11-12, respec-
tively for both blends as a function of the Kraton concentration. For both blends
the tensile strength (here not reported) is slightly decreasing with increasing
the content of Kraton. Elongation at break and impact strength, on the contrary,
increase in impressive way with increasing the content of the functionalized
rubber. With 5% of Kraton, the impact strength quadruples compared with
non-compatibilized blends and the elongation at break is ten times larger. The
stress-strain curves of the non-compatibilized PET/PP 1 blend and of the same
blend with 5% of Kraton, Figure 13, clearly highlight that the presence of the
functionalized rubber induces brittle-ductile transition yielding ductile mate-
rial. The decrease of the tensile strength is expected because the rubber shows
low values of these ultimate properties, whereas the impressive increase of elon-
gation and impact strength at break can be attributed to the properties of elasto-
mer and the compatibilization induced by the Kraton. While at high content of
the rubber the first explanation holds, at low concentration of Kraton, the
compatibilization must be considered responsible for the enhanced values of
elongation at break.
Figure 13. Stress-strain curves of PET/PP 1 blend and of the same blend with 5% Kraton.
90 Compatibilization of recycled PET/PP blends
Figure 15. Impact strength for PET/PP 1 blend with 5% Kraton as a function of screw speed.
B. Ballauri, M. Trabuio, and F. P. La Mantia 91
The presence of the rubber can give rise to some worsening of the thermal
resistance of the blends. To verify this behavior, tests for measuring the Vicat
temperature have been carried out. In Figure 14, the Vicat temperature is re-
ported as a function of the content of Kraton. As expected a reduction of the Vicat
temperature of the non-compatibilized blend is observed but can be considered
still reasonable: with 5% of Kraton the Vicat temperature decreases by about
o
6-7 C for both blends.
Because the properties of the blends depend on the morphology, deter-
mined by mixing conditions and in particular by the stress applied to melt, the
effect of the mixing speed was investigated for the PET/PP 1 blend including 5%
Kraton. Most mechanical properties are only slightly dependent on the screw
speed, but impact strength is considerably affected. In Figure 15, impact
strength growth rapidly at low screw speed, then with a further speed increase
its effect is diminishing.
CONCLUSIONS
Blends of PET and PP (and in general blends of polyesters and polyolefins) re-
sult in materials with inferior mechanical properties because of the incompati-
bility between the two phases. By adding a rubber functionalized with maleic
anhydride, the morphology and the properties of the blends are strongly modi-
fied and the resulting materials show good mechanical properties. In particular,
small amounts of this compatibilizer induce a brittle-to-ductile transition with
an impressive improvement of some properties, such as, elongation at break and
impact strength. SEM analysis allowed to reveal the compatibilizing action of
the functionalized rubber in these PET/PP blends.
REFERENCES
1. P. Bataille, S. Boissè, and H. P. Schreiber, Polym. Eng. Sci., 27, 622 (1987).
2. T. D. Traugott, J. W. Barlow, and D. R. Paul, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 28, 2947, (1983).
3. In-Mau Chen and Chii-Ming Shiah, Plastics Engineering, October 1989, p. 33.
4. J. Curry and A. Kiani, ANTEC ‘90, p. 1452.
5. F. P. La Mantia and M. Vinci, Polymer Recycling, 1, 35 (1994) .
6. G. E. Wissler, ANTEC ‘90, p. 1434.
7. P. Sambaru and S. A. Jabarin, ANTEC ‘92, p. 586.
8. R. Holsti-Miettinen and J. Seppala, Polym. Eng. Sci., 32, 868, (1992).
9. C. Boman Ducommun, Recycle ‘91, p. D5.3.
10. L. A. Utracki in Polymer and Alloys and Blends, Hanser Verlag, Munich, 1989.
F. P. La Mantia 93
Recycling of Post-consumer
Plastic Containers for Liquids
Francesco P. La Mantia
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica dei Processi e dei Materiali,
Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
INTRODUCTION
The collection of plastic post-consumer containers for liquid is relatively simple
to organize and can be an inexpensive source for recycling of large amounts of
plastic materials. Most plastic containers are made out of three polymers,
namely, high density polyethylene, HDPE, polyvinylchloride, PVC, and
polyethyleneterephthalate, PET.
The presence of these three polymers in the collection of plastic containers
creates difficulty in recycling of such mixed plastic materials. The present tech-
nologies are based on separation of polymers which are then recycled as single
polymers. In general, these recycling plants include different stages: separation
94 Recycling of post-consumer plastic containers for liquids
EXPERIMENTAL
MATERIALS
The post-consumer plastics containers for liquids, PCL, used in this work have
the following composition: PET ≈ 45%, PE ≈ 35%, and PVC ≈ 20%. This composi-
tion is representative of the average composition of the plastic fraction obtained
in 1992 by obligatory separate collection of containers for liquids in Italy. This
composition is different from that obtained in previous years and used in previ-
6-8
ous papers. The difference reflects a lower consumption of PVC for mineral
water bottles replaced by PET, whose concentration in this separate collection is
continuously increasing. The PE content, mainly HDPE, especially used for de-
tergents and cosmetics bottles, is almost constant.
The plastics waste was reduced to small flakes in rotating knives mill.
The thermal stabilizing agents used in the work are reported in Table 1.
Table 1: Thermal stabilizers
Stabilizer Supplier Concentration (%)
Irgafox B603 Ciba-Geigy 0.1
Tribasic lead sulfate - 0.5
Table 3: Modifiers
Modifier Code Supplier
Kraton G1650 SEBS Shell
Vistalon 3708 EPDM ESSO
Paraloid EXL 3647 MBS Rohm & Haas
FC 45 EVA Enichem
Table 4: Compatibilizers
Compatibilizer and its code Supplier
OCT/AB Micromin
OCT/CH Micromin
SEBS-g-MA Shell
PE-g-MA Enichem
The inert fillers added to the plastics waste were calcium carbonate, saw-
dust and glass fibers. CaCO3 is a powder of about 30 µm in diameter. Sawdust
was obtained by milling of wood in a blade mill through a 20 mesh grid. The glass
fibers had D = 10 µm and length-to-diameter ratio of about 400.
Whereas the fillers have been used especially to reduce the cost of the sec-
ondary materials, the modifiers reported in Table 3 have been used to improve
some mechanical properties.
Kraton G is a SEBS thermoplastic elastomer with a middle block of hydro-
genated polybutadiene and molecular weight of about 64,000. Vistalon is an
EPDM rubber with a molecular weight of about 278,000. Paraloid is a
methylmethacrylate-butadiene-styrene, MBS, elastomer with a core-shell
structure.
FC 45 is a EVA sample with about 14% of EVAc.
Finally, four compounds, see Table 4, have been used in the attempt to en-
hance the adhesion between different phases of the mixtures.
The two OCT samples are small particle size (less than 10 µm) CaO coated
with organo-titanates. In particular AB is coated with neopentyl(diallyl)oxy,
F. P. La Mantia 97
All extrusion runs were performed with a laboratory single screw extruder
(D=19 mm, L/D = 25) fitted with a venting port. The blends were mixed by hand
and fed to the extruder. Most of the extrusion runs were done with a tempera-
o
ture profile of 200-230-240-260 C and a screw speed of 80 rpm. Other runs were
carried at a screw speed of 20 rpm.
The extruded materials were cooled in a water bath, granulated and ex-
truded a second time to achieve a good homogenization. As already shown in
6-8
previous works, this procedure gives rise to the best balance between degrada-
tion and homogenization.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The sheets for the stress-strain curves were obtained by compression molding in
o
a laboratory press at 260 C.
The bars for the impact tests were obtained by injection molding in a labo-
ratory molder (Mini Max molder CS 183, Custom Scientific, USA). In both cases
o
the temperature was 260 C.
Stress-strain curves were obtained with an Instron model 1122. Impact
tests were carried out in Izod mode with a CEAST Fractoscope. The results were
averages of at least seven measurements.
PVC DETERMINATION
Figure 1. PVC degraded during processing of PLC and PLC with different additives. The dashed
area represents the scatter of the experimental results.
Figure 1 reports the amount of PVC degraded during two extrusion steps for
PLC and its mixtures with all stabilizing and lubricating additives. When no
stabilizing agent is used, the degradation of PVC is quite extensive: only slightly
more than a half of the initial theoretical PVC content in the raw material is
found in the recycled material. The lubricants do not improve significantly the
stability of PVC which is only slightly enhanced by the antioxidants. This is
somehow surprising since these antioxidants are typical stabilizers for
polyolefines, PE, and not for PVC. In explanation of this result, one must take
9-11
into account the possible interactions occurring during degradation of blends.
The degradation of PVC can be enhanced by the formation of polyethylene radi-
cals, produced by thermomechanical stress but stabilized by these antioxidants.
The slight stabilizing action of the lubricants can be attributed to a lower
mechanical stress acting on the melt during processing. The mechanical stress
can act, indeed, as a “catalyst” of the thermal degradation increasing the level of
the degradation.
An efficient stabilizing action is contributed by the lead compound (which
is a typical stabilizer of PVC) and a mixture of antioxidants and lubricants with
lead salt. With these stabilizing systems, about 80% of the initial undegraded
PVC has been measured in the recycled material.
F. P. La Mantia 99
During processing, both PE and PET can also undergo severe degradation
processes. In particular, PE can be degraded by thermomechanical stress and
PET by hydrolytic chain scission since the material is not dried before process-
100 Recycling of post-consumer plastic containers for liquids
The above discussion refers to the extrusion steps performed at a die tem-
o
perature of 260 C and screw speed of 80 rpm. By changing them, for example, in-
creasing temperature and decreasing screw speed, the degradation of PVC
F. P. La Mantia 101
o
becomes more rapid. After extrusion carried out at a die temperature of 260 C
and 20 rpm, small amounts of PVC were detected in the material. Decreasing ro-
tation speed from 80 rpm to 20 rpm, the residence time in the extruder increases
from about 3 min to about 10 min.
The mechanical properties of these materials reflect, at least in part, the
amount of PVC degraded. In Figures 2-5 the elastic modulus, E, the impact
strength, IS, the tensile strength, TS, and the elongation at break, EB, are re-
ported for all samples shown in Figure 1.
Due to a strong incompatibility and severe degradation of the components,
the mechanical properties of PLC are very poor and much lower than those ex-
pected on the basis of an additivity rule for the mixture components.
Table 5: Mechanical properties of the PLC mixture and individual components
Sample E, GPa TS, MPa EB, % IS, J/m
HDPE 5-6 22-24 600-700 750-800
PVC 13-16 6-8 30-40 60-90
PET 12-14 33-36 350-450 40-50
PLC 5-6 4-4.4 1.3-1.6 20-22
Figure 6. Elastic modulus of PLC and PLC with 10% inert fillers.
Figure 7. Tensile strength of PLC and PLC with 10% inert fillers.
FILLERS
Inert fillers are used in the thermoplasts to improve some properties of the poly-
mers but, in particular, to reduce the cost of finished products. To estimate both
effects three inert fillers have been tested. Figures 6-9 report the mechanical
F. P. La Mantia 103
properties of the mixture filled with 10% calcium carbonate, glass fibers, and
sawdust. All these fillers give rise to a small increase of modulus and different
effects on the other mechanical characteristics. Glass fibers are very effective in
improvement of all properties, in particular impact and tensile strength are re-
markably enhanced. Significant improvements of the tensile strength are also
observed by adding CaCO3 and sawdust.
Figure 8. Elongation at break of PLC and PLC with 10% inert fillers.
Figure 9. Impact strength of PLC and PLC with 10% inert fillers.
104 Recycling of post-consumer plastic containers for liquids
output flow rate. The presence of 10% fillers reduces the flow rate of by 25-30%
for all investigated fillers, Figure 14. Increasing the filler content a further re-
duction is observed, Figure 15, but this reduction is very small compared with
that observed at a concentration of 5%. This result suggests that at shear rates
experienced in the extruder the viscosities of the filled melts are very similar, re-
markably larger than that of the unfilled molten mixture and almost independ-
ent of the type and content of filler.
MODIFYING AGENTS
Better results have been observed by adding 10% of the above described modi-
fier agents, Figures 16-19.
106 Recycling of post-consumer plastic containers for liquids
Figure 14. Output flow rate for PLC and PLC with 10% inert fillers.
The elastic modulus, Figure 16, decreases and this result was expected
from a low modulus of these rubbery compounds. Because of the same reason,
significant enhancement of the other properties is observed. SEBS and EPDM
remarkably improve tensile strength, elongation at break, and impact strength,
Figures 17 to 19, respectively. Elongation at break, in particular, is low and all
the samples show a fragile behavior.
These modifying agents do not act as compatibilizing agents. The improve-
ment of the elongation at break and impact strength of the mixture is mainly
due to the inherent properties of the elastomers. The SEM micrograph of the
system with EPDM, Figure 20a, does not show a better adhesion between the
phases than that observed in non-modified PLC, Figure 20b.
F. P. La Mantia 107
Figure 16. Elastic modulus of PLC and PLC with 10% modifiers.
Figure 17. Tensile strength of PLC and PLC with 10% modifiers.
COMPATIBILIZERS
Figure 18. Elongation at break of PLC and PLC with 10% modifiers.
Figure 19. Impact strength of PLC and PLC with 10% modifiers.
Figure 20. SEM micrographs: (a) PLC with 10% EPDM, (b) PLC.
In this paragraph, the results of the above discussed systems are compared with
those for a blend obtained by adding 50% of recycled polyethylene, RPE, to the
PLC mixture. RPE is mainly composed of low density polyethylene coming from
recycling of greenhouse films. This new system has been investigated consider-
6,7
ing the results already obtained for similar compositions.
110 Recycling of post-consumer plastic containers for liquids
Figure 25. SEM micrographs: (a) PLC with 5% OCT/CH and (b) PLC with 5% PE-g-MA.
The processability, as evaluated through the output flow rate, Figure 26,
decreases with filler addition, but only by adding 20% of CaCO3 the output flow
rate is rapidly reduced. All other additives and the high viscosity RPE cause
only to a small decrease of the processability of the PLC compound.
As for the elastic modulus, Figure 27, only the coated CaO improves modu-
lus; the decrease observed for the blend with RPE is due to a low modulus of this
recycled material as compared with PLC.
F. P. La Mantia 113
All additives and RPE improve the tensile strength, Figure 28, whereas
only RPE increases elongation at break, Figure 29.
EPDM and RPE offer substantial enhancement of impact strength,
Figure 30.
114 Recycling of post-consumer plastic containers for liquids
CONCLUSIONS
• The recycling of complex, heterogeneous mixtures of polymers is an impor-
tant challenge for the recycling of post-consumer plastics. Incompatibility
and degradation render secondary materials with poor mechanical proper-
ties.
F. P. La Mantia 115
• The results shown in this work indicate that three components blends (PE,
PET, PVC) can be reprocessed several times at high temperatures and the
degradation of PVC can be controlled by using suitable stabilizing systems
and processing conditions. The mechanical properties, however, are not
sufficient. Some improvements can be achieved, using additives such as in-
ert fillers, elastomers, and compatibilizers. Calcium carbonate and saw-
dust lower the cost of the recycled materials but induce only limited
enhancement of some mechanical properties. Addition of glass fibers al-
lows to improve tensile and impact strength.
• Elastomers, used as modifiers (EPDM and SEBS), are very effective in im-
proving the ultimate properties of the secondary materials. These improve-
ments are mostly due to inherent characteristics of the elastomers which
act as a forth phase in the blend.
• The tests carried out with some functionalized compounds suggest that
maleic anhydride grafted polymers and CaO coated with organo-titanates
act as compatibilizers modifying the morphology of the blend but the im-
provement of the mechanical properties does not fully justify cost of
compatibilization.
• The addition of considerable amount of recycled polyethylene to the mix-
ture results in a blend, having polyethylenic matrix, which improves me-
chanical properties.
116 Recycling of post-consumer plastic containers for liquids
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work has been financially supported by MURST (60%) .
REFERENCES
1. E. Sereni in Plastic Materials Recycling, Ed. F. P. La Mantia, ChemTec Publishing,
Toronto, 1993.
2. J. Leidner in Plastics Waste, M. Dekker, New York, 1981.
3. B. Dubrulle d’Orhcel, ReC’93, 17-20 January, 1993.
4. F. Cremonini, L. Castelnuovo, European Regional Meeting of Polymer Processing
Society, Palermo (Italy), September 15-18, 1991.
5. A. Vezzoli, M. Lamperti, and C. A. Beretta in Plastic Materials Recycling,
Ed. F. P. La Mantia, ChemTec Publishing, Toronto, 1993.
6. F. P. La Mantia, Polym. Deg. Stab., 37, 145 (1992).
7. F. P. La Mantia, C. Perrone, and E. Bellio in Plastic Materials Recycling,
Ed. F. P. La Mantia, ChemTec Publishing, Toronto, 1993.
8. F. P. La Mantia, Polym. Deg. Stab., 42, 213 (1993).
9. I. McNeill in Developments in Polymer Degradation, Ed. N. Grassie, Applied
Science Publishers, London, 1977.
10. F. P. La Mantia in Handbook of Polymer Degradation, Eds. S. H. Hamid,
M. B. Amin, and A. G. Maadhah, M. Dekker, New York, 1992.
11. F. P. La Mantia, International Conference on Advances in the Stabilization and
Controlled Degradation of Polymers, Luzern, 25-27 May, 1988.
