ic RELIGION © WARRIORS © FOOD & DRINK LEGACYZe WZ I WY, \Z & = LOSS Tre ws Tre C2207 ae Tye S&S gWelcome to AZTECS ‘11521, an empire came tumbling down. The Aztecs had ruled in Mesoamerica for 200 years but the Spanish, led by the fearsome Hern Cortés, were closing in, eager to claim this part of the New World for themselves. It was the end of rich culture and an entire ivisation ~ but even so, the Aztec legacy lives on today. InAll About History Book ofthe Aztecs, uncover the ‘gruesome truth behind human sacrifice and lear what life was realy like, Walk the streets of Tenochtitlan, extensive pantheon and cook up some authentic recipesas you explore the world of the Aztecs,SOSSSSS: se i: y ZW SCSa2 QGriits be LIS WP, oe an Tt Vas AZTECS i <>» 2s LW, oe ins ae 7A) a8 Secrets of the Aztecs" 14 Origins of the Aztecs SOCIETY T 22 Aztec Art Gallery 3 32 Religion and Beliefs mene 37 Fast Facts on Human Sacrifice 38 Inside an Aztec Home 42. How to... play Tlachtli 44 Food and Drink — “ 50 Life in Tenochtitiin = Politics of the Pyramid EMPIRE 62 Moctezuma II 66 The Aztec Empire 71 Eagle Warrior at 2 Study at the TelpochcalliDOWNFALL 76 Hernan Cortés 80 Fall of the Aztecs / 90 After the Spanish Invasion 94 What if the Aztecs weren't defeated? LEGACY 100 Rediscovering Tenochtitlan 108 Inside Templo Mayor 110 Aztecs in Modern Mexico 116 Diego Rivera's History of Mexico 118 Remains of the EmpireSecrets of the Aztecs A civilisation now lost in time, the ancient Aztecs were masters of science and technology, creating medicines, machines and mega-structures unsurpassed on Earth Wirlten by Robert Sones spite being isolated within the deep dark unforgiving jungles of Central Amerie. for over 300 years the ancient Aztecs defied their reputation ss blood obsessed barbarians by pioneering many ofthe scientific an technological dadvanoes we take fr granted today. Whats mare, ‘hey did 9 across abroad range of eds, fom, astronomy to medicine, hoarding their acquired ‘knowledge within huge Hbraies of codices that ‘contained the secrets to the vast and impressive society they ad bul Unfortunately, much of his knowledge was ost forever when the Spanish conquistadors of Hern Cortés brought the civilisation to their knees in the ealy-th cencury, with these supposedly heretical texts burned en masse. Lucy, a few records of Aztec scientific knowledge survived and today historians are working tireless to unlock thet secrets. Read on to discover some oftheir mos impressive scientific knowedge ‘Buried deep within the Codex Vergara a ‘cadastral manuscript lies 2 wealth of information about Aztec mathematis, which has now been ‘code and revealed to bea vigesimal system, ‘ather than our decimal sytem in use today. The ‘Aztec vigestal system uses 20 as ts base rather than 0, as ina decimal system) with written dots ‘equating to one, hypher-stye bars equating to five and varius other symbols accounting for 20 and ‘multiples thereof According tothe Vergara. a well as other codices, this system was employed for tax Purposes. which was largely based on land owned, as wel a for commerce, with quantities of reduce traded with precision thanks tothe creation of hard ‘and fast rules for adation, subuactio, division and multiplication. Of ll the pre-Columbian peoples ‘of Central Ameria the Aztecs were arguably the most accomplished mathematicians using unique ‘numbering system for arithmetic, record Keeping and even in a taxation system fr Tenochtitlan and ‘the surviving lands, Land was also measured mathematically, with a selection of algorithms utilised t calculate area ‘the most basic beng the muliication of lnath ‘by width, while multiplying the averages of two ‘opposte sides by an adjacent side use for imepular shapes. Land was measured in terms of and rods, which was the standard Aztec nit of nest measurement, measuring in at 25 metes @ fet) in length. For measurements under aland rod, a Variety of other symbols including arrows, heats and hands were used for indication. This level of ‘mathematical precision also stretched into other areas, such as construction, which was one rea ‘where the Aztecs were most advanced in terms of technological prowess. Evidence thatthe Aztecs ‘were great builders s plentiful in moder Mexico,Aah aSecrets of the Aztecs ‘Ascan be seen in the 1 Templo Doxout the Aztecs became specialists at building stepped pyramid temples and public bung, Ceutting, carving and hauling vast stone blocks and arranging them with exact geometrical precision. “They vere also excellent house builders. with leven the poorest commoner typically living under human made shekers wh the average dvelling in at approximately 20 squate metres (@15 square foot) inthe capital city of Tenochaan Duet their environment, Aztec houses tended to be bult on elevated platforms crafted from ‘attend daub, with codices indicating that they stood approximately 40 centin ff the surface. This was partic inthe swampy city of Tenocti constructed from wooden ‘with stone, and, lime and chy sculpted from a mixture of w very common Roofs ranged in both design materials. with both flaeple ‘widespread and everything fe to wood and bricks used, Judging from excavated evidence a well s the infrmatin deciphered from surviving oa tion of construction toad wee used in each bul, ranging ror cutting tools such a: knives and axes through to towels and picks with addtional carvings ‘undertaken ifthe b ‘wealthy. Important sacrificé,and,an array of colourful \ SSENEV Mm lt pvclerncelicrel +., every aspect'of Aztec life - Deen ee ae34 Aztec Religion The New Fire CO Catan ‘The ritual that prevented Per heg cn eee Seely ca Brecon yeni pemeeeerreretert ten ana ete erer ence eee Petes eee naineeeneny Renreeen ttn ere eae ear eae eee rir: eee eerie reer bens Posey eur penne ninety Esterse renrerr rer arid eae ee ee eee eaealier tet enter ee Perrine nat ce neererr earn ea neeen re) ‘The idea and importance of sacrifices apparent in this story. The creation ofthe word was only possble through sacrifice and it was believed that ‘de word cou ony be sustained and supported by humans also shedding their blood and give itto the gods As long as humanity continued to repay the debt they owed tothe ges the sun ‘would continue to move and sustain if. Several ‘rations and diferent creation stris emerged in ‘Aztec theology over ime, but al involve a similar idea of sacrifice forthe greater good, the concept ‘fowing a debt othe gods andthe power Inherent in human bod, The dea of keeping this perlous nature of the world in balance was a muge focus of Aztec religion Iwas believed that ‘ne simple mistake could lead to shatering natural disasters, Not only could the weak sun stop moving. bat the sky was aso ‘constantly battling between light and darkness and one day that battle would be Test. Azte life evolved around preventing this day of defeat from ‘coming and paying a blood debe would ald the bat against darkness through ‘lood-ettng or actual human sacrifice. Those who were sacrificed ould se up to fight the powers of darkness, and this was also ane ofthe reasons the Azecs became a warrior race as some bales were fought simply to capture more prisoners to sacrifice to this enduring batt Priests played a vital ole in Aztec society as they ensured that the gods were presented with the right offerings and sacrifices were performed the comect ime. They were also responsile for ‘conducting a huge variety of coremonies to ep the gods saisied Hecause of thee power and level of respect given to them, pests wee often _2ctve in othe influential oles such as within the ‘government or as teaches. In socety they were treated a nobles. Homever, the work ofa priest was hard and to become one took extensive training. Tht ‘mountain of neverending responsibilities include reading the calendar keeping track ofthe time of day and eclipses, naming constellations. analysing horoscopes tracking the movement of stars, recording events in glyphs and pictograms, ening to war with warriors to hear confessions a= well 38 traning boys into the priesthood, I was. a risky jb, too the ater responsibilty would invelve taking & “The Aztecs believed that blood sacrifice would help fight the powers of darkness” e Poeenticin Drona UeN a Can Cee aE from eeeeerari ia arranged on racks eleteamnt young trainees on nightly walks to hunt down, dangerous creatures, ‘Same Aztec women also dedicated their ives to serving the gods by becoming priestesses. They ‘worked equally as hard as the priests, performing ceremonies, songs incatations and divination, ‘Some would also prepare potions and heal the ‘Sck with herbal remedies, They kept the temples ‘lean and the fies burning Pristeses also served an important role in sorely as matchmaker, ‘marrying engaged couples. Religious ceremonies served avery ‘important ole in Aztec society, Imbuing the peoples lives wit spinal significance throughout ‘the yea. There were a huge ner of ceremonies ‘with at least one major festival every single month “These ceremonies would honour the gods. and were usually aligned with the agricultural season It was common fer an indivial tobe chosen tobe dressed as 2 god, and impersonate them thoughout the ceremony. This person would be treated asife or she was the god. The ceremonies had many ferent purposes - such as invoking fertity, celebrating the harvest, mountains trade or hunting - bat they often invo}ved similar everts, Including fasting. then fasting, dessng in finery and dancing to music Of course many ofthe