Running head: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ADULT EDUCATION 1

Comparative Analysis of Adult Education Within Mexico and Guatemala

Heather Cantu

EHRD 643-700: Adult Education and Global Social Justice

Dr. Elizabeth Roumell

Texas A&M University

December 6, 2019
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Abstract

Mexico and Guatemala are two areas of Latin America in which there is an

educational gap between the two regions. For example, Guatemala has a much lower adult

literacy rate than Mexico. CONFINTEA VI recognized the importance of adult education in

lifelong learning with adult literacy as its groundwork. This paper compares the two

countries from an adult educational standpoint with this CONFINTEA VI goal in mind,

exploring local issues and concerns, access to education among marginalized populations, the

impact of globalization in the regions, the influence of politics, and how culture impacts

adult education in these countries. Through literature review and analysis of local trends, it is

determined that the reason for the areas of struggle within adult education and literacy rates

is due to sociocultural factors in the regions. The paper concludes with reviewing steps that

can be taken to improve adult literacy rates and increase the value of adult education in both

regions. It will not be an easy task to undertake, but these two countries should place similar

value upon lifelong learning and adult literacy.

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CONFINTEA VI Goal: Literacy

Before I begin discussing Mexico and Guatemala in terms of this very important

CONFINTEA VI goal, I think it is important to discuss the ideology behind it. Of course,

being a literate person makes it easier to navigate the world at a superficial level – that much

is true. However, there are also other consequences of being literate that I believe are not

discussed as often. Being literate can change the way a person thinks and processes

information for the better (Nijdam-Jones, Rivera, Rosenfeld, & Arango-Lasprilla, 2019). For

instance, adults that are literate score better on non-verbal cognitive tests, such as memory

tests in lab conditions (Nijdam-Jones et al., 2019). “… literacy influences skills such as

visual perception, logical reasoning, phonological processing, and working memory”

(Nijdam-Jones et al., 2019, n.p.) These skills can affect job performance, interpersonal

relationships, and self-perception. When so much is at stake, it is clear why CONFINTEA VI

selected literacy as part of its groundwork.

Introduction to the Regions

Mexico and Guatemala are two countries that border each other geographically, but

their adult educational systems are very different. This section of the paper will explore those

differences in more detail to set a foundation of knowledge from which the rest of the paper’s

topics can be explored. The literacy rate in Guatemala varies widely between age ranges.

94.35% of 15 – 24 year old individuals are literate; 81.29% of 15 – 65 year old individuals

are literate; and 50.71% of those that are older than 65 years old are literate in Guatemala

(“UNESCO Institute of Statistics,” 2014). On the other hand, the literacy rate in Mexico is

more consistent across age ranges. 99.32% of 15 – 24 year old individuals are literate;

95.38% of 15 – 65 year old individuals are literate; and 80.67% of those that are older than
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ADULT EDUCATION 4

65 years old are literate in Mexico (“UNESCO Institute of Statistics,” 2018). For two

countries that are so geographically close together in Latin America, what could be the

reasons for such stark differences? This question is investigated further in this section.

Guatemala, unfortunately, is a country that is greatly impacted by the global

economic crisis and the effects of climate change (Antoine, Cavallaro, Henriquez, Gonzalez,

Ortiz, Robinson, & Vannuchi, 2015). “Around 3 million Guatemalans lack access to safe

drinking water and some 6 million are without access to improved sanitation”, and “… 50%

of the Guatemalan population reportedly lack decent, adequate, healthy housing” (Antoine et

al., 2015, p. 25). Sadly, these statistics likely greatly impact the probability that Guatemalan

children will attend school, which obviously impacts adult literacy rates. This lack of

education in Guatemala translates to bleak labor statistics, as well. “The great majority of

workers do not even manage to earn more than statutory minimum wage, much less enough

to cover a basic food basket or their basic needs” (Antoine et al., 2015, p. 25). In addition to

poor wages, there are also extensive human rights violations in terms of general labor

conditions (Antoine et al., 2015). This can lead to an unwell, injured populace.

Unfortunately, without international assistance, these conditions are unlikely to change for

Guatemala anytime soon. When people are so focused on simply surviving, it is unlikely that

they would be seeking out opportunities to further their education and become literate as

adults.

On the other hand, when looking at Mexico in recent years, its citizens seem to be

doing better than those that are in Guatemala but there are still struggles. In terms of human

rights violations, Mexican women are treated poorly by their counterparts (“Mexico

2017/2018,” 2018). In a later section of this paper, this issue will be explained in more detail.
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There is also currently a high-crime rate in Mexico. These crimes include, but are not limited

to: corrupt politicians and police forces, torture and other mistreatment of citizens

(particularly, sexual torture), enforced human disappearances, extrajudicial executions,

discrimination against homosexuals and other minorities (this will also be discussed in detail

in a later section of this paper), and criminal actions stemming from natural disasters

(earthquakes, droughts, etc.) (“Mexico 2017/2018,” 2018). When people fear for their safety,

it makes it less likely that they will participate in adult education programs overall. This idea

contributes to illiteracy in adults.

However, Mexico’s primary and secondary educational systems are more established

and better-funded than Guatemala’s counterparts (Goldstein, 2015). While not exactly the

same, Mexico’s education system is more reflective of that of the United States. Children are

expected to attend school and become literate (Goldstein, 2015). This obviously translates to

higher literacy rates in Mexico than in Guatemala.

Challenges are rampant in both areas, and there is room to improve. This paper now

compares specific subsets of these societies that cause strife to be had within the

CONFINTEA VI foundation of literacy. The paper concludes with an overview of what

could be done to improve adult education in these regions.

Access to Education Among Marginalized Populations

This section explores marginalized populations in Mexico and Guatemala, and how

this marginalization affects access to adult education. Unfortunately, Guatemala seems to be

more at a disadvantage overall due to its large indigenous population. However, both

countries do have groups of people that struggle in this regard. These ideas are highlighted

and support from the literature is provided.

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In terms of marginalized populations in Mexico and Guatemala, these regions have

particularly pervasive prejudiced attitudes toward homosexual individuals (Torres-Ruiz,

2011). Although the HIV/AIDS virus does not only affect homosexual individuals and is a

general public health crisis, this discrimination toward homosexuality persists. Additionally,

according to Torres-Ruiz (2011), there is a significant lack of access to HIV/AIDS

medication in these regions. Unfortunately, this leads me to wonder if this is a result of

neoliberalism spreading in the region – there is not a market for the medication due to

prejudices/fears, so the market is dictating the rules of society (Hickel, 2012). All of this is to

say that if homosexual individuals are being penalized simply because of their sexual

preferences and/or health status by society, they are not likely to be welcomed into existing

adult education programs. Thus, these people are likely to be unfairly excluded from literacy

programs.

Additionally, Guatemala struggles with racism as a country. It is home to Mayans,

Xincans, and Garifunas. Most of these minorities are located within the rural lands of the

country (Antoine et al., 2015). Unfortunately, being a part of a minority group in Guatemala

generally has a negative connotation associated with it (Antoine et al., 2015). That means

that these ancient, indigenous people are not afforded the same educational opportunities as

non-minorities in the region. They also speak languages other than Spanish, which is what

literacy tests are written in within Guatemala. Typically, these minorities only go to Spanish-

speaking schools for a few years in early childhood, which automatically puts minority-

grouped adults at a literacy disadvantage. (Cutz & Chandler, 2000). Sadly, in addition to the

indigenous groups receiving less education overall, indigenous females receive even less

education. They are generally expected to be domestic workers very early on in life without
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access to meaningful wages (Antoine et al., 2015). These cultural expectations set-up the

indigenous populations to suffer greatly in terms in literacy rates.

The Impact of Globalization in the Regions

Globalization is making the world smaller and smaller. As it ramps up, even

culturally-isolated regions of the world with indigenous people (such as Guatemala) are

impacted. In this section of the paper, globalization and its effects on adult education and

literacy are investigated as it pertains to Mexico and Guatemala.