12. F. P. La Mantia and M. Vinci, Polymer Recycling, 1 (1994).
B. Dubrulle D'Orhcel 117
B. Dubrulle D’Orhcel
A new process for recycling mixed plastics waste is described. With this process mixed plastics waste
can be recycled without any compatibilizer giving rise to secondary materials easily processable in
conventional machinery and with good mechanical properties. The process is based on
homomicronization, a process of deep microhomogenization which permits differing polymers to re-
sult in a solid amalgam with good physical properties.
INTRODUCTION
Recycling of mixed plastics waste is very difficult, in particular because of
the incompatibility of different polymers and danger of degradation of polymers,
1,2
such as PVC, but also due to their different melting points.
Some industrial or laboratory attempts are based on reprocessing at low
temperatures. In these attempts high melting polymers are used as solid fill-
3
ers. Another useful method comprises the use of compatibilizers and stabilizers
4-8
in the polymer blends. Mechanical properties of these recycled mixed plastics
are generally inferior, the surface properties are poor, and in some cases the cost
of compatibilizers and stabilizers is too high for recycled materials.
The possibility of recycling of mixed plastics waste without any
compatibilizer and obtaining a recycled material which easily processed in con-
ventional machinery add value to manufacture. The properties of resultant ma-
terial are also essential.
118 A new process for recycling of mixed plastic waste
Figure 1. Scheme of the Zone I - reception and pretreatment of contaminated plastics waste. Plan
of Newplast-Process compounding line of heterogeneous plastic waste - capacity 1000 kg/h.
120 A new process for recycling of mixed plastic waste
• Grinder
• Friction separator (paper, cardboard)
• Intensive washing
• Mechanical dryer
• Thermal dryer
• Non-ferrous separator
• Grinder
Zone II - Homomicronization Zone
The main items of this zone are (see Figure 2):
• Dosing/weighting
• Homomicronizer
• Filtration and degassing extruder
• Pelletization
Zone III - Packaging Zone
• The main items of this zone are (see Figure 3):
• Storage silos
• Bagging unit
• Palletizing unit
122 A new process for recycling of mixed plastic waste
HOMOMICRONIZATION EQUIPMENT
The homomicronizer is the heart of the line. It transforms plastics waste
into Newplast. It includes all means necessary to guarantee the safest possible
operation within the context of the latest industrial safety criteria.
It consists of a cylindrical chamber, made from a special steel, within which
a rotor turns at high speed. This has specially designed, angled blades which in-
timately micronizes and homogenizes the mixed thermoplastics particles. The
rotor is electrically driven by a computer-controlled, variable-speed motor pro-
grammed adequately to materials processed.
The device shown, in the Figure 4, comprises a cylindrical chamber [2] with
a horizontal axis, provided with a feeding hopper [4] placed in an upper position
and a discharge well [5]. A rotor [6], mounted co-axially inside the chamber [2],
is operated by means of an electric motor [7]. The walls of the chamber [2] consist
of an assembly [10] formed by uniting two semi-cylindrical shells [11 and 12], as-
sembled together by means of a hinge along one lateral edge [13] and a safety
closing device [14] is disposed along the edge [15] opposite the edge [14].
As can best be seen in Figure 5, the rotor [6] comprises a cylindrical shaft
[30] provided with a plurality of radial blades [31, 32], the shapes of which are of
two different types. More precisely, the orientation of the blades [32], mounted
in the vicinity of each end of the shaft [30], is such that it acts to impart to a load
of material being treated in the chamber [2] a motion which tends to push this
material away from the chamber wall adjoining the ends of the shaft [30] to
bring it back towards the inside of the chamber, through the region subjected to
the agitation and stirring action of the blades [31].
The diameter of the chamber [2] and the length of the blades [31 and 32] are
such that, when the rotor [6] is at room temperature or in the vicinity of this tem-
perature, the clearance between the tips of the blades [31 and 32] and the inner
wall [40] of chamber [2] is in the order of 0,5 to 1 mm.
It has been found advantageous that the rotor [6] and its drive motor [7] be
dimensioned relatively to the inner volume of the chamber [2], so that the maxi-
mum mechanical power transferable to the material being treated in the cham-
ber [2] by the rotor [6] be in the order of 1 to 2 kW for each liter of this material.
For example, for a total inner volume of the chamber [2] of 85 liters (case of an
experimental prototype), it was found that the maximum power delivered by the
motor is in the order of 128 kW.
124 A new process for recycling of mixed plastic waste
The mixed plastics particles to be treated are fed to the hopper located on
the top of the machine. This releases the material into the drum via a rotary,
pneumatically-operated cover made from a special material. The cover’s two
pneumatic actuators are locked in the closed position, during processing, by a
security lock. The cover’s seal is specifically manufactured to prevent any leak-
age. The mixed plastics are melted by the friction developed between the parti-
cles as well as that added by the rotor blades and chamber wall. The molten state
is sensed by the temperature probes and by a sharp increase of the engine
torque. At this time the molten mixture is completely homogenized and is dis-
charged from the chamber.
NEWPLAST-PROCESS
The process and the machine are computer controlled with a specific pro-
gram which has been developed for each application. Parameters determining
each phase of the process are:
• Temperature
• Rotor speed associated with torque and torque variation
• Time
During the process, the computer receives the above information and man-
ages the rotor speed, the rate of the acceleration and deceleration of the speed
and reads the temperature of the rotor and chamber’s wall.
Depending on the type of mixture and the capacity of the machine, the cycle
can take between 35 and 120 s. Once the gelification phase is completed, the un-
loading door opens, combined with a decrease of the rotation speed of the rotor,
and the mixture is then transported by feeding force onto extruder screw. At this
stage of the process, according to the type of the mixed polymers, the tempera-
o
ture of the mixture varies between 200 and 230 C.
The homomicronizer is fed by an automatic batch delivery device, which, in
turn, is fed from a silo of mixed plastics wastes, shredded, washed, dried, and
stocked. The conditions of these wastes are (for a given production cost):
Component Concentration, %
HDPE 63.75
PVC 8.75
PP 8.75
PS 8.75
PET 5
ABS 5
Component Concentration, %
HDPE 63.75
PP 11.25
PVC 4.5
ABS 4.5
PS 4.5
PET 4.5
PP 5.0
EVA 2.0
CONCLUSIONS
The main advantage of this technology is that it can process heterogeneous
mixed plastics wastes from urban waste into a thermoplastics compound with
well accepted physical properties. The product can be obtained with a total pro-
cessing cost which is today 30-40% of a virgin polymer cost of similar properties.
Due to industrialization of the process, the only sure feedstock source of
large quantities of plastics wastes is from urban wastes, not only in large quan-
tity but also with a certain consistency in composition.
Finally, this thermoplastics compound can be processed, once formulated,
by all the standard plastics processing equipments.
REFERENCES
1. J. Leidner, Plastics Waste, M. Dekker, New York, 1981.
2. F. P. La Mantia, this book, p. 63.
3. A. Vezzoli, M. Lamperti, and C.A. Beretta in Recycling of Plastic Materials,
Ed. F. P. La Mantia, ChemTec Publishing, Toronto, 1993.
4. F. P. La Mantia, Polym. Deg. Stab., 37, 145 (1992).
5. F. P. La Mantia, C. Perrone, and E. Bellio in Recycling of Plastic Materials,
Ed. F. P. La Mantia, ChemTec Publishing, Toronto, 1993.
128 A new process for recycling of mixed plastic waste
The present study summarizes the main radical methods of synthesis of grafted copolymers. Among
these techniques, ozonization is an original and simple way to obtain this type of copolymer. The
ozonization procedure is described in details together with the methods used to characterize activated
polymers, species obtained, and grafting techniques. The study also presents the main applications of
the grafted copolymers obtained by this technique. Various mixtures of incompatible polymers can be
compatibilized by these copolymers which clearly enhances the global performances of the materials.
The crosslinked polymers have been decrosslinked by ozone, which allowed their evaluation, espe-
cially in compositions with bitumens. The ozonized polyethylene wastes can be used in bitumens for
reinforcement. In all the examples dealt with, the study describes the analysis methods and the prop-
erties of the obtained materials and shows that ozonization constitutes an original way of treatment
and utilization of plastic wastes.
1 INTRODUCTION
Over the last years, plastic recycling has become a major concern for industrial-
ists and public because of the increasing consumption and the decrease in avail-
able landfilling areas. It was necessary to find alternative routes which can help
to retain the energetic content of these materials but also preserve our environ-
ment. During last years, many research works have been funded in this field.
The recycling operation is now an attractive concept but not always very easy to
accomplish, especially in the following cases:
• mixtures of polymers difficult to separate for technical or economic rea-
sons,
• combinations of polymers obtained by coextrusion and other methods
• crosslinked polymers.
130 Grafted copolymers and their use in polymer blends
These well defined cases require special treatment. In the case of mixtures,
compatibilization is a feasible solution because it modifies polymers which are
not naturally miscible into compatible or partially compatible polymers. The use
of compatibilizing or emulsifying agents is important because they allow to re-
duce the phases size and ensure their anchoring. Moreover, this technique is
broadly used to obtain mixtures of virgin polymers called alloys. In the case of
crosslinked polymers, the works to use these products are conducted in several
directions:
• decrosslinking and depolymerization of the polymers to obtain basic mono-
mers
• grinding of materials and incorporation of the ground species as fillers in
formulations.
The decrosslinking alone is difficult to achieve and there are a few refer-
ences regarding this method. In this chapter, a method, optimized by our team
to utilize crosslinked polymers, is presented.
A great part of the research carried out by international teams is centered
on the compatibilization of polymers. Number of techniques have been devel-
oped depending on the polymer composition. They may be summarized as fol-
lows:
• addition of a compatibilizer to polymer blends before processing. The
compatibilizers used are, in most cases, block or grafted copolymers
• addition of a compatibilizer during processing. In this case, the additives
are mostly copolymers or polymers having functional groups such as
maleic anhydride, or simply smaller reactive molecules (e.g., maleic anhy-
dride) added in the presence of an initiator, or functional mineral fillers
able to play a role of a compatibilizer.
In this chapter, we are dealing with agents added before processing, and
more particularly with grafted copolymers. The original method to synthesize
this type of copolymers was developed and applied to polymer blends. The
method to obtain these copolymers and their application to various binary mix-
tures of polymers is discussed below. The synthesis method uses the ozonization
reaction for decrosslinking of radical crosslinked polymers and preparation of
polymers reactive towards bitumens. These last works have been conducted to-
gether with Professor M. Delmas and his co-workers from Ecole de Chimie at
Toulouse.
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 131
This reaction may be performed in bulk or in a molten state for two polymers,
having reactive groups in their structure. If a polymer polymer A includes func-
tional groups X, distributed along its chain, and a polymer B includes groups Y
at its ends, it is possible to obtain a grafted copolymer by reaction between X and
Y:
132 Grafted copolymers and their use in polymer blends
RC 6 H 4 NO 2 → RC 6 H 4 N 2+
RC 6 H 4 N 2+ + Fe 2+ → RC 6 H 4 N •2 + Fe 3 +
RC 6 H 4 N 2• → RC 6 H 4• + N 2
13 14
The method was also used by Valentine and Hanh to prepare poly(sty-
rene-g-acrylonitrile) copolymers.
2.2.3 Irradiation
In many cases, the chemical modification of polymers by UV, γ-radiation, or elec-
tron bombardment constitutes a way to form macroradicals, allowing the syn-
thesis of grafted copolymers. Number of studies refer to macromolecular
134 Grafted copolymers and their use in polymer blends
15,16
chemistry under γ-rays or accelerated electrons irradiation. These reactions
are carried out in the absence of oxygen to avoid formation of peroxides or
hydroperoxides. Various polymers can be activated by this method, including
polyolefins, and also more resistant polymers such as PVDF or PTFE. For exam-
17 18,19,20,21
ple, through this technique, acrylic acid or styrene may be grafted onto
22
polyethylene or chloromethyl styrene can be grafted onto teflon and vinyl
23
pyridine onto PVDF.
2.3 TRANSFER TO POLYMER
Macroinitiators are polymers bearing groups able to decompose under the ac-
tion of heat or light to produce free radicals on the chain. Peroxides and
hydroperoxides are the best known groups which, after decomposition of the ox-
ygenated groups, initiate the polymerization of any monomer present in the me-
dium and are polymerizable by radical route. Macroinitiators can be prepared
by different methods discussed below.
2.4.1 Oxidation
This technique was developed, for the first time, at Brooklyn Polytechnic Insti-
28
tute, where hydroperoxides, resulting from the thermal oxidation of a vinyl
polymer, were used to initiate the polymerization of vinyl monomers. The graft-
ing of styrene, methyl methacrylate, or vinyl chloride onto poly-α-olefins was re-
29
alized by this method. The thermal oxidation mechanism was shown to involve
the formation of hydroperoxides, which decompose to a number of oxygenated
30
functional groups, not necessarily leading to a grafted copolymer.
2.4.2 Ozonization
Contrary to oxidation, ozonization forms relatively stable peroxide and
hydroperoxide groups which can be used to initiate a further polymerization.
Many grafted copolymers were synthesized by this technique, especially
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 135
31 32
polyolefins grafted by fluorinated monomers or acrylic monomers, polyvinyl
33
chloride grafted by styrene, and fluorinated polymers grafted by styrene or
34,35
acrylic monomers.
2.4.3 Preirradiation in the presence of air
In this case, the polymer is exposed to an ionizing radiation, γ −rays, generally,
in the presence of oxygen or air. The radicals, which are formed, react with oxy-
gen to give hydroperoxides and peroxides which, by heating in the presence of
monomers, lead to the formation of grafted copolymers and homopolymers.
36
Chapiro showed that room temperature irradiation of polyethylene gives per-
oxides whereas polypropylene irradiation results in hydroperoxides under the
same conditions. By this technique, it was possible to graft styrene, methyl
36
methacrylate, and acrylonitrile onto polymers, such as polyethylene, poly-
37 38
propylene, and polyvinylchloride.
2.5 MACROMONOMERS
The major part of the work was accomplished, using mercaptan-type trans-
41-45
fer agents with acrylic or methacrylic monomers, or monomers such as vinyl
46,47
chloride.
2.5.2 Polyaddition reaction
Polyaddition of non-conjugated dienes and diamines, under stoichiometric con-
ditions, leads to the formation of polyamine macromonomers. For example,
polyaddition of divinylbenzene and a secondary diamine gives a polyamine
48,49
macromonomer:
The reaction of ozone with organic compounds has often been studied. It is an in-
teresting way to introduce oxygenated compounds into structures, and, conse-
quently, to form C-O-C bonds. The reaction produces several compounds,
difficult to separate, which is the main drawback of this reaction. Many parame-
ters are involved in this type of oxidation:
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 137
RH + O 3 → RO • + HO 2• (50)
RH + O 3 → R • + O 2 + HO • (51)
RH + O 3 → ROOOH → RO • + HO 2• (52)
also O 3 → O 2 + •O •
and RH + •O • → R • + HO • (53)
The above processes constitute the first step of the reaction. They result in
rearrangement or decomposition secondary reactions forming acid, ketone, or
55-59
aldehyde compounds. The ozonization reaction of double bonds is much
faster and gives rise to ozonides which also decompose and yield many second-
61-63
ary products. In the case of aromatic rings instable triozonides are obtained
64,65
and they decompose very quickly.
138 Grafted copolymers and their use in polymer blends
The reaction may be carried out for dissolved polymers by bubbling O2/O3
gaseous mixture in appropriate solvents (solvents which are not decomposed by
ozone) or in bulk, using finely ground polymers suspended in a fluidized bed.
Polymers should be ground to a very fine powder because the peroxidation reac-
tions occur at the grains periphery and are substantially retarded in the grain
core due to limits of gas diffusion. The crystallinity of the basic polymer is of par-
66
ticular importance because it decreases diffusion rate in the crystalline zones.
Generally, the reaction is carried out at room temperature, but it may also be
o
conducted at moderate temperatures (<100 C).
For the most part, the ozone generators deliver gaseous mixtures contain-
ing more or less ozone depending whether ambient air or pure oxygen are used
as feed gas. The ozone flow is generally in the range of 18 to 36 g/hr.
3.2 DETERMINATION OF THE POLYMER ACTIVATION
The main functional groups of interest in this study, formed during the
ozonization, are peroxides and hydroperoxides and their formation must be
monitored.
3.2.1 Colorimetric titration
67
This method, described by T. Sarraf, involves a free radical scavenger: diphen-
yl picryl hydrazil, DPPH. DPPH, stable at room temperature, is added in excess
o
to the ozonized sample and reacted at 110 C. The cleavage of peroxides and
hydroperoxides to RO∴φ9 and HO∴φ9 generates free radicals which are captured
by DPPH. After precipitation of polyethylene, the excess of DPPH in the filtrate
is back-titrated by colorimetry at 520 nm, and the amount of initial peroxides
and hydroperoxides can be obtained from the result.
3.2.2 Selective titration of hydroperoxides in the presence of ferrous salts
68
The method was introduced by Landler and Lebel who determined the decom-
position constants of ozonized polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, and polystyrene,
69
without distinction between peroxides and hydroperoxides. Zeppenfeld dem-
onstrated that only hydroperoxides in acidic medium can oxidize ferrous ions ac-
cording to the following reactions:
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 139
ROOH + Fe 2+ + H + → RO ± + Fe 3 + + H 2O
RO • + Fe 2+ + H + → ROH + Fe 3 +
2+
It should be noted that a hydroperoxide molecule consumes 2Fe . The ti-
3+
tration is done after complexation of the ferric iron (Fe ) by ammonium
thiocyanate, leading to a red complex readily titrated by colorimetry at 512 nm.
3.2.3 Iodometric titration
70-72
Even if it is not universal, it is the most mentioned method. It is based on oxi-
dation by the peroxides in acidic medium of the iodide ions into iodine. The reac-
tion scheme is as follows:
I 2 + 2S 2O 32 − → 2I- + S 4O 26 −
This method is simple but it has many constraints, the main is the need for
the very strict experimental conditions. Effectively, a side-reaction may occur:
addition of iodine to the double bonds of the titrated polymer (either formed dur-
ing the ozonization or present in the starting polymer).
Species formed during the ozonization behave like classical initiators. It was,
thus, interesting to evaluate their decomposition rate constant Kd. For this pur-
pose, several methods were used by various authors working on this subject.
3.3.1 Determination of the global dissociation constant Kd
The peroxide functional groups decompose into free radicals according to the re-
action:
ROOH → 2RO •
ROOH → RO • + HO •
140 Grafted copolymers and their use in polymer blends
Plotting Ln[M]o/[M] = f(t) for low conversion rates, for each grafting temper-
ature, a curve is obtained from which the slope of the origin tangent allows the
calculation of fKd. The authors show that the influence of the monomer concen-
tration at the beginning is not negligible, and it determines the reaction medium
viscosity. Moreover, the grafting reactions are accompanied by the thermal
homopolymerization reactions which have been taken into account by the au-
thors in evaluation of their experiment and contribution to the monomer disap-
pearance rate.
The real activation energies of the grafting reaction, initiated by peroxides,
was calculated. The efficiency factor was calculated from a low conversion rates
of monomer by comparing the theoretical curve obtained from the general ex-
pression of the monomer disappearance in function of time to the real curve.
This comparison allowed authors to evaluate f and Kd.
The products of the grafting phase contain grafted copolymers mixed with
homopolymer formed by thermal polymerization or resulting from the thermal
decomposition of hydroperoxides. It is important to separate these components
to characterize the products obtained. It is thus necessary to purify and separate
the grafted copolymers.
The purification of grafted copolymers is generally performed by fractional
precipitation of the reaction mixture in a pair of solvent and non-solvent of the
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 143
Figure 1: Styrene grafting reaction followed by measurement of torque in the batch mixer.
They suggest that the molar ratio of the two types of sequences is given by
the following formula involving the determined fluorine amounts:
3800 − 64%F
x/y=
100%F
The same calculation can be done from the results of determination of the
carbon amount. The molar grafting rate is obtained by the following formula, de-
rived from the previous one:
3800 − 64%F
T=
3800 + 36%F
This method has been the most frequently applied to determine the graft-
31,33,67
ing rates, and it is faster and more practical. The results can also be ob-
tained from NMR for polymers soluble in usual solvents.
33
Robin et al. applied gel permeation chromatography, GPC to P(VCgSt) co-
polymers prepared by this method (Figure 2). It was demonstrated that PVC
ozonization leads to a decrease in the molecular weight of polymers and an in-
crease in polydispersity, which is in full agreement with what we have seen in
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 145
the first part of this chapter. After grafting, a clear increase of the copolymer mo-
lecular mass is noticed, thus indicating that the grafting has been achieved. The
1
H NMR of the copolymer gives a styrene amount in the range of 13%.
ence on the chain length of the grafter, but the amount of MMA added plays an
important role.
77
With the same purpose, Fargere et al. demonstrated that DPPH titrates
only hydroperoxides without taking into account peroxides which can be esti-
mated from the determination of the cleavage numbers in a chain. These au-
thors established that only peroxides are responsible for the chain cleavages
and thus for the decrease of the molecular mass of the polymer measured by
75
GPC. On the contrary, Sarraf et al. show that ozonized PE contains 4% of per-
oxides and 96% of hydroperoxides with a peroxide number in a chain of about 1
for 10 hydroperoxides. They attempted to measure the kinetic length of the
grafts by assuming that grafts have the same chain length as homopolymers
formed in the medium. This assumption is necessary because the attempts by
66
Brugière, who tried to cleave the ether bonds, linking the grafts to the polymer
backbone, to measure their length, proved to be unsuccessful. Beginning with
this assumption and measuring the molecular weight of homopolymers by GPC,
these authors found the graft lengths between 200 and 600 monomer units (very
large). These high values are not in accordance with the theoretical values cal-
culated from the kinetic laws involving termination reactions by classical re-
combination for vinyl monomers.
The authors deduce that the transfer side-reactions occur during the graft-
ing, thus limiting the grafts lengths.
3.6 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS OF GRAFTED COPOLYMERS
The ozonization technique has also been used to process plastic wastes
from individual materials or their mixture. Various approaches to the problem
were realized.
4 POLYMER BLENDS AND ALLOYS
Along this study, we have tried to obtain polymer blends without previous sepa-
ration of the mixture constituents. For this purpose, we prepared
compatibilizers, namely grafted copolymers, for which the effect on incompati-
82
ble polymers has been known for a long time. It is well known that either
diblock, grafted or multiblock copolymers, when added in small amounts to in-
compatible mixtures, improve properties such as:
• phase dispersion
• strength at break
• elongation at break
• impact resistance.
But this type of copolymers is often difficult to prepare especially diblock
copolymers, and their use is generally limited to virgin materials. We developed
the technique of preparation of grafted copolymers by ozonization, simple to con-
duct and inexpensive, which can be applied to material recycling.
The technique consists of preparation of copolymer separately and adding
it to the mixture during its processing. In all examples described below, 5% or
148 Grafted copolymers and their use in polymer blends
strength at break and the modulus are the two important characteristics. The
elongation at break remains almost constant for this type of copolymer, and it
even decreases sometimes, thus indicating that the mixtures acquire a fragile
behavior (Figures 3 and 4).
85
The processing was reproduced on a twin-screw extruder by B. Leseur,
who optimized the machine parameters for compatibilized mixtures and con-
firmed the results obtained by Sarraf et al. The water absorption of the prepared
alloys was tested by immersion of the materials in boiling water. Since the mix-
ture interphase was improved by the use of compatibilizer, much less water ab-
sorption was observed for compatibilized mixture (0.12% instead of 0.25%)
which confirms the effect of the copolymer on the interfacial adhesion.
Figure 3 : Variation of the PE/PVC mixtures strength at break, sR. - no compatibilizer, l - with 5
wt% of non-purified compatibilizer.
It should be noticed that very low amounts of the copolymer are sufficient
to compatibilize blend, and that above 2.5 wt%, the strength at break of the mix-
ture decreases considerably.
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 151
Figure 4 : Variation of the PE/PVC mixtures elongation at break, eR. - no compatibilizer, l - with
5 wt% of non-purified compatibilizer.
The use of P(VCgS) copolymers prepared according to the technique herein de-
33
scribed was considered by Robin et al. who tested the 50/50 mixtures contain-
ing 10% grafted copolymer. The results obtained are included in Table 6.
The authors show that the addition of grafted copolymer affects the
strength at break, and, in a lesser proportion, the elongation at break. As previ-
ously mentioned, the copolymer purification after synthesis is irrelevant for the
performance, and, actually, the best performance is reached with non-purified
copolymers. SEM micrographs (Photographs 1,2,3, and 4) show evident im-
provement in the phases dispersion and a decrease of the nodules size by a factor
5 for compatibilized blends.
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 155
The treated wastes were essentially ground polyethylene films coming from
packing bags, pallet shrinks, greenhouse films, and all other kinds of wastes.
These materials were ozonized in a fluidized bed, according to the technique pre-
viously described and added to bitumen at the rate of 10.5 wt%. The mixing of bi-
tumen and polymer mixture is carried out under strong stirring (10,000 RPM).
o
The studies show that mixing at 180 C for one hour and thirty minutes is neces-
sary to obtain an suitable mixture. The performance of mixtures containing bi-
tumen (180/220)/polyethylene (fluidity indices IF of 4 to 70) are included in
Table 8. It should be noticed that the penetrability is highly influenced by poly-
ethylene incorporation (sometimes even by a factor 2) and that the use of
ozonized polyethylene slightly increases penetrability compared to its
non-ozonized homologous. The ring-and-ball temperatures, representing the
158 Grafted copolymers and their use in polymer blends
The results show that ozonization decreases the molecular weight of poly-
ethylene molecules. The molecular mass of the ozonized product is approxi-
mately twice lower than that of initial product. Moreover, the polydispersity
index rapidly increases, which indicates that chains, broken during the
ozonization, have different sizes. When we examine the results obtained with
the ozonized sample deactivated on bitumen, we notice that the molecular mass
increases and is in the range of the standard polyethylene molecular mass. This
increase can only be due to two phenomena:
• either free radicals coupling reactions of the following types occur:
RO • + R′ O • → ROOR′
RO • + H • → ROH
RO • + R′ • → ROR′
o o
18 C 50 C Brasilian
5 5 5 Ratio*
(10 Pa) (10 Pa) (10 Pa)
Standard gravel-bituminous mixes without PE
83 17 20 4.8
(5.5% bitumen)
PE-based gravel-bituminous mixes (IF=70; Ø<800 µm) 117 36 26 3.25
Ozonized PE-based gravel-bituminous mixes (IF=70;
129 37 26 3.48
Ø<800 µm)
Finely ground recovered PE-based gravel-bituminous
136 46 - 3
mixes (Ø<2.8 mm)
Finely ground and ozonized recovered PE-based
150 50 34 3
gravel-bituminous mixes (Ø<2.8 mm)
Coarsely ground recovered PE-based gravel-bituminous
125 51 27 2.4
mixes (Ø<6 mm)
*ratio of compression at 18 and 50oC, Rc
In simple compression testing, the specimen is impacted along the height
and the force measured is related to the specimen cross-section. In “Brasilian
test”, the specimen is impacted at the edge and the force related to the height
and the diameter of the specimen. The results are reported in Table 10. From
these results, we can conclude that the addition of PE in gravel-bituminous
mixes improves their mechanical properties, compared to the standard
gravel-bituminous mixes without polymer. If we compare gravel-bituminous
mixes to PE and their homologoes to ozonized PE, we can see that the perfor-
o
mance of the latter is better, especially at 18 C. We also notice that the perfor-
mance of a finely ground PE is superior to samples obtained with a coarsely
o
ground polymer. This difference is considerable at 18 C.
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 161
o o
Resistance in simple compression, at 18 C and 50 C, have been compared.
The Rc 18/50 ratio is representative for the thermal susceptibility of the
gravel-bituminous mixes. If the gravel-bituminous mix is thermally suscepti-
ble, the Rc value is higher due to more rapid decrease in compression resistance
o
at 50 C. In this study, the Rc 18/50 ratio values are close in the range of 3.25 to
2.4. For all gravel-bituminous mixes containing polyethylene, we obtain a value
lower than that obtained with gravel-bituminous mixes made out of bitumen.
This proves that the thermal susceptibility of gravel-bituminous mixes with
polyethylene is lower and that the thermal properties of these compositions
were improved.
Concerning the “Brasilian” type tests, we find that addition of polymer
highly improves the compression resistance, compared to traditional gravel-bi-
tuminous mixes.
The flexural modulus of gravel-bituminous mixes was measured at various
temperatures and the results are given in Table 11. The flexural modulus of
gravel-bituminous mixes, based on ozonized PE, is superior to their
non-ozonized precursors.
Table 11: Flexural modulus of gravel bituminous mixes based on bitumen and
ozonized polyethylene
o o o
E at 10 C E at 15 C E at 25 C
(GPa) (GPa) (GPa)
Reference gravel-bitumen mix 0.088 0.055 0.016
Gravel-bituminous mix based on ozonized PE (IF=70) 0.407 0.235 0.182
Gravel-bituminous mix based on non-ozonized PE (IF=70) 0.191 0.051 0.043
Gravel-bituminous mix based on recovered ozonized PE 0.462 0.253 0.130
Gravel-bituminous mix based on recovered non-ozonized PE 0.390 0.113 0.100
The binder adhesivity to gravel was also measured, particularly for quartz-
ite, (the mixing with bituminous binders is difficult). Gravel-bituminous mixes
o
with various binders were maintained at temperature 60 C in a thermostated
bath and the percentage of the minerals which were not coated by bitumen
quantified. The results in Table 12 show that binders containing ozonized poly-
ethylene adhere much better than binders based on non-activated polyethylene
or bitumen alone.
162 Grafted copolymers and their use in polymer blends
This work was conducted with the firm MALET from Toulouse. We have used
the ozonization technique to decrosslink an ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer,
EVA, which is an uncommon operation. Wastes coming from various industries
were ozonized in carbon tetrachloride. EVA ozonization is difficult in the solid
state because the waste is damaged by carbonization. In a solvent such as CCl4,
we first observe a dissolution of O3 then a reaction of the gas with the crosslinked
polymer. The authors optimized this reaction according to experimental design,
in which numerous parameters were varied. From structural analysis of model
polymers, it can be anticipated that vinyl sequences are only little affected by
the action of ozone. Essentially, the ethylenic segments are damaged leading to
the decrosslinking of the polymer.
The decrosslinked polymers were incorporated into bitumen in order to im-
prove its mechanical and physical performances. EVA-bitumen mixtures have
already been perfected by road constructors. They include virgin EVA, not
crosslinked, but are seldom used because of a high cost of EVA. Using this type of
waste opens new prospects in this field. The following observations were made
from results obtained:
• The best properties of the bitumen-decrosslinked polymer binders are ob-
tained for wastes ozonized for 90 minutes at 47oC. In other conditions, ei-
ther insufficient dissolution of the polymer in the bitumen, or too complete
dissolution of the polymer, accompanied by decrease in binder perfor-
mance, occurs.
B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and J.-J. Robin 163
42. M. Niwa, T. Hayashi, and T. Matsumoto, J. Macromol. Sci. Chem., A23(4), 433 (1986).
43. Y. Yamashita, K. Ito, H. Mizuno, and K. Okada, Polym. J., 14, 255, (1982).
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(1985).
46. B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, M. Taha, and T. E. Sarraf, Makromol. Chem., 184, 2401
(1983).
47. C. Bonardi, B. Boutevin, Y. Pietrasanta, and M.Taha, Makromol. Chem., 186, 261
(1985).
48. Y. Nitadori and T. Tsuruta, Makromol. Chem., 180, 1877 (1979).
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166 Grafted copolymers and their use in polymer blends
Effect of Contamination
on the Recycling of Polymers
J. Scheirs
G. Camino
INTRODUCTION
Contamination in recycling is an extremely broad topic encompassing a di-
versity of forms such as dirt, partially oxidized polymers, printing inks, paper,
pesticides, metals, foil, additives (e.g., fire retardants and antioxidants) and
their transformation products. Contamination in polymers for recycling is ubiq-
uitous; be it soil in LDPE mulch film or metal fragments from aluminum caps in
PET. Furthermore, plastic products are increasingly multicomponent systems
comprising pigments, fillers, labels, glues, laminates and coatings. The poten-
tial for undesirable/antagonistic interactions and the probability of undetected
contamination being present, leading to a reduction of the recycle quality, is
high. Even in curbside collection programs solely for PET and HDPE bottles, col-
lected in plastic boxes, it has been found there can be 15 to 20% contamination
1
by foreign bodies. Table 1 is a comprehensive list of common contaminants
found in recycled polymers.
168 Effect of contamination on the recycling of polymers
In Europe, the majority of bottles for carbonated beverages and spring wa-
ter are manufactured from either polyethylene terephthalate, PET, or polyvinyl
chloride, PVC. As such, these polymers are the most commonly encountered re-
cycled plastics and provide the main feedstock for the plastics recycling indus-
try. PET and PVC, however, are often found to contaminate each other mutually
by virtue of their very similar specific weights. As a consequence, they cannot be
separated through ordinary physical processes such as water flotation or air
1
elutriation and, therefore must be separated by more sophisticated means.
PVC is not stable at the processing temperatures of PET (i.e., approximately
o
280 C). At these temperatures PVC readily undergoes dehydrochlorination
leading to copious evolution of hydrogen chloride. As a result, many purchasers
of recycled PET specify that PVC be “undetected”. The presence of as little as 100
ppm of PVC as flake in recovered PET can cause serious polymer discoloration of
PET during its drying phase and lead to contamination of the polymer with
3
black specks during extrusion. Yet there are applications where up to several
hundred ppm of PVC is tolerable.
HDPE in PET
objectionable, and can cause mechanically weak zones leading to failure in the
4
PET matrix.
PP in HDPE
Many HDPE and PET bottles (such as milk and beverage containers) have
paper labels which are usually removed during the washing stage in the recy-
cling process. However, residual paper in the form of cellulose fibers have been
found to cause major problems (creation of holes and surface defects) during
blow molding of the reprocessed resin.
MULTILAYER POLYMERS
The advent of coextruded and multilayer films for barrier applications has
complicated the recycling of polymer films due to the presence of polyamides and
EVOH which lack compatibility with the PE or PP recycle.
J. Scheirs and G. Camino 171
The studies to date thus show that while HDPE is easily contaminated by
liquid contents, PET is less affected. This can be attributed, in part, to the
oleophilic nature of HDPE and its susceptibility to environmental stress crack-
ing. While PET, when biaxially oriented (as is the case in the stretch-blown bev-
erage bottles), is highly crystalline and generally impervious to the ingress of
migratory compounds. In addition, the relatively high processing temperature
of PET means that any sorbed contamination is likely to break down during re-
processing. HDPE only otherhand, is reprocessed at considerably lower temper-
atures and many toxic compounds could be expected to survive this heat
treatment.
CONTAMINATION BY THE ENVIRONMENT
SOIL IN MULCH FILM
The recycling of mulch film has been actively investigated by Dow Chemi-
cals because the normal practice of disposal by burning it on the fields is envi-
ronmental undesirable. The contamination levels in mulch film make its
recycling particularly challenging. For instance, soil contamination can be as
high as 30-40%. Furthermore, the soil can contain up to 3% of iron which is a
13
polyethylene prodegradant. In addition, it was found that vegetable matter
coming from harvested plants could not be removed during the washing opera-
13
tions. Other contaminants are fumigants (e.g. methyl bromide) and the oxi-
dized fractions of LDPE due to photodegradation of the mulch film.
MOISTURE CONTAMINATION IN PET
the gas-phase by “flame poisoning”. However, there is concern that these mate-
rials form supertoxic compounds such as polybrominated dibenzofurans, PBDF,
and polybrominated dibenzodioxins, PBDD, during high temperature decompo-
sition as shown in Figure 1. Nevertheless, because of the outstanding efficiency
of PBDE’s they are universally used as flame retardants in most plastics. Such
is their effectiveness that there is currently no equivalent substitute for impart-
15
ing flame retardance to upholstered furniture. Moreover, though the use of
these systems may be curtailed in the near future, the immediate predicament
is that PBDE-containing polymers which were fabricated 10-20 years ago are
now reaching the end of their useful life and entering the recycle stream.
16
A recent paper by Meyer et al. indicates that it is the flame retardants
that determine the recyclability of a polymer. Engineering plastics such as
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene which contain PBDE are unsuitable for recy-
cling because of the generation of PBDF and PBDD’s. Moldings containing
16
PBDE must therefore be separated before recycling. The recycling of printed
17
circuit boards has been investigated by Lorenz et al. and it was found that the
combination of the presence of flame retardants (such as, tetrabromobisphenol
A), elevated temperatures and the catalytic effects of copper represent typical
formation conditions for PBDD. Levels of PBDD up to 4.5 ng/g were detected af-
o 17
ter heating the printed circuit boards in an oven at 300 C.
J. Scheirs and G. Camino 175
the milk. Manual removal is too labor intensive and is thus not economical.
Since the weight of the cap is typically 10% of the weight of the bottle, some
recyclers have opted to include the caps into the recycle stream. The effect of this
is that the recycled product has an olive or “dirty” green color due to the presence
21
of red and blue caps. As the caps are generally also PE they cannot be removed
by the float/sink process. Some companies have had limited success removing
the caps by air classification and elutriation techniques, whereby the caps which
are more thicker-walled than the bottles are separated out in a column of air.
There is now a move to produce the caps from PP but this causes other problems
due to its higher melting point. A number of manufacturers have installed color
sorters which rely on electronic optical scanners in combination with high-pres-
sure air jets to selectively remove colored fragments from the recycled material.
Companies such as Simco, Pulsar, ESM, Satake, and Sortex have commercially
available models of such color sorters that are capable of sorting up to 6 tones of
material per hour. Although colored recycle is acceptable for most applications it
is of concern for blow molding of lightly colored bottles.
Color contamination can also occur in PET. Clear PET bottle flake can
sometimes contain some green chips. Perfect manual separation of green from
clear bottles is possible but expensive. Although melt extrusion homogenizes
the polymers and the colors, it takes only 1000 ppm of green PET chips to create
an observable color shift in clear PET.
LDPE film is extensively used for packaging and for the production of shop-
ping bags. These films often contain a fatty-acid amide lubricant (usually
cis-docosenamide) which can be oxidized during thermal reprocessing of LDPE
film. The lubricant readily undergoes cleavage at the unsaturated site to give a
homologous series of aldehydes which have very low odor thresholds. Such con-
tamination imparts to the recycle, a rancid odor which may restrict its applica-
tion potential.
Recycled PET from used x-ray film must be carefully analyzed for contami-
nation if it is to be used for the production of new photographic base film. This is
because caustic residues from the silver recovery process can cause fogging of
22
the photographic emulsion.
These oxygenated species are in fact “impurities” which can cause sensitization
of the polymer towards further thermal and photooxidation. The most destruc-
tive self generated impurity in many polymers is the hydroperoxide group. Since
hydroperoxides are thermally unstable and photolabile they can readily break
down to initiate a chain of radical reactions. Other impurities are carbonyl
groups which are products of oxidation and can act as chromophores in
photooxidation. For example, greenhouse films, usually based on LDPE, are fre-
quently recycled. These films are usually quite degraded by UV light and are
used to manufacture films for low-grade application. Such films usually have
23
low mechanical strength and low intrinsic stability.
A number of recent papers in the literature have discussed the recycling of
24
fluoropolymers. Although, the reuse of fluoropolymers is relatively scarce com-
pared with commodity thermoplastics, their high cost provides incentive for re-
covery and recycling. During the reprocessing and pyrolysis of fluoropolymers,
25
the possibility exists for the production of perfluoroisobutene, PFIB, which is a
cause for concern, even in small amounts, because of its extremely high toxicity
(the reported 2 hour lethal dose for PFIB in rats is 1 ppm). It has been found that
o
PTFE begins to form PFIB at 525 C, while other fluoropolymers such as
poly(tetrafluoroethylene-hexafluoropropylene) copolymers form PFIB at tem-
o 25
peratures as low as 380 C. The toxic nature of gaseous products of
fluoropolymers emphasizes the need for good exhaust ventilation during the re-
processing of such polymers.
This problem is exacerbated where PTFE is used as a flame retardant addi-
tive in engineering plastics such as polyphenylene ether, polycarbonate and
26
ABS where it imparts non-dripping characteristics during burning of the poly-
mer. In the temperatures encountered in polymer incineration, PTFE would al-
most certainly produce dangerous levels of PFIB.
METAL CONTAMINATION
oxidation catalysts through redox reactions. Processing of PVC waste can also
promote acid-induced corrosion of the extruder components resulting in rust
particle contamination.
GEL CONTAMINATION
Recycling of PCR HDPE (usually milk bottles) by melt extrusion can lead to
crosslinking during the thermal reprocessing stage since the antioxidant added
27
initially (during manufacture of the polymer) is consumed. Loosely
crosslinked regions (known as ‘gels’) can acts as stress concentrations in film
and cause ‘blow-outs’ in bottles made from recycled HDPE.
DEGRADED POLYMER CONTAMINATION
DETECTION OF CONTAMINATION
A number of patents have been issued in which the nature of impurities
and their detection in recycled plastic is achieved by measuring their IR emis-
J. Scheirs and G. Camino 179
28
sion and where the post-consumer plastic itself is categorized by IR imaging. A
novel method for detecting contamination in mixed plastics uses a pulsed laser
beam to form a plasma which is then spectrally analyzed. A rapid technique for
determining the level of PVC in mixed plastic waste has been described where
the commingled polymer powder is thermally degraded using a linear tempera-
o
ture ramp from 260-360 C and the vinyl chloride polymer content is calculated
29
from the HCl concentration in the evolved gas. PVC contamination is of partic-
ular concern in polymer recycling since it can adversely impact upon the recy-
cling process (see Table 3).
A method has been devised for the microseparation of PVC from PET in
which the PVC is subjected to a process of selective bulking which causes it to
34
float. This method is ideally suited for the removal of small quantities of PVC
from large quantities of PET bottle recycle as is generally the case in the USA.
However, in Europe, PVC can be a major component in the recycle stream and
thus must also be recycled. Froth flotation of PVC contaminants provides an ef-
35
ficient way for PVC removal in the recycling of PET bottles.
A process for separating PET and PVC has been recently patented in which
the commingled stream is treated with NaOH and a nonionic surfactant (e.g.,
TM o
Neodol 91-6) in order to reduce the contact angle of PET flakes to less than 25
o
whilst maintaining the contact angle of PVC greater than 45 . Then, the flake
mixture is added to water and agitated to allow PVC flakes to come in contact
with gas bubbles causing the PVC flakes to float and the PET flakes to sink. The
36
system can separate a 50:50 mixture of PET and PVC to yield 97% pure PVC.
Another method for separating PVC from PET relies on air flotation
whereby the PVC is separated through a combination of vibration and flotation,
to ensure separation on the basis of specific weight. This method is especially
1
suited to separating PVC labels from PET bottles.
A recent patent describes a procedure to remove foreign material from
post-consumer PET. The process involves the melt depolymerization of PET by
feeding the melt from an extruder into a special separation vessel where
low-density contamination floats to the surface of the melt and high-density con-
J. Scheirs and G. Camino 181
tamination sinks to the bottom of the melt and purified oligomeric PET is re-
37
moved from the intermediate region.
A method for removing the contaminants in the recycling of PET waste has
38
also been devised. In this process, PET is transesterified by heating with ethyl-
ene glycol to give a solution containing short chain PET and bis(2-hydroxyethyl)
terephthalate. By hydrolysis of this mixture at elevated pressure and tempera-
ture, ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid crystals are produced. Activated car-
38
bon and clay are used to absorb contaminants for separation by filtration.