ceremonies often culminated in human sacrifice of some sor. Because ofthe importance and honour associated with the ritual, most Aztecs would goto thet eaths by sosficewilingly. However seme ‘ceremonies cid not involve human sacrifice all Being chosen for ‘human scree ancedand instead required only bloodeting by priests forthe sacnifice of tds and other ceatwes. ‘A popular festival was Teaxipetualia a ceremony which honaured the go of vegetation Xipe Tota highly venerated figure. The ritual required the sacrfke of captured warriors. The skin ofthe warrior was flayed after death, dyed yellow and dubbed golden clothes, Other victims were Strapped fo fames and shot with arows, allowing ‘their blod to drip down to symbolise the fertile springrains. Te priests would wear these flayed Thuman skin forall 20 days ofthe festival, which alo featured gladiatrial combat and military ‘ceremonies, The aim of the ceremony Was to hnwoke rain and stave off drought. ‘tradition known as the tine of nernontem ‘was observed atthe end of every 360:day calendar year, an ominous five-day petiod to even out the 365 days ofa solar year Aztecs believed this to ‘be a time of incedibe bad luck, and nemontemi can be translated as the ‘useless wasted lays, Aztecs tried to avoid misfortune by terally doing nothing. All tools wete placed down an ‘people stayed locked in their houses, barely eating anything, patiently wating forthe pee o pass. ‘This was taken so seriously that al other religious ceremonies were halted and businesses closed it was even considered taboo to make love oa pattner during this ime as any activity would result in temble consequences ‘Another ceemony involving scifice was Tocatl. Lasting for 17 days, the festival would feature feasting and dancing bat would culminate in the sacrifice ofthe god Tezcatipoca The dety ‘would be represented by a young man who would have been impersonating him since the previous Festival Another new Tezcatlipoca woul be picked at the end of each Toxcatl the young men forthe roe were usually captives of war, and would be trained in courtly speech singing and bow to pay the lute. For his year of playing a god he ‘would be paraded through the strets and revered He would also be ritually wed to four youn, ‘women portaying goddesses After his sactiice the flash would be eaten not only by nobles, but also bythe next capive chosen to play the role Just as religion was the cente of Aztec fe, temples served as the center of thet cities. Thre were also mountain temples ‘god houses! which were carved igh into the side ora the top of saced peaks, Sometimes whole areas of cities would be dedicated to religious activities, ‘bu the temples were the beating heart of Aztec life, Priests would use these temples to worship the gods pray fr their blessing and make oferings. These temples often took the form of step pyramids, wit stars leading up toa flat top, which usually housed a shrine toa particular god The Aztecs believed thatthe afterlife bestowed upon you was determined not by how you lived, but how you ded. For example, thas who died in bate, or were kled in tual sacrifice would receive the highest honour of ‘ing on tafe up the sun each dawn, The sauls ‘ould full this foe fr four yeas after which they ‘would then be reincarnated as hummingbirds or Puteri. Merchants who were killed by enemies during trading expeditions were also believed have been rewarded with this same fate “The very important ok of taking doen the sun at night was given to women who die in childbirth, In this way, the same level of respect. was given to these women as sles killed in bate Children who tragcally died young would go toa heaven called Xochitalpan, where they would lay beneath an ‘udder tree that dripped milk into ‘he mouths, Aztec Religion ‘Those unlucky enough tobe struck by lightning or de by downing @a relatively common ‘occurrence were sentenced to serve Talo the cof ain and storms. Ther souls were sent to Tiaecan, 2 paradise filled with Rowering plants “This fate was alo given to those who died from tlseases associated with the deity, a well as those ‘who were physically deformed People who died ordinary deaths were fated to Undertake afouryeat journey to the deepest layer fof the underwerld to become servants the god ‘Mictanteucuhth, who ruled over the land of the ead alongside his wie, the godess Mictecactnuat I wast regatded as a punishment, but this Journey was dificult and ranght with danger. The (ead bad to pass mountains which crashed into ‘each other a fea where the wind blew knives and fever a river filed with blood and jaguars. Their bodies woul be buried or cremated together with a range of tems thought to help them undertake this journey such as fod, crink, clothes, tols and ever sis forthe lord ofthe underworld3 shocking facts about sacrifice & Human eee Cee en Tlacaans, who shared similar is ee a eee en tg preeterenet sy Peer ieareeent eel eed es eet] eos eerie oreo See) ees es eee peeieettsiey oie Faye tacks) Roce’ peter hg een eben alerge number were sacrificed ere eee Secrets eee fete popes totes eroroc res arene Vice gid ee rts ssotficed bodes were not i es ne cree eer Ee att Aster Sete pone one Veer Prey Cad ts er caused tensions with her ed rea ere ee Seer ees eee renee El - 7Inside an Aztec home At Home With he Aztecs Between the battles and sacrifices, normal Aztec people thrived in a community that prioritised family, education and discipline ‘Writen by Frances White hen one thinks ofthe Aztecs, often the first things that comme to mind are ces tering with go an efficient warrior rae, and even religious ceremonies that involve human sarifces. However, Aztecs ‘were aso highly focused on their societies, Religion was prevalent because it helped hind the community together, and every aspect of daly ife was focused on the benefits of the community: Unusually fora cvlisation of this Eieanrat himself was sometimes picked from the pin, (Certain Aztec merchants comprised a class of their own the pochteca, Though noc obi ‘born, they were treated like nobility because ofthe importance oftheir jobs, where they would travel Jong distances to obtain uxury goods the nobility adored. Te average Aztec citizen was part of 2 group called the macehuattn. This group ‘would be employed as farmers and craftsmen. The lowest rung of society comprised of slaves. ‘Shaves would not be born into tand the children of saves, ca the Aste hid Poecgas ‘wee not regaded as bes mandatory education Berets People woul instead all forall chen. which fl rarer ino slavery as ether a meant they were able f qyeaeear eer Punishment for breaking the We eenemaric) to provide professional accomplished personnel fora range of occupations and roles, A law-abiding society, every aspect of dally life was dominated by rules and regulations to be fllowed by all ‘even te nobility. Despite the fact that the Aztecs existed 500 yeas agp, their daily lie and family units were remarkably similar to those that exist in many cultures today. ‘The Aztecs like many cultures ofthe era, had set social system, and where people fel oni would define almost every aspect of ther ves The noble dass were known 3s the piptin and they would typically be employed inthe amy, government or prestiood, and they also ‘comprise the city council. The tatoai king) 8 Jaw or by seling themsehves nto de to deb. They could also buy tei freedom and held rights that protected them agaist mistreatment “There was some movement up the societal pyramid, and the most ‘commen pats upwards were through the rary, trade ate presthood, The fay unit was a hugely impertant focus of the Azte society and, because ofthis marriage was regarded as very sacred. Uppers marriages were arranged by matchmakets and the newyweds would have no say in the matter. The Tower classes had an unusual advantage whereby their mariages would be arranged by their parents, ‘bu they would ave the right say no. A woman ‘would only have one hustane, though he culInside an Aztec home Peer Tet] pi ciitaity retary Preece perry have several wives ~ however, there was usually a head wife who was respensbe forthe household, such as coking fod and weaving lth, Women actully a a great deal ofauthonty in bow the household was un an how their hen ere Laie SDnRALInINADSIROMRINAE ous! up Nose wies coud ever ran thee ee i RAIRRAAME stands businesses wile they were absent arate eae st war ives wee also able to iver thee RPMI SEMEEETN ushands, and te goods owned by the couse RRR utd be spit between them, Pit etic Families often ved in joint howsehoks combining lip amy units into on. or example tw brothers and the fails, all members of the household would elp ints ues upkeep inching chien while also working eon to cree gods for rade Caen was a hugely < 3 impertant cop. ant household prodction of eect ete cotton textile was commen, Caton was. in 83, cen soe the et ume of Aztec socet waren frm the ee ree mee lowest rang othe most ester nobles would ret re rors tf spin and weave cotlon Cotton would even be wad SSUES 2 form ofcurency for trade n marketplaces “The eldely mers oft family were highly respecte and were well taken cae ofall ranches of Aztec socety ‘ate homes difered based en the ones’ social standings. Noble homes were made f stone osu ed ‘rick and cote in white wash wich sparkled inthe sun “Their houses boasted separate bathing roms where water was poured ever hot stones unas Nobles homes could bbe two storeys tal and were built close to pools to ensure constant supply of dean fresh water “he common people would ven smal hus thatched with palm leaves They sao) on dr Leino eoorresnees iq ‘comprised of one or two Bei rooms and aso had a garden ee to grow crops. Sleeping quarters comprised of mas x= od ee NX en cng Cane pret Sat 9, prisvonage 2G Jargnremained throughout their entire breastfeding period, and they could not be punished or told off during this ume Life was not so easy for children once they began ta grow up, however From the age of fur they ‘Would help with housenld tasks ike leaning and fetching water Parents were expected to stitly lisciphne their children, and panishments coud be severe. Good manners vere prized, and children ‘wete expected to only speak when spon t,t feat and drink sow to not lave any leftewers and ta wash after eating. Children were strict ordered reve to complain never to make fun of the old Sick and never interrupt. Al children were expected to be fine examples ofthe community. Being lazy ‘orslacking could result inthe eld having thei hoa singed and shaved, “Another key pat of growing up as an Aztec was education. children were generally educated at ‘home until dei teenage years then al children, regardless of social las or gender, would attend school by lav. However, here were separate schools for diferent cases and genders gis ‘would usualy lear about eigon such as ritual songs and dancing. as well asthe sil that would _make them a good head of the household such as cooking and making clothing Boys, meanwhile, ‘woul lear how to farm or 3 craft ike pttery ‘They would aso receive religious and fighting ‘uaining The sons of nobles would be taught in other areas, setting them up for their future careers, such as writing lw and engineering, Generally the nobles schools were actualy fr srcter and. much tougher forthe students there ‘Aztecs didnt have aot of fee time between all their bard werk maintaining that families and household, but they di enjoy playing games Patll ‘was a popular gume ofthe time, and inveved _mewing pieces around acros shaped board by rolling che. Amore energetic pastime was the famous Actec ball game llamalizt, whee payers would ass a rubber ball around a out A ss wellknown sport - but tll very popular with the ‘Aztecs ~ was Volador ts Spanish nam). Known asthe fying bid game, players wore costumes to make them look bke birds. They would climb 2 90-fooehigh pole tea rope to the top oft then push off and swing upside down around the pole 1D times tis thought 1 represented the number ‘of weeks in each season, andthe numberof ‘voladors represented the four seasons. Pints were awarded based on stye speed and costume design. ‘The best lying bird would win. People would sither to watch the athletes’ overhead. You an tll watch specially trained Mexican acrobats performing Voladr today Inside an Aztec home Peee See) cs "Children were beloved in Aztec society” Cleanliness is next to godliness The Aztecs kept their bodies - and souls - clean in order to please the gods Someta tt ray sre pope that he fates ware ohare wn thr eines Sa ean area ome ery pata part fy ie an teeta other ton ey oy {eco nen woud dean nd aveep the suet Pe tes mre at never neigibouhae, xoge baredor dang at eee to, nd naan one armporedin cnet abe aad acre ‘he Aces were lap and bound bead fh | collapsing again - within ‘wo centuries. As the legend 0es, the Mexia people, having left their ancestral tome of Azan came fom the north in seach of lace ‘ive unt they eached Lake ‘Tescocoin central Mexico, On a istand neat the western shore. they saw an eagle perched on.a prickly peat cactus and eating a snake, which they belived to bea sign fom Hutallopoctt, the god of war, marking where a city was destined tobe ball ‘was founded in 1325 and named Tenochtitlan, Despite the heavenly signs though, the island ‘was not an encouraging destination for anew ‘nome. In the eaty years the Mexica, now known asthe Aztecs. strugeed with the swampy ‘conditions, lived in smal huts and arguedInside the capital: Tenochtitlan % ‘In large, oper-air squares, goods were organised into sections - from foods to exotic items like feathers” Secrets of the PSCC De Cy Petter ene acd rood nent ee ear era Sp ac ener eeee es Freres ere tie premodern (Rete eee eee tater peretarresanarere hn aetna Pee rere teen ctieiy at enn ed Peter eka Pessina tare rene eee enna) eee treed eee rere ion ees eet eet popes ronnie try eee ree cree een erent Become eee) prea ernons ieee ee ‘endlesly among themselves, which led wo a ‘dissident group splitting from the leadership and forming a settlement oft own on another ian, and irbecame known as Tlatelolco, The young ration of Tenochutlin also fel under the dominion ‘of techie power in the region, the Tepanecs to whom they had tw pay tute for decades. Yet Tenochtitlan and its peorle thrived throughout the th century, growing 0 power that it became independent during the rue of ts fourth king R2coat By foginganalince with tb other stats, Texcoco and Tacopan, be lad the foundations of what would ‘become the Aztec Empire as ‘Tenochttin began seizing Tands fom defeated foes and ‘ringing in ts own tributes. Such success meant more People came tothe city and {he sland proved too small for demands ‘of an increasing popolation The Aztecs therefore ‘expanded by building artificial islands ‘They hammered stakes into the shallow ake bed and lashed them together tightly with reeds to ‘rete solid walls. The space could then be packed with rocks and earth, inelding highly fre mus from below the surface. to create foating plots ‘f land around 30 metres long and with gaps for ‘ances to ave in between them. Through this form of agriculture called chinampas the farmers hha bountiful harvests of cam, peppers, beans, tomatoes, pumpkins. apples and vanilla, among other cops. lowers were also sucoesful, making the floating gardens colourful and fragrant By builing mor land, Tenochtttn grew to ‘over around five square mils at its Iggest It \ was accessible only by the causeways, which Thad bridges at regular intervals to allow canoes to pas. These provided securty too as they could be raised during an attack. The enlarged ‘ty was divided into quarters by wide the docks tothe east These would then have around 15 o 20 distress, calpull each with autonomous powers and thet ‘wn temples, schools and markerplaces. ‘The markets were a key contributor to the economy, as wells offering a socal space In nge. open-air squares, goods were ‘organised into section ~ rom foods to exotic items ike feathers pelts, musical instruments and precious metals ~an bartered, Highly valued c3co0 ‘ould be used a cutency. The lagest market as Theol, the other island! tate, which was ‘conquered in M74 and abscrbed int the pnysially expanding ity According to possibly exaggerated accounts the Tlatelolco market could holdup £60000 people The choice of goods on offer atthe markets was boosted by trade with other civlsations, caried cout by the pochteca or travelling merchants. Although commoners, chey were influential figures used to carry messages across the empite ‘Tenochttin had a complicated socal hierarchy, but generally there were four classes: the ruler and his family, nobles made ‘of government officials, priests and bigh-anking military cornmoners and sives, usually prisoners of war of ciminals, Aztecs could offer themselves, ‘oreven their children, as slaves to pay Poff adeb. A persons class tated te kind of house they could have as ‘nly the wealthy ould build with stone materials and only 7 nobles were permitted to have second storey Considering its size, Tenochttn was kept extremely clean as refuse was callected and taken avay every single day. The Aztecs kept themselves clean to with daily baths if notseveral Fresh water was ample, especially after ‘the rule of Moctezura inthe mi 5th century, when aqueducts were constructed between the Cy and the hills surrounding Lake Texcoco, Water flowed along 2 pir of terracotta lined pipes on ‘the causeways, meaning one could be repaied ‘without supply being halted Its thought that thee architect Nezahualcoyot ako built a dyke eight to ‘en miles long to keep the waters around the sand fresh from the saier lake beyond, ‘The most impressive structures, however, were inthe Sacred Precinct a the heart of Tenochttn, ‘Among the dazens of buildings, some acount sa as many a5 78, were many temples, including the round tower dedicated tothe feathered serpent god (Quetzaloat, mansions for nobles and dignitaries, and soyal palaces. The immense complex ofthe ninth emperor, Moctezura I, included a 200, aviary, aquarlum and botanical gardens Nexto the temples was another building silly endowed with regions significance, butt ‘was not for worshipping: the playing court forthe ‘Te emai of Templo Mayr ean beseen in Moxocry Inside the capital: Tenochtitlan DOO OOOO OOOO OOO OO OOO OOOO ‘all game ullamalat, Iwas played on a cour, or ‘chil. shaped lke a capt, surounded by high walls and with two stone rings on ether side team would try and get a hard rabber ball through ther, without usin their hands or feet, so they had to throw their bodies arc to keep the ball n the air with anyother body part. The sport represented the heaveny battle of he Sun agaist the night so, as wll as being gambled on heavily it was revered feature n society, All the buildings inthe Sacred Precinct were In the shadow ofthe chief temple a pyramid that the Aztecs refered tas Hue Teocal, bus better ‘known by the Spanish name Templo Mayor. t vas actually ain pyramd, meeting a a single massive platform, with each shrine decicated toa different god. The southside pyramid honoured the ‘god of wat Huitalopocht and had step painted red, while its northern counterpart was for Talc, «b2d of ain and fertility, and was reached by steps of thse and white Countless sacrifices took pace at Tempo Mayor, ‘often by cutting out the vets art with an ‘obsidian blade. There ould be so many atthe four-day opening ceremony in 1487 some 4000 Prisoners of war were sacrificed - thatthe blood ‘would trickle down the temple walls and the bodies "thrown unceremeniously dawn the steps. Next to the pyramid were the tzompanth or skull racks. ‘The mare lands the Aztecs conquered, the mare prisoners they would have to sacrifice They even, Started wars with the sole intenton of airing ‘ose to offer tothe gods By the eal 15th century, the empire had spread ‘over most of central Mexico, covering hundreds of states and milions of people. And everything was ‘controlled from Tenochsitln, a prosperous megacity ‘ofthe age twice the sie of Landon Fr neatly 200, years was the centre of Aztec economy, military, arts, culture religion and sctifice, which iterally ‘opt the Sun rising Tenochatlin would lave the Spanish in ae, but would fall to their greed all the same and be destroyed. Buta new settlement would rise ts place: Mexico Cy. ‘Puntene in 1524 tis map of Tenoesn ‘was the ist image ote ety seen n Europe hen Hern Crt an is man ft a Tenoch 159, hey wee staggered yi de stucture and sophstcaon “Gang on sich wonder sah we (Sd not knw what ty, of nether ha peated before us was eal” wrote conqustador Bett Da de Cate He aid that soe ofthe men shea what, they were seeing nota eam ‘When the Spach were weleamed mothe ty and owed to expe, Daz was abe tose the pand Ithtplace a Thao." We were astounded atthe umber of peopl andthe quantity of merchandise, fre atthe goo order ane onl hat wa itn, for wend never seen seh ating before” Corts was Sinfry pressed by Tenochitn and wete of as wonders to eng of Spain Chats cating 1a be 2g Seiler Ceca "Ye the Spanish sw someting in the cy tha les them dent onan sare The alo tt sine eres pashed and ead wh ood that hey and ‘he lose to were Bak. thesench was ware tan that of any soughterousein spn te Oi. They ‘raggerted the Aztec babar to mle ther ok ‘rr acid to hone Tempo Mayor when the real Mgure was nearer 4.000 and aos ther ‘Gusade to convert the astcs to Cita. te the enguesTenciin was destryed, teak raedGreat Tenochtitlan GCI SVSVE Ve aS UIUC S ORIY, Great Tenochtitlan GCSE SL SES Impres syd terete ee cuey ete city in the middle of a swamp? ee poresGreat Tenochtitlan cowards 1325, the Aztec settled in the region of the Texcoco lake, south of Mexico valley. They built the city of Tenochitlsn on along islet that reached a population of more than 200,000 inhabitants, the double of any -Buropean city ofthe time. The city was enlarged towards the nearby islands. twas divided into {our neighbourhoods whee the twenty clans ‘or capull that grouped the Aztec families ‘Were distributed. Each calpulli was relatively autonomous it had its own temples schools and ‘markets. Tens of cana crossed the city sailed 'by 50,000 reed boats every day and crossed by = ial ad Road to tztapalpa Road to Tacuba ‘na Koctamco Road to Tepeyac SoytjoTente cat Teng ‘The main horoughire ‘may have lokedine ‘hitone in Tethacan (recom gee Beet pon ChinampasPolitics of the Pyramid OMAK OOOO: Politics of the Pyramid Aztec society was highly stratified, with the king at the top of the pyramid - and slaves at the bottom ‘writen by Will Lawrence sec society was characterised by 3 strc socal stratification and was ‘holly dominated by is ruling class, withthe kings siting 2 the top ofthe pyramid. The kings were responsible for almost everything that unflded within ehtr tate whether that volved religious nua, wat governance, even street cleaning, dancing and the playing of tual games. The Instory ofthese Kings, mean, was often beset by intrigue and assassination, family ambition, feud, fie and conquest. ‘The Aztec kings ruled the cy states that spread across the valley of Mexico andthe surrounding Jighlands.By the time the Spaniards arive 519, the vast majonty of these city states ‘were under the control ofthe Aztec Empire and there was a noticeable uniformity in ther social structure and archtectural embodiment. Each tate ‘was centred on its royal palace, temple pyrami and market, with the palace not only the bome of the king but also the centie of administration. the focus of social activity and the home of an dal representing the paton god who kept watch over the locale The king was selected by a high counel of bles drawn fom the male family of the previous incumbent and while a brother or son usually ‘suceeded a deceased ruler, sometimes a mare dltant relative emerged victorious such asa ‘cousin, nephew or grandson. Quite often a newly appointed king had proved himself valiant champion and war kar in a recent clash of arms, and he was always considered the choice of Tezcatlipoca the mightiest of the Aztec gods. ‘After a period of ceremany and meditation he was requited to lead a maltary excursion to capture prisoner fer sacrifice The king lived a fe of xury clad in the fines ate ~ manuscripetlusratons show ‘ings wearing a pointed crown - and he dined ‘an the mest delicate foods, He owned or at east ‘controlled all the land within his ct sate and received tax payments from commoners and nobles ale As the voice of Teeatlipoca hele religious ceremonies and state rituals, while as ‘war chief he would administer campaigns of ‘conquest and defence, often leading his troops in Dati. Indeed, according tothe Franciscan fiat and ethnographer Bernardino de Sahaguin, the ruler attended to war, conquest, death, singing ball ‘games, the market, the installation of lords, batting famine and plague ensuring payments tothe gods, uarding the ct and removing its ith, sweeping and the assembling of warts He also resolved any disputes that could not be settled through the judicial process ‘The last point is especially pertinent There ‘was. process of governance the Aztecs were not subjects ofan autocratic tyrant who ruled with absolute power In Aztec society. a councl of nobles listened to disputes among the commoners atxPolitics of the PyramidPolitics of the Pyramid Aj HE: the rae Libadamme iy Lele psy ep aay Euan s Waretorsties ora tettcd ees eines ehrrenaneeeeieriia ee een ey rea ee eet ee ea Parsee ree ena era) Pre errrenren tay errr eter ors ‘oss ies eerie) ues cond pe) oes eee red Peat pee ee para ae reas Parr tg pe ee se een eee bar eet ee eters) [cheesiest ooiiesnee nett thecty ‘A carefully managed system recorded the tax that both commoners and nobles paid upwards in the social pyramid” 3@/ e adjudicated on such matters. Royal counels also United the kings powers and in some cases moved to depose an unfit or failing rler tis thought that ‘the king Tizoe was assassinated by members of the ya household following a poor showing on the Dalle. An ently Spanish governor, Alonso de ‘ona, described in some detail he Aztec judiciary system and showed that twas designed to prtect ‘the rights of commoners. Further proof of non: autocratic governance appears inthe complex Dut leary organised tax system: the king cid not just take ftom the people that which he desired ‘A careully managed system recorded the tax that ‘both commoners and nobles pai! upwards inthe social pyramid. Below the king inthis pyramid were the nobles and though they only comprised around fve per ‘ent ofthe total population, they enjoyed immense ‘influence because ther place in society was protected by rgd Lins, Their postion was ensured Dy hereditary succession and social mobility was almost entirely norexistent. [fa nobles son was ‘born on an auspicious day, the priesthood would forecast his future asa wealthy leader of men. If ‘commoners son was born on the samme ay, the beste could hope for was a prediction seeess a8 a warrior in sevice ofthe king and ety slate. Strict las meanwhile restricted two-storey housing expensive jewellery and highly decorated ‘apes tothe noble lass. And while in theory all the Jand ina ct state belonged tothe king. he would rant lage estates to high-bom families. which ‘woul pass down the family line ‘The highest bom fares were known as the ‘ecu and these men would often serve the king directly. Below these high-born nobles were the pilin or lesser nobles and they served ‘thet superiors and lived eer within or near to thet lord's palace The nobility ad acces othe best obs the state could ole, tang prestigious postions within the priesthood the army wien the Sate was at war, and the civil administration, where they worked 2s provincial governors, tax collectors Judges and ambassadors, ‘Ther children, meanwhile, atended special schools, known asthe calmecac (wih aso took ‘common children of exceptional talent, and these ‘were inked toa major temple, further mnecting,. ‘the nobly tothe realm of regions worship. ere the children were groomed for life in high service to the state and the king. They learned abeut astrology, warfare, lion, mechanics and ‘they ead beautifully illustrated books The very ‘youngest students spent a great deal of time in the temple with which the school was affiated ‘uainingas novice priests As the yeas passed they sraduated into martial activity oinng the students from the commoners school as they eats the ar of war The life of all women, including those of noble stock, was centted on the home and although the high-born were no requied to produoe cloth to furs as tax offerings, they sil spent much of ‘their time weaving For the women among the ‘commoners, weaving Was a pivotal part of daily Ife as this provided valuable textiles needed to pay rent and taxes to thei lors, Women of al classes also played a significant role in the priesthood ‘with some mothers fering ther infant gis tothe temple for hfe of religious service ‘The commoners were by far the largest social lass and the vast majority of common men were farmers or fishermen. Avay from the agricultural season, they worked for thelr lords as labourers performed miliary service. Indeed, all commoners Inada duty to provide ther lord with regular (1p 12 payments paid with goods that the family Drodced, 3s well as by giving up their time to cultivate is land. Women, meanhile surrendered ther time to provide vey \wete shared among all the ors subjects, the families working a ota system to ensure a fir balance of time spent. Commoners also served the stat, working on large bulking projects o serving during periods of confi the stte didnot possess standing amy ‘Most commoners were organised in groups, cr wards now asa clpol. Tir lands were farmed by member households although in reality ‘dividual pos of land were passed from one family to another acres the generations Some commaners were not members of clpol but instead worked thet lars lands exchsvely ‘Within the commoner class were the artisans and merchants, they were icky encugh they ‘ould through profitable trading, boost their personal wealth Inthe cits, oo, the commoners were organised into capoll, and some worked the surrounding il as farmers, Many urban dwellers were craftsmen and they benefited from living near the great markets as well as fom their lose proximity to the king or high-born nobles who ‘provided the met for hawury goods, Though atisans and merchants gained great wealth they Could never ise into the ranks of te nobly. In the middle yeas of the Aztec Empire. Moctezuma Treated a special dass, the quauhll to reward ‘those who excelled in combat bu this ruling was reversed by Moctezuma If who insisted that only those bor into privilege could rank as nobles. ‘A the very bottom ofthe social truture were the slves or hacotin, No one was born io slavery, and any child issuing fom enslaved Taga ening sha Praia Pile nc ed ita, Rpt ae nat fs Gre Politics of the Pyramid parents was born fre. Slaves could ako marry and ‘wn propery, Some were enslaved 3s form of Punishment for heinous crimes, but many people ‘moved into slavery willingly, sling themselves ‘when they could no longer suppor themselves ‘or when they had amassed great dbes. Often, the [purchase amount would suppetthe slave and their family for atleast ayer after which they would begin ther sevice. Once a reed man or woman had ‘moved int slavery they lther worked for alord ar \Wete sold at market. Female slaves were especially ‘valuabieas weavers and spinners. Savery was not !mmatable and slaves could bay back thei freedom ‘once thei debts were cleared A world of trade Merchants played a key role Pee sus pare ae een i See nn ed ahora to ease erate penis esaria 1 a i ea = Ay | i : . ~ Moctezuma II: .. a mui Aztecscx'y, Last Leader ~ Just two years after the Aztec ruler welcomed Hernan Cortés into Tenochtitlan, his empire came crashing down Coe edSee enc Secon Soe | nobles excited and uncertain in equal See toy te ee sco ens He was heading towards a group of expected cent neersen te ars ener ents Seer st et ee eh anc meth cee eae te Tee e ny et Cee ne eo acting as an interpreter pesented his host with a necklace of Venesiap lass and received one of ee aed down, The welcome ws a success, so Moctezuma ee Ler ae es eee See Sry cette et estas He was made ruler, of latoan (meaning ‘speaker, eet eset eRe reir ee res) ea eee omen neh eettetsen Ce eo during his uncle Ahuitzots regime he proved Sete eae ra Bel) ie et i pierre Toad eee ed ed experience to good usé. He launched building Se ee ees aaa eee eee Se ea ee eee rere ante Sere einer pee en en ter ee Cees ete et Somehow Mocteruma managed to keep everyone in control through military might and by sending tens of thousands to be sacrificed, He was always deeply devoted tothe gods, While Peo ed 63 , 764 Moctesuma II his name, which means, He who frowns ikea jr has become commonly misrepresented as ‘Montezuma -he served a a high priest and may have placed much significance on portent, such as a comet seen in 1509 Infact, much has been made ~ erroneously - of Moctemumas supposed fear of ‘omens that fret ofthe impending arrival ofthe Spanish invaders yy (7% When Moctezuma fst beard of pale-faced foreigners in geat ating houses, he posed suards tothe coast o teport on their activity. He was therefore quick to hear of Cortés an ambitious explorer lading an expedition from Spanish held Cuba. making landfall sre 200 mils from "Tenochttn in 1518. He dispatched emissaries with sift of gold, not cut of a beliof thar Cortés was the returned god Quetzaleatl, but as an aterpt to buy olf the intruders with eibute. biding by the custom in Mesoamerica, the god had the opposite ‘ellecton the Spanish and simply fed their greed Cortes -havingarved with around 500 men, 10 sales and 16 bases, which were new to this, Tand-- established the settlement of Veracruz and ‘by August prepared fora march to Tenochtitlan, ‘On the way inland he learned of the hated fet for the Aztecs by many people under ther rule and, ater intial fighting, convinced them to support him and his ‘conquistadors, This woul nat have been possble without hie indigenous Interpreter La Malinche, Dapeised as Marin, who ‘would become the mother to hischild The most impertant aliance was withthe longtime ‘enemies of Tenochitin. the Tlaxcala. They ensured that bythe time Gores reached the capita his force ‘courted in the thousands, This certainly helped persuace Moctezuma to greet Cortés so waraly happy to oblige as he wanted to see the city peacefully. Some of his fics, ncuding his brother, angued against letting the ‘Spanish into the cy, but Moctezuma was tying to avoid awar one that could have spread across his people Moctezuma offered Cortés and his men chambes clase to his palace had them shown around the spent time with them personally ‘A conguistador, Bernal Diaz el Casio, deseribed Moctezuma “About 40 years oe of good height well proportioned, spare and slight, and not very dar though ofthe usual Indian complexion, His face was rather long and cheer be had fine eyes and in his appearance and mann ‘when necessary a serous composure! In under a week though, diplomacy was abandoned, Cortés seized “Moctezuma an kept him and his eliteas prisoners wile they took control of Tenoehttin ‘The superior numbers of the Aztecs counted for ‘on the causeway on 8 November, and Cortés was empls, markets and gardens and ‘could express genial TERIA ae ong as ther latoan was held hostage Moctezuma went along with ths, the reasons fr which are unknown. and accounts suggest he even remained friendly with the Spanish, teaching them games an taking them hunting an aiding ther hoarding of go As wells accumulating wea, Cos was motivated by converting the Aztecs fom their ev practices” after being harifed by cbserving human sacifies Statues (ofthe gods were destroyed and a crucifix even placed ‘on the Templo Mayor ‘The peopl of Tenoc espe the Spanish presence and grew to resent Moctenuma for his submis It took neatly eight months before Cortés vcetke grip on the city finally Toosened, He had to head back tothe coast with ‘most ofthe mien in ore to cal with a force sent to remove him from command by the governor of Cis, val wo had rad to stop the expecition in the frst poe, An 80-strong easison remained under Pedro de Alvarad, but he became facil of anuprising so made a reckless and ruthless pee emptive strike iin Ure : BesDuring the festival of Toxcal We congustador slaughtered those worshipping dancing and singing around the temples. Many members of the nobility were cut dwn and "the biood ofthe ‘wars flowed like wate”. The Aztecs retaliated When Cortés returned t Tenoehtrlan in June 1520, bringing move men as he had convinced his defeated enemy to join him with promises of gold, he found the Spanish besieged and slowly starving ‘As for Moctezuma, the once great and semi divine ule was no longer an active force in his ‘own capital and was unable to determine his own ‘destiny. Even the events of his death are disputed, According tothe Spanish, he was taken to a bakony ina last ditch attempt to calm the stuaton down, ‘nly tobe pelted with stones. He would die of his Injures. aztec accounts, however, suggest that Moctezuma was murdered by the Spanish when his usefulness had finaly ran out Whatever the truth, (the later account seems the mate probable, Dar’ claim that ‘Cortés and al of us captains and soldiers ‘wept for hint seems rather dsingenious ‘There would be mare tears to come following Moctezumas death, On 30 June the beleaguered Spanish, now facing a ferocious resistance, tried to fee from Tenochtitlan unde the cover of darkness bout were spoted. Warriors descended and their ‘escape became a blocdbath, Some drowned after falling in the lake and being dragged under by the gold they were desperatly carrying. More than half ‘of the Spanish perished in one night - now known ‘as La Noche Triste or the Night of Sadness - as well ‘8 thousands of Tlaxcala and two of Moctezuma’s sons, who bad been taken captive Lagend has that Cortés sat under alge cypress tee and wept athis loses. However, Cortés would not be defeated, Just nine months later he reurned to Tenochtin, Thaving marshalled his forces and had 12 brigamtines ‘ait and carried in pieces to Lake Texcoco 80 he ‘oul have supremacy over the waters, The siege, ‘beginning on 28 Apel 52, lasted 93 days before the ferocious Aztecs surendere, Their defeat was rot just downto the superior weaponry and tactics ‘ofthe Spanish but European diseases, They had no immunity andthe population was devastated with Moctezuma's successor and brother Cutlsuae ‘among the dead The fina Uatoan, Cuauhtemoc ‘was soon captured Tenochin was in ruins Moctezuma was not alive to see the fll of the Aztec Empire, bt hisname is hed above all, ‘thers asthe one responsible is reputation fs stl contentious in Mexico today. At best hei remembered as invecisve and passive. at worst as a Spanish collaborator. His own people tuned on Moctezuma IT ‘him, and the Spanish wasted no time in making him look weak It must be noted, though, that they were the inners - the ones who get to write the history. Moctezumats legacy is far more complicated ‘When explaining how such 3 powerful ciisation clapsed in jst two yeas, he makes fr a handy scapegoat Yet he was an able ruler who consolidated the empire but be was doomed to be the ruler who ad to confront the utepressble march of European expansin into the Americas. was a God? (One ofthe mast common expansion pt fread for ‘ny Moctenime acted msc deere manne toware Hann Crt wae tat he beleved the Sanh explore to be serpent god Quetzal ‘Supposedly the aval ef the Spank coined vith the endo 52 year cof the Ate eat ‘hich maybe signalled by maj. desructie events. Cuetacot was prophesied to eur fem the east too. Soar everyting bes up cay an thats the problem the try fr oo nets dp of Mocecaas beg ove superstitious and Contes as Deir an at poner fe. The clams espouses the erie Coe. wien the Spanish ranean far Bear de Sahagin and pitted fv decades ater te conquest. describes a speech gen by Mactenuma o Cates. "hen they fs met onthe causewy of Teo ‘hic almost cera never tapped. The Spanish "xldng Contes ime, wed oporay the Artacs {backward anc heretcal whe pttng enseNes n the polo ofthe iheous “ere fo conve eidence tay hat od Hs ts of od and the gracious wecme he ‘fered werent down to fe of ne wrth 3¢ ‘show of hs own stength and power. The nate ray hve ten had 3s corruption of hs deep devon to teligescbservances wt hstros raw sige the Aotecs themes may have encouraged #10 ty a. erty tor hurting deft. “Cortés would not be defeated. He returned to Tenochtitlan having marshalled his forces’ & &The Aztec Empire Though the Aztecs built a mighty empire on the backs of their conquests, it was a ving been among the lst 0 ‘stl in the Valley of Mexico, the Mexica of Tenochttin intially ‘pledged themselves tothe powerful ‘Tepanees onthe western shore of [ake Texcoco- helping them conquer new cites to counter the threat of the Acofua city-state, “Tescaco,on the eastern bank. However, by 1425, “Tenochttln had grown powerful. No ony was the slandsettlement bait cn fertile land. with an abundance of fish, ducks fogs and alge. bat i was easly defenibe sting alongside a second market city, Tlatelolco - where merchants sold exotic goods, such as pat feathers and jewels “That yea, the Tepanec tone was usurped by the ant Mexlea Masta, who simalfanecusly assasinated the Mexica leader, blockaded Tenochttln and attacked Tescoco. In response ‘Tenochttin and Texcoco partnered with ‘Tacopan, besieging the Tepanec capital of Azcapotzale fr 100 days, chasing house of cards ‘Written by Hareth Al Bustani ‘out Manta, Having been routed to the hills and surrounded, the Tepanec ofeed the Aztecs not ‘only land and houses, but farms, and regular tribute, toe paid in stone ime, wood, com. ‘beans, sage, chill and unlimited vegetables. The three victorious city-states formalised thet conquest by forming the Trine ‘Alliance Mesoamerica’ Iagest ‘ever empire Going forwards. the thee partners would nat “only share the burden of conguest, but the spas with wo ffths of tbute going to Tenochetan, twoifths to Texcoco and ‘neith to lacopan Having secured this ‘generous tbute package from the Tepanecs, the "Tenochetintlatoani (Speaker or king) ical, turned his attention tothe southern vay, which had stayed neutral daring the ‘Tepanec war. The alles got 1 work taking ‘the former Tepanec town of Coyoacén, before taking contol of Kochimileo and Cuatlabuae in a lucrative distri of Chinampas Gaised fils, so-called Mating gardens on the lakebed)- the Valleys treadbasket Now, no one could oppose the combined might ‘ofthe liane, and yet there was so ‘uch untapped potentiat so many ‘ites to subjugate coat then convinced the ‘Texcoco ruler Nezahlcoyet to Jook beyond the Vale, moving past mene “The as of stone bor. dediented {othe ain pd Tage whlch ence ei enact 200,000 s ECE) Poutntonsess million the southern Ajusco mountain range into mode Morelos. Togethes, they conquered Cuanhnauac and Hiuaxtepec. highly populated agricultural y= ‘States, And So they continued, Defeated leaders ‘would either pledge their alliance to the Aztecs, ‘or be replaced. In this way, the Aztecs steadily built an empire of ributaries Though they exercised ite direct control ‘over their conquered terrteries, the empire requited cities to provide soldiers and logistical support to the Aztec army ensuring it would always remain omnipotet Having expanded the Aatee realm, tzcbtl was keen to inflate the influence ofthe Mexica within. He ‘ordered old histary codices be burned and reverie to emphasise the crucial rl of his people. After his death, Racéatl was suceeded by his nephew, Moctezuma I. who ruled for 28 years. Newly crowned, he sought project his might through the tied and tested at cof building He began contruction on the fourth and most magnificent iteration ofthe Templo ‘Mayor at Tenochitén. Dedicate tothe war ged Hulelopechl and the storm god Tlaloc the temple would bea marvel of architecture as well asa temindet tall of whe relgned supreme at ‘the cente of the universe. Mactezuma demanded that al the city-states across the Valley provided bulling materials and lbour for its construction, However, the stone-rich city-state of Chak ald toboth the Mixtecs and Eastern Nahua, refuse Conquering Chak, which had never before been TS.The Aztec Empire subjugated, withthe help of Nezahuacoyot proved one of Moctezura’s fist great victories, (Over the next ten years, under the advice of his high pres, Moctezume micromanaged the allies beneath his yoke, replacing their kings with ‘puppet rulers, creating new administrative posts And expanding the tribute system across the fempire Tribute was collected four times a year by Mexia officials, neutering the traditional dynasties and belping to further empower the Mexica. He aso pioneered a legal code, carefully contlling ‘social conduct and distinguishing the ppitin ‘those in powes, ftom the macebualin, those wino received orders. Commoners were frbiden from ‘wearing cotton, on pain of death, and only nobies and ‘valiant warriors were allowed to uli two storey houses. However, the aw aso emphasised ‘education, requiring all barre to hes schools ‘monasteries teaching young men religion warfare and manners. Crucially he als introduced the post of quauhpili or eagle lod, which would give ‘alerted commoner a rare opportunity to prove themselves and rise threugh the ranks on their, Progress was stunted somewhat fom 1450 to 1454 by a drought, which devastated the Valley and forced the empire to open up its royal granares. 2By the time rainfall returned to normal, thousands hha dled However, in 1458, Moctezuma and ‘Nezahualoyot teamed up once agin, embarking ‘on a campaign to further expand their domain. Avoutng direct conflict withthe powerful Easter [Navas of Tlaxcala, they fisily teconquered former holdings which had since rebelled or withheld ‘nite, such as Cuaunnahuac, before pressing futher south, beyond the moureains, towards the Gulf Coast and into modern Oaxaca, Subjugating eatuakoyott erated Teneoco fom the Tepanes, Ste ye {herraple Allanee porthern Veracruz the Aztecs secured regular payments of textiles, cacao, gol, cotton, food brceles feathers of topical birds, exotic shells and warrior costumes 1n 1458, an army of 300.000 Aztecs marcied {800 kelomettes south tothe Mixtec kingdom of Coixtabuaca, in Oaxaca. Though the Mistec id ‘tonal pleaded for help twas too late he was strangled, his city captured an his men sacrificed the Templo Mayor. It was a brutal warming to the ‘ther city-states of Oaxaca and Puebla, Curiously ‘while the Mesica claimed to have conquered these teritores with some mince help from Texaco, from Texcoco's standpoint twas the oppesite way und. Regardless, by the time of his death cca 1Me9, Moctezuma had substantially expanded the Aatec empte ils successor, Axayacal posed the consoldation of his newfound halaings, ‘introducing the policies of his empire, such a the tnbute system, to these additional tetris, During his reign Tenochtelinis wealthy twin city Tateloic, wich had retained an independent ade, ‘grew weary of handing over ‘ote and revolted. Though ‘Axayactl tried some classic Aztec Moguthube (he ruler of Matellco) the later was not content, and ‘infamously mistreated ber Furious, 2oayacal sent an army to remind his neighbours of ther place blockading ll the surrounding roads, before launching a bloody assault and seizing the marketplace: Moguihubs hidin the sanctuary of tbe Inca temple, but the Aatecs broke i, bludgeoned him to death and tore down the temple, before loting the cty and butchering its residents, iplomacy by marrying his str to “in Antee priest fengasacieed iret the war od taopoct Having sent a very Gear message Axayacatl then insaled a miltary governor inthe place of Thateoloos deposed king ts eclectic market was ‘ow the largest in Mesoamerica, and controling its merchants was a serous coup. Axayacal aso ‘conquered the Toluca Valley othe west -an ethnically diverse repion, whic served asa buffer between te Valley of Mexico and the Tarascan ‘empire in western Mexico. Back the capt he ‘commissioned the Sun Stone, great stone dis, ‘celebrating the sun, war and the empire's conquests = wth labour and material levied from Texaco, Tlacopan and other Aztec city-states. Drunk on the nectar of sucess Axayactl decided to gall in I ‘vas time to ake onthe mighty Tarascans,The Aztec Empire Wit a poner structure and history ritoring that ofthe Aztecs, the “Tarascans were a dangerous neighbour. Conscious othe evershrinking buffer zone, they had long grown suspicious of the Azte’s expansionist neighbours’ plentiful resources fr himself ‘Acayacat] offered an ultimatum - bend the knee, ‘or face destruction. Instead in around 178, the ‘Tarascans sent an army of 40,000 to the central “Mexican highlands - where Axayacatl was waiting with 24000 Aztec wares. The two sides clashed, resulting n a devastating oss forthe Aztecs with 2.000 men killed oc taken prisoner, and even Axayacatl ‘wounded in the vilence. He retumed home, not wit thousands of enemies to sactifc, but one-sixth os men. i was the fst an last time the Aztecs ‘would ever risliect battle with the Taraccans Thanks to the empires dynamic rade routes, it was nat lang before word af the Aztec humiliation {gotout and rebellion chung tothe a After the death of the longstanding Texcoco king, Neahualoyot Axayacatl was able to rele in on the power vacuum, increasing his share ofthe Aliancestnbute takings. Though the empire was stil technically ruled by the ‘Triple Aliance, twas clear thatthe Mexia held mast ofthe card, However, actos the realm, rumblings of discontent had grown ino an earthquake, as even distant tributaries rose up agains their reat speaker, who it seemed had fallen out of favour with the gods Axayacat] was sucereded thre yeaslater by hls pledge loyalty and pay Iwother Tizoc a poor leader wih did not contribute bute This was. on fourm warn pai much othe empite After his death ce perhaps the surface a mutually murder. in 486 his sling Ahuitzot ascended beneficial elatonship, to the sicednflated postion of huchuetlatanl, as tbutary city-states ox ‘supreme speaker: Hiscoronation ceremony could nt oly ask the was one of gratuitous pomp. reinforced by the emit for help in times completion of te magnificent Templo Mayor of trouble, bu enjoy the following year. Iwas commemorated witha access othe Aztec trade fourday ceremony. which many claimed was the network The empire also sreatest act of bloodletting in Aztec history wth encouraged trade amonast thousands sacrificed. provincial towns, sponsored “The Aztec cstrination of power was a refessional merchants ad protected market Problematic one. Even when they conquered a towns and trade routes. This helped to accelerate terry, the empite let local dynasties prese cultural development as fr-flung fertile regions ‘ver their own realms, simply requiring they became interconnected B “The empire was technically ruled by the Alliance, but the Mexica held the cards" oe 63The Aztec Empire Uke the Aes the Tarascon etd in aig bas, roi (ate Pitre They eo had ov rom ral Settemees ino cy ates before canauerng 3 pont epee ed by 2 preemnent oyrast carted ure the Imperal capt of Tantzuntaan However the Taras ‘read det conte overs pones wt forced ‘epopulstions and regional gover They worshiped merous goes, tbl Cuerauaper the ear godess Of eresten Cia the sun gd and Xartanga the aon godess of ri. “he rac wae also mates of meavoe. Tei vanced techno allowed tert at speron Serour and weapons f coppers bron. Sone of {he periperal towns the Aztecs captured boasted reas andy the time of dese the empice was onthe csp of adopting Trascan copper and bronze sneltg tecniques with Tasca ped the Teele mare. Sir. obsian blades fem ‘etc controled Paces appeared in Tasca mats, Ineating that despre tenon, merchants Frequent Uaveled between the two engi, sling otbewse unavalableecnology tthe comones "he Trscan we decinated by the sn Eto ‘Aan esas that lagued the Artes reaching the ‘tal y 151, ad king the ule Zuangu there er By the ine the Spanish ave 122, the emp rel fom the devastation oft able and mieany lessens wast ate ores. Tough ts ezon (oro) tained nominal panes Temtzuntzan bean decaying an isiticat wag st decades ater the erection oft na ieader, Tagawa tthe hands fcongustader Nut de Guz. eve while opi expansen dened ety we emergent neghouting powers tao made fecan usable eal rove eelon a sth ‘heer caldera tne After erasing his army Aste ha timely rn othe Gl Coss po downs hasten Stine he mee tncat of mary acon weld be cx ter tines the Tee FAtiance would have to reconquer Scene Hing partaking secred is | noting, iz atemped 0 | bypass and outflank the Tarascans, ‘sarge asf Guee n sae Meee and serge teas Tengo tp eer ct stele EE Wp roe th te Tass, un P| errs occ inthe south and A | eng tr eo om te Valley of exo He slo sete alae whe zat by mag Sager thingie ates Mary dees tush Zapotec nds ‘aac wo perc eaismen in ats Anta engi he vite of ata poe. sere romatnson ‘aro wh permed we and omanating many ahs wea waa sats Hence Chly opal the emt one tary nina es Bt the Mexia to takingon more smo pone ameter Te ance ings He ad tae thi wei bala ‘Send agiedc in Tenodtstin teed pov enough water forthe cays 60000 nases 4300000 eet Hower hs tr 0 Moding in 12 sete sre the sey of 3,000 canoes a a's, Aaa as Sucka il by sty sone ine ter his deh, hisrepew Moctezuma twas vemiated Sue speae The eer Wa 8 tome eects ete ving enon in igs fergie pgs nt syingon bres see hs eres ete eee Hewas ana ila grea rg perry lah matarywctre Hone ne nc deat no be oved ut fred He Clini the age weno aati det their hatha propelled so many lente S “The insatiable Aztec appetite for tribute led them on an endless campaign of expansion” 10 ES a ‘commoners up the soca hierarchy ~ and reserved all important government posts for Mexica nobles, +e smitaneously massacred Anuitzots oficial, replacing them with loyalists - while filing the palace withthe sons of distant leaders, virtually Dolding them hostage Having inherited an empire atts peak, ‘Moctezursa shone hats light on shoddy foundations. twas a society dominated by a rgd and vast class division, with a state eliggon designed to intl ear inthe common man, wth no recourse nor oppartunity to voce themselves. [Nobles were far wealthier and enjoyed more basic rights than the commenets upon whose backs the empire was protected fed and sustained. With sts gronth the empires population had exploded multiplying fivefold in the Mth century alone ~ and now there were millons of hungry Aztec mouths to feed, However, if the Aztec weld had grown more prosperous, the commoners certainly Jha not noticed, On the contrary, takes were higher - paid toa distant master wo, to many, only derived authority from their superior military ‘Sze The insatiable Aztec appetite fr tribute ed ton an endless campaign of expansion whlch in tur, created a greater need for funds to pamper the growing nobility, and provide forthe army. Though the rnltary was large enough 1 quel rebellions, was nat age enough to ‘maintain constant order across the beard ‘One of Moctezuma’ fist acts ‘was to recongue distant hokings ‘while maintaining war withthe "Nahuatl-speaking Tlaxcala eas f the Acoa, Like the Tarascans ‘heir city-state had never boon ‘conquered. Though the Aztecs ‘surrounded the Tlxealans with a web of cient states ‘solating them, they never ‘managed to defeat them ~ even after numerous battles where Moctezuma seemed tobe onthe cusp of victory. He di however, take the coastal Mixtec state of Tutuepec and pushes east towards Tabasco, Numerous omens were sal to have occured ‘during Moctecuma’ reign, culminating in the Arial of Hernando Cortés and his conquistadors, Ruling from the most splendid palace in Aztec history would have been hard forthe supreme speaker to soe the tide turn, While the Aztecs had spent the better part of acentuy establishing the ‘predominant Mesoamerican empue seemingly ‘rdained by the ads ial ame crumbling down, far than any could have ever imagined. Fo lL its srengths to most ts subjects the Triple Allance ‘was litle more than ably: one who used its superior might to extort protection money, under {threat of oppression. As the Spanish stood over the rubble of an empire that took its supremacy for sraned, ts foundations wer teling; despite the myths, blod and temples, the Aztec empire had always been on borrowed timeHEADDRESS FEATHERED REND ORFOE EAGLE WARRIOR CENTRAL MEXICO, 1428-152 Eee JEWELLERY HECORATEDSOLOER WITH BENEATS| SHIELD PANTED PROTECTION BATTLE tage yatoasoat shields chia MACUAHUITL — ‘ADOUBLESIDED WEAPON ‘Tispoplarastecwsapn eat Dass cal bsnl he ies. ‘wh ecbrfl used ess andeagefexthers. Ate —___ ARMOUR TOUGH TENTLES THAT KEEP THER COOL SANDALS FOOTWEAR RILEGES AND LEATHERY LEGS ss ough oper against sks et ‘hiss bows spear eter crwth waulaso verter ng wtenta tipo feraddod pectinInside the Telpochcalli Aday in the life ofa Telpochcalli student LIFE WAS TOUGH FOR WARRIORS IN TRAINING CENTRAL MEXICO, 1428-1521 For the sons of ower class Aztec citizens, military service was mandatory and their taining was rovidee by schools called tepochalli. There was at east one tlpochcali in each calpll or ‘ty ward, and they were staffed by accomplished an don G33 “sect fee oor Sterne ie cry ciety cx ar are eee use moFS THES eet: Sard Soles Megs Sth Uhestadnts Boy aed atts schoo om theage of 5 having previo been educated a Asie f 3 ‘home by thetr parents, and were taught discipline, bravery apd espet hough hd about ad brutal Dunhents If they achieved ses 35 wars they could elevate tr stats in soca even become teachers temsches hep tsecte thefutreof the Ae Emp START WORK ach moming began with aco bath followed by domestic chores such as sweeping, leaning and farming to help teach the students discipline They were then required to workin teams, bulding and repating aqueduct, canals and other cy infrastructure as way of encouraging cooperation and strengthening their sense of civic ty HEAVY LIFTING very dy fitewood and tee branches had to be collected from neatby forests and cared back to ‘the school tobe used for eating and decoration. As the boys gt older, they would have to carry ‘more and more weight on thei backs, helping to build up thet strength and preparing them fos transporting heavy supplies and wespons ‘nto bait, COMBAT TRAINING Veteran warriors were tasked with teaching the boys mari arts and showing them how to handle weapons such as spears, arrows and macuabuil. a type of Aztec sword Ifthe veteran went f0 wat, his students would servea his apprentices in bate, at ist tasked with just carrying hs equipment tut eventually helping him to capkure enemy prisoners.Inside the Telpochealli Be Sem esi) puny rere Pewypaiee AEA Cleon. Before they wer allowed to fully participate in 2 ‘atte on their own, the students fst practised their skills moek fights. These were sometimes held as par of religious festival, when the ‘boys would be up against enemy prisoners who had been captured in war, or they were staged ‘between students as competition, with the winner reoeiving food and gifts as his prize FIND A SPONSOR By the time a boy lft schoo he was a wars, but he stl couldnt go to war alone Fist he had to find sponsor veteran who could accompany him ‘no his ist atl, Parents would use foo, drink and gifts to bribe these veterans to watch over their ‘sons, and so it was usualy the richer boys who had greater succes in war exe atipsterenn 4) TAKE A BEATING soto Po Conk E SiMe —therules ofthe tlpochcalis were strict and Ich anyone who broke them oe deviated fem the . training was severely punished. For example, $ student caught wit alcoho could be beaten or seer even hanged, and leaving school olive with a prostitute warranted being burnt witha stick vem the teachers could be punished with their ‘valuables taken and haircut if they misbehaved, EAT AND BATHE “The stants had to return home for al ofthe meals, as food was not provided by the telpocheal Aer eating they would return to school Continue their training and then perform thet ‘evening rituals a sunset, This involved having bath before painting their entre bodies back, putting on a mesh cape and neckbands and then Tightng a fre SING AND DANCE After sunse, the students gathered to sing songs about gol, warriors and culkral heroes and dance around the fre unt midnight. Tis encouraged spiritual bonding. improved agility and enhanced ‘coordination ready for hando-hand combat and troop movement in battle This was their ony frm ‘of entertainment. although they were permite to keep a mistress if they could afford oneHernan Cortés The adventures of the infamous 16th-century Spanish explorer Hernan Cortés and his brutal conquest of the Americas Wiriten by Chris Fenton hen Heman Corts walked through the burning ty of "Tenochttin in 151 he couldnt De happier. Hed done it. He had ‘endured the june, the heat the hostile natives andthe bureacratie foo in Spin. He had taken the Americas, destroyed the pagan empire ofthe Aztecs and opened up is wonders forthe glory of Spain an. ofcourse, for himself He glanced atthe looting of the natives’ precious metals ad the raping of Aztec women in their ord architecturally advanced thoroughfares and dismissed tas fortunes of war a war that had won, He could see some of his conquistadors destoy ‘one ofthe natives’ strange dal, and force the people around itt bow tothe (Christian cross. He was doing Gods work and as he was about this glorious task he was making a ton of meney for himself The siege of Tenoctitln represented the peak of Cortes blood stained carer inthe New World, career that would destoy ties and slaughter thousands in his endless quest for riches and glory ‘ew historical figues match the unquenchable treed of Cortés. He was 2 man of action out > ‘make his fortune. He wasnt satisied with a quiet Mein the Spanish cout Istening othe endless bickering and squabbling, or the slow tedium of the ‘Spanish provisional community. After dropping out of Salamanca University in 150 through boredom, fers \ ae ere [RS a. | -ocoa beans ~b emaneney genta vered theiruse A Peete ye he decided he would strike aut on is wn, having been shunned by his family as ‘mischievous, ‘quartelsome anda source of trouble’ He traveled to the Spanish por towns, casmopoltan and wi ‘where could reinvent himself among the exotic tantalising trading communities He enjoyed thei Celights - chiefly womanising and gambling ‘while listening to tales of wondrous opportunity fom the sailors and conquistadors back fom the New World They would tril him with stories of ‘unending glry and fortune, imiless flow of beautiful exatie women and the ‘chance to cave a lasting legacy In he vain lands far across the vast ocean, Hed made ‘uphis mind. He would travel to this unexplored land and become part of the cutthroat business cf exploration. With this in ‘mind he set out fr Santo Dosing (The Dominican Republic in 1504, having just turned 19. Cortés eaty carer inthe New Wenld was destructive and brutal After contracting syphilis fom ‘atious sexual also in Santo Domingo he spent seven years conquering and subduing the natves in Cuba with the Spanish conquistadores eating a fearsome reputation among Spaniard and ‘ative ake But these suocesses di not satis his insatiable hist for wealth, He heard rumours of ‘huge cty somewhere on the American mainian. Acity paved with gold A city wire he coal make his fortune, He quickly pulled together co orld, : 7 Hernan Cortés of Hernan Cortés Spain - the world’s first superpower Salts power dng the time of Conds was inpataleed aryunere Europe vas 2 “ones n erica served nl to fee he treasury ofthe King of oan 2 the Holy Roman Enpeo, hares. Chars used ths money oetpand hs fluence, mating Span they player i Europe ruled Before he formations in Exope,Cathaism as the dominant regio onthe continent There was no queston ef regs tlre you wee ete ath oraBaspheme Severe punters were exacted en anyone ding the wor of God ore Cestan Fath Spain spread Catholic tcl, raking the dominart elon in Cnr! nd (Gem Amer even tothe The great unknown ie exlran became boom indy dng speed, mucho the Amencas the wes and Asin the est fad et tobe ‘enlred. Whe European eons eu trace costes nd ml contact wah some ingenous people br neat ea. thee wasnt enough them oma ny sing coven nthe at nd masses tat, Suretched bend the castnes. Absolute power ‘Tere was no such hngasdemauncy a we was pvered with an ron ft able Iman Thi was eer a ito snes Ws God who desde who shoul ue not the people. Ajone depths erry rot ny gg git er it so int God ad ve ‘The Ina the ertlmen of the royal cots tat made the wheels turn nthe get Erepenn ‘unis inthe tne of Cortes, However. {you fad to behave a cour manne ard ‘Sct vrtousy and godly at all nes. yore ‘oho eit weld be stuned fo cur, ‘en tothe clones and any fa he ‘ates pone 7 TBS.Hernan Cortés Timeline 5 ‘th of ernén Unversty drop 6 TheMew World © Amerianmaintand © Fists ‘core ou Tnplesbytie "Gas lovrsartago Cos estab the earn Gitesdecdesto —coutlenstons Gul) sustain fable an the ast ben Medi, Siopoutofstucina ‘romans Cars heamerean ald ofthe Ameren mia ‘Mm canes (Bvandveums lve Spanior™ nse etune Feng enour bre (etorey ane ame muchsotte tien War, ——‘amer ster sndthe pang ater les ‘ons can Gestondasney —heaangitaly er enon Hedecsso uh te undared Paro Aterarioa SSitsparets wee Saw Gorngn,” wth anypermeion ard enters ne, mb fest Felhopeshe wou hemederey fom tte spans Seating reer weh “Cortés and his motley band came across something that would take their breath away = the city of Tenochtitlan" an expedition party and asked the governor of Santiago to seek royal assent for an expedition Rather than walt, he set sal before the expedition was approved ~he had his fortune to make When Cortés reached the American matnland he quickly gained the trust ofthe native tribesmen in Aztec terntory. his sil asa cunning Degodator cutting through the ‘barnes of culture and language He realise that twas the Aztecs who controlled the rc ‘vast wealth in the region and, because of this, vere hated by many of the ties inthe are, Sensing an opportunty to i recrul people would help th ‘im full is ambions, sohhe made trades that sealed allegances and one of these inchided slave gi Maniintzin, given asa gift by the “Tabasco coastal tbe. The Spanish