The Mayan people are particularly prevalent in Guatemala. Farahmand (2016) argues

that “’Mayan’ has… become a transhistorical, homogenous and abstract category existing in

another dimension outside space and time” due to globalization (p. 2). Most recently, the

2012 Mayan calendar ‘prophecy’ has led western cultures to believe in a mythicized, distant

version of the Mayan people that is arguably inaccurate to their detriment (Farahmand,

2016). Westernized Mayans are sometimes not even studied by anthropologists in the field

“… because they challenge conventional disciplinary assumptions about authenticity and

tradition” (Farahmand, 2016, p. 2). What does this mean for adult education and literacy

rates? It is possible that westernized Mayans are being excluded from important studies on

the matter because they do not ‘fit-the-mold’ of traditional indigenous society. The world

could be missing important cues on how to improve adult education regarding literacy in the

region simply because their version of being Mayan is not as fashionable on the world’s

stage. Ironically, as some Mayans become more westernized because of the effects of

globalization, it seems as though they are potentially isolating themselves from what the

world considers being Mayan.

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Frequently, globalization is seen as a threat to education systems (Reinke, 2004).

However, in Mexico, local communities in Chiapas have found a way to coexist with the

effects of globalization. In other words, they are “… adopting global processes, such as

communication technology, to support and enhance local specificity within the field of

education” (Reinke, 2004, p. 485). This outcome shows that it is possible for globalization to

have a positive effect on education in both Mexico and Guatemala. Goldstein (2015) wrote

an article about senior-aged Mexican citizens that were willing to walk (or run) miles

through less-than-safe conditions on a daily basis to reach their classrooms for adult literacy

programs (n.p.) This took place in one of Mexico’s poorest regions – Oaxaca. If globalization

could support the funding of technological equipment to such classrooms, it could make the

literacy programs more accessible and less dangerous for locals to attend. Chiapas has shown

that people are willing to learn how to use the equipment, and Oaxaca has shown that people

are willing to learn the coursework. If we could find a way to combine the efforts of these

two communities in Mexico and in Guatemala, I believe that a real difference could be made

for adult literacy programs.

Additionally, United States evangelical Christian beliefs found their way into

Guatemala’s educational system (Rose & Brouwer, 1990). Unfortunately, this translates to a

persistent belief in abstinence-only education in the region (Rose & Brouwer, 1990). In an

earlier section of this paper, I discussed the potential impact of AIDS/HIV on literacy rates in

Guatemala and Mexico. Although Rose and Brouwer’s (1990) study took place almost thirty

years ago, it took place at the height of the AIDS pandemic. If Guatemalans were not being

taught to have safe-sex due to evangelical Christian beliefs in the educational system, this

could mean that there are adults affected by the virus today as a result of these teachings. In
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an area where HIV/AIDS medication is not prevalent, it seems unlikely that ill adults would

be concerned about attaining literacy.

The Role of Politics in Adult Education

This section discusses national politics in Mexico and Guatemala in terms of adult

education and literacy programs. As was somewhat described in a previous section, the two

countries are very different in terms of population and politics despite their close

geographical proximity. However, similarities can be drawn, as well.

Recently, a National Education Reform in Mexico was introduced by President

Enrique Peña Nieto. This system “… introduced examinations for teachers entering the newly

established Professional Teaching Service of the National Educational System, and

compulsory evaluation of all teachers in active service for promotion and tenure” (Ibarrola,

2018, p. 1). While this system sounds greatly beneficial to society on paper, it resulted in

social turmoil due to radical opposition from the National Union of Educational Workers

(SNTE) (Ibarrola, 2018). The complexities of Mexico’s socioeducational instability are

beyond the scope of this paper, however, I will review some of the unintended consequences

of this reform.

According to the SNTE, they have worked for certain rights and privileges through

collective bargaining for teachers since their establishment in 1943 (Ibarrola, 2018). With the

educational reform being introduced, a lot of these longstanding traditions were seemingly

‘stepped-on’ much to the displeasure of the SNTE. Unfortunately, when teachers feel as

though politicians are violating their long-standing rights, this can greatly affect their

performance on the job. It can also affect teacher retention and recruitment. Should these

trends continue, it could have an adverse effect on literacy rates for Mexico due to
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disengaged students. These disengaged students will then potentially become adults that are

illiterate. As of the writing of Ibarrola’s (2018) article, Mexican citizens were still working to

repeal the reform.

On the other hand, when looking at the political system of Guatemala, the least

participatory group in the democratic process is indigenous women (Azpuru, 2009). I believe

this is primarily due to a lack of formal education which results in a higher illiterate

population. In the next section of this paper, I go into more details surrounding the

difficulties that indigenous women face when trying to educate themselves due to cultural

reasons. However, I think it is enough to say that indigenous women in Guatemala are at a

clear disadvantage in terms of adult education/literacy due to long-standing cultural beliefs.

Cultural Impact to Adult Education in the Regions

This section of the paper explores the cultural influences on adult literacy programs in

both Mexico and Guatemala. While the two countries do have similarities in this respect,

there are many cultural differences in the regions. These aspects of the countries are explored

with supporting literature.

Guatemala struggles to convert illiterate adults to literate adults partly due to the

nonparticipation of Mayans in associated educational programs due to cultural beliefs (Cutz

& Chandler, 2000). Researchers found that “ethnic identity requires that individuals within a

Maya community adhere to standards of behavior that identify them as Mayan” (Cutz &

Chandler, 2000, n.p.). Mayans that are indigenous to the region believe that their duties

reside in the rural fields, and that their responsibilities include going to church, dressing in

culturally-appropriate garb, and speaking the appropriate language of their people (Cutz &

Chandler, 2000). In their minds, going to school and living/working in large, Spanish-
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speaking cities, reading and writing in Spanish, and studying takes them away from these

culturally-inherent duties. Such people of Guatemala are frequently referred to as ‘ladinos’,

and this is a lifestyle that local Mayans wish to avoid (Cutz & Chandler, 2000). This type of

attitude that is present in indigenous people results in nonparticipation in such literacy-

enhancing programs.

Additionally, in both Guatemalan and Mexican cultures, there is a concept of male

‘machismo’ that is a deterrent to female adult literacy in these populations. “In this case, the

fear held by men that a woman, especially a wife, might master literacy and hence become

‘better’ than a man can create severe, potentially dangerous deterrents to a woman’s

participation in literacy programs” (Cutz & Chandler, 2000). Violence in domestic

partnerships is a very real problem in these areas, and across the world in general. In Muro

and Mein’s (2010) study, the authors provided Mexican women enrolled in ESL, literacy, or

high school equivalency classes a questionnaire regarding domestic violence. “Six percent of

women reported that their spouses/partners pushed them… 6.3% reported being physically

restrained… 7.1% reported that their spouses destroyed things… four percent reported that

their spouses/partners slapped, hit, or kicked them… 1.8% were threatened with a weapon…

9% reported being grabbed by their breasts, buttocks, or genitals… 9.7% reported being

forced to have sex…” (Muro & Mein, 2010, p. 147). If a woman in one of these adult

education programs has an abusive partner that follows the ‘machismo’ line of thinking, it is

possible that educationally bettering herself might be a trigger for such domestic violence to

take place. Additionally, the ‘machismo’ attitude alone, absent any overt abuse might deter

women from participating in literacy programs out of fear of displeasing their partners.
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Clearly, there is room for international support and improvement in literacy programs in

Mexico and Guatemala due to cultural reasons.

Conclusion

As we have seen, if there is one similarity between Mexico and Guatemala, it is that

they have many struggles in the areas of adult education and literacy. I believe that most of

my research has indicated that this is mainly due to sociocultural reasons. Mexico and

Guatemala have very diverse areas within themselves. While I believe that diversity is a good

thing for countries, I think that the discrimination in these regions has made achieving

literacy very difficult for some groups of people. There are a few ways that these issues

could be addressed. It will take the assistance of other nations and charitable organizations

though, as well as a commitment on the part of the countries to make real societal changes.

However, rather than give a laundry list of what I believe could potentially be small steps to

achieving this goal, I would like to focus on the elephant in the room.

Ultimately, the discrimination must stop. There are so many groups being affected by

needless prejudices in both countries. When it is so deeply ingrained in a culture though, it

makes it very difficult for a country to change its way of thinking. I really believe that such

beliefs begin in childhood. If all children were exposed to different cultures and lifestyles

through their educational systems and taught that it is acceptable to be a part of another

group, it could potentially be a catalyst for a new way of thinking. A potential consequence

for this new way of thinking could be greater access to adult literacy programs for

historically disadvantaged populations: indigenous minorities, homosexuals, women, and

others. Adjusting the educational system for the greater good seems like a great place to start

the journey.
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