REMOVING CONTAMINATION IN PVC
CONCLUSIONS
Due to the myriad of sources of contamination in polymer recycle, the effect
of contamination is difficult to predict and even more difficult to quantify. The
plastics recycler may not be aware of the presence of some contamination since it
is present in such low amounts. It should be bourn in mind that, despite the pos-
sible low levels, some contamination, for example, transformation products of
flame retardants are extremely toxic and thus can pose a health risk to opera-
tors of the recycling process and end-users of the recycled product. Thus in all
forms of recycling, especially pyrolysis and incineration, a careful approach is
necessary in order to avoid the production of supertoxic compounds.
182 Effect of contamination on the recycling of polymers
In other areas, the presence of contamination may not pose any health risk
but simply lowers the quality of the recycle and devalues the economics of the re-
cycling process.
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1. E. Sereni in Recycling of Plastic Materials, Ed. F. P. La Mantia, ChemTec
Publishing,
Toronto, Canada, 1993, p. 99.
2. F. Rodriguez, L. M. Vane, J. J. Schluter, and P. Clark, ACS Symp. Ser., 509, 99 (1992).
3. R. T. Gottesman, Makromol. Chem., Macromol. Symp., Ed. W. Heitz, 57, 115 (1992).
4. R. A. Fleming, Makromol. Chem., Macromol. Symp., Ed. W. Heitz, 57, 75 (1992).
5. Anon. in PP OK in recycled HDPE, Chem. Week, 152, 45 (1993).
6. P. S. Hope, D. A. G. Parsons, G. Capaccio, and M. J. Kitchiner, Makromol. Chem.,
Macromol. Symp., Ed. W. Heitz, 57, 383 (1992).
7. C. Pattanakul, S. Selke, C. Lai, and J. Miltz, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 43, 2147 (1991).
8. P. S. Blatz in Properties of high density polyethylene from post consumer
recycled containers, Polym. Prep., 32, 152 (1991).
9. R. May in Pesticide Container Recycling, Florida Recycling Fair, May, 1990.
10. S. C. Zahos in Building Momentum in Pesticide Container Recycling, Florida
Recycling Fair, February, 1991.
11. E. H. Neumann in Recycling of Plastic Materials, Ed. F. P. La Mantia, ChemTec
Publishing, Toronto, Canada, 1993, p. 17.
12. J. Goldstein and L. Erwin, Annu. Tech. Conf.- Soc. Plast. Eng., 50, 260 (1992).
13. C. Llop and A. Perez, Makromol. Chem., Macromol. Symp., Ed. W. Heitz, 57, 115
(1992).
14. F. P. La Mantia and M. Vinci, Polym. Degrad. Stab., 45, 121 (1994).
15. J. Troitzsch, Proc. 4th Meet. Fire Retard. Polym., Sept., Freiburg, 1992.
16. H. Meyer, M. Neupert, W. Pump, and B. Willenberg, Kunststoffe, 83, 253 (1993).
17. W. Lorenz and M. Bahadir, Chemosphere, 26, 2221 (1993).
18. G. Camino, M. P. Luda, and L. Costa in Chemical Industry and Environment;
General Aspects- Risk Analysis, Ed. J. Casal, Vol. 1, p. 221, 1993.
19. N. Grassie, Polym, Degrad. Stab., 30, 3 (1990).
20. P. M. Phillips in Analysis of color in recycled resin, ANTEC’93, p. 998, 1993.
21. M. D. Read and K. Mulka in Effect of post-consumer high-density polyethylene
on the color of pigmented resin formulations, ANTEC’92, p. 1295, 1992.
22. W. De Winter in Recycling of Plastic Materials, Ed. F. P. La Mantia, ChemTec
Publishing, Toronto, Canada, 1993, p. 1.
23. F. P. La Mantia and D. Curto in Recycling of Plastic Materials,
Ed. F. P. La Mantia, ChemTec Publishing, Toronto, Canada, 1993, p. 27.
24. M. Bakhramov, A. Abdukadirov, A. Kh. Gafurov, and S. I. Isamukhamedov, Plast.
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J. Scheirs and G. Camino 183
George Wypych
Figure 1. Number of cycles vs. EPR concentration in HDPE/EPR blend. [Data from S. A. Komarov,
E. E. Piskunova, V. N. Kuleznev, V. V. Korovkin, A. A. Kolesnikov, and I. K. Prik, Kolloidn. Zh., 48,
152, (1986)
The same effect can be achieved by two other methods: technological and
physical. Frequent attempts are made recently to coextrude materials (paper by
Uhlen in this book is one of the existing examples). The surface is composed of
virgin material to protect recycled material which is coextruded as an internal
layer. The physical method involves similar principle as given in the case of
9
EPR/HDPE blend, but materials involved have very different surface energies.
G. Wypych 191
Figure 2. Effect of 26 days aging on molecular weights of PS and PVME. [Adapted, by permission,
from Y. Y. Chien, E. M. Pearce, and T. K. Kwei, Polym. Prepr., 29, 2086 (1988).
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1. G. Wypych in Weathering Handbook, ChemTec Publishing, Toronto, 1990.
2. G. Wypych, Polym. Networks Blends, 2, 53 (1992).
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M. B. Amin, M. Dekker, New York, 1992.
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194 UV stability of recycled polymers
12. M. K. Naqvi and A. R. Sen, Polym. Degrad. Stab., 33, 367, (1991).
Index 195
INDEX
A contaminants 168
acrylics 135 contamination 118, 167
additives 173 by other polymers 169
adhesion 77, 82, 162 effect 179
alloys 147 metal 177
aluminum 56 non-polymeric 171
automatization 118 removal 179
automotive 169 copolymer
block 78
B grafted 129
bitumens 129, 130, 157 triblock 79
blends 70, 77, 129, 147 copolymers
stability 188 grafted 130, 147
blow molding 66 copolymers synthesis 131
bottles 51, 54, 65, 168, 171 cross-propagation 192
branching 69 crystallinity 65, 66
building products 169 cups 168
C D
CaO 93 decrosslinking 130
capillary viscometer 79 degasification 118
cellulose 170 degradation
chain branching 65 chemical 133
coextrusion 51, 57, 129 initiators 187
compatibility 77 mechanical 132
compatibilization 77, 78, 86 photooxidative 66
mechanism 85 PVC 94
compatibilizer 72, 74, 78, 130, 148, ultrasonic 133
150, 152 dehydrochlorination 26, 52
compatibilizers 93, 96, 107, 111, 112 depolymerization 130
compatibilizing 129, 130 diffusion 172
composition 44, 125, 126 dismantling 44, 45
compression testing 160 dissociation
196 Index
F I
ferrous materials 118 image analysis 79
fillers 33, 102, 103, 104, 106 impact resistance 59
inert 93, 96 impact strength 80, 88, 89, 90, 100,
polymeric 94, 130 103, 104, 105, 108, 111, 115
film incineration 24
mulch 173 incinerators 52
x-ray 176 incompatibility 73
filtering 118 initiator 130
fire retardant 175 injection molding 79, 177
flexural modulus 161 IR 30, 118
Index 197
plastic waste R
containers 93 radical polymerization 135
heterogeneous 63, 93 recombination 132, 146
homogeneous 63 recycled polymers
industrial 118, 171 characterization 125
mixed 117 residual stability 26, 39
urban 78, 118 rheological properties 78, 85
PMMA 143, 187 roofing sheets 29
polarity 78 rubber
polyaddition 136 functionalized 77, 83
polydispersity 159
polymer S
classification 186 SBS 93
degradation 64, 117 SEBS 96, 115
incompatibility 64 SEM 72, 74, 79, 81, 109, 112
polymers separation 56, 78, 118, 180
crosslinked 129 color 45
multilayer 170 metal 47
polyolefins 77 paper 118
PP 56, 68, 73, 77, 78, 135, 146, 170 rubber 46
processability 86 wood 46
processing separator
conditions 65 friction 121
PS 31, 125, 191 high density 120
PS/PVC 154 magnetic 120
PS/PVME 191 shredding 118
PTFE 177 soil 173
PU 175 sorting 47
PVC 23, 27, 43, 51, 93, 98, 117, 135, stability
145, 169, 179, 180, 181 thermal 57
determination 97 UV 185
PVC/PBR 191 stabilization 32
PVDF 143, 146 stabilizers 44, 98
PVDF/PS 157 heat 28
PVME 191 lead 30
pyrolysis 52 metals salts 30
Index 199
thermal 95
UV 175 U
stress-strain curve 89 unsaturations 65
structure 67
surface enrichment 191 V
Vicat temperature 90
T viscosity 68, 87
tensile strength 71, 77, 88, 99, 102, voids 77
104, 107, 110, 114, 126, 148, 150
Tg 81 W
thermogram 80 washing 118
thermoplastics 78 windows 30, 32, 43
titanates 93, 97
titanium dioxide 188 X
titration 138 XPS 191
torque 144
transition Y
brittle-ductile 88 yield stress 126
transportation
pneumatic 118