Chapter 1 – Cells: A Review – Chapter Summary

Cells: The Basic Units of Life –

Cells: The basic structural and functional units of life. All living organisms are composed of
one or more cells.

 Cells are usually only visible with a microscope.

 Bacteria/archaea (microbial) cells are much smaller than plant and animal cells.

Viruses: They are considered non-living because they can’t self-reproduce and require a host
cell in order to reproduce and carry out other activities.

 Cells vary in shape, depending on their function.

 Not all cells have a fixed shape and are flexible and able to move.

Surface Area to Volume Ratio (SA:V Ratio) -

 A cell is required to exchange materials, through the plasma membrane, with the
environment.
 As a cell enlarges, the volume increases at a faster rate than the surface area.
 This then reflects in a decreased SA:V ratio.
 If a cell reaches a size where it is too large, than it is not
going to be able to exchange materials at a sufficient rate
to meet the demands of the cell.
 This is the governing reason as to why cells are
microscopic.

Comparing Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes –

Prokaryotes: These cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

in general. Archaea and bacteria fall into this bracket.

Eukaryotes: These cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Protists,
plant, animal, fungi and cells are examples of eukaryotic cells.

 As a generalisation, eukaryotic cells are multicellular, whereas prokaryotic cells are

unicellular.
 Both types of cells have DNA as their genetic material, have plasma membranes and
use ATP as their primary energy source.
 Eukaryotic cells are divided into various compartments that are enclosed by a
membrane. Prokaryotic cells have no such compartments and are just one
compartment.
Plasma Membrane –
 All cells have an active boundary called the plasma membrane and is also known as
the cell membrane.
 Plasma membrane doesn’t just surround the cell, but surrounds some organelles in
eukaryotic cells.
 The plasma membrane is considered to be semi-permeable because it allows only
specific substances to cross in and out of cells.

Structure of the Plasma Membrane –

 The plasma membrane has two major components: Phospholipids

and Proteins.
 The plasma membrane is composed of a double layer of
phospholipid molecules (represented by a head and two tails)

Phospholipids-

 The head is a phosphate group and is hydrophilic as it can

dissolve in water. Hydrophilic: Water loving.
 The tails are fatty acid chains and are hydrophobic. They
face inwards towards each other forming a phospholipid
bilayer because they repel from the internal and external
watery solutions of the cell. Hydrophobic: Water fearing.
 Water and lipids hate each other.

Proteins-

 Can be grouped into integral and peripheral proteins.

 Integral Proteins: These proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. Usually
these membranes are trans-membrane (span the width of the bilayer). Sometimes
 carbohydrates group attached to the protein on the outer side of the membrane. This
combination is called a glycoprotein.
 Peripheral Proteins: Are either anchored to the exterior of the plasma membrane
through bonding with lipids or are associated with the integral proteins.

Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane –

 In 1972, SJ Singer and Garth Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model of membrane
structure.
 The lipid bilayer is flexible as it is like a liquid crystal. A single lipid molecule can travel
rapidly from one place of the bilayer to another.
 The flexibility of the bilayer is important because it allows the cell to change shape
readily and easily. It can also expand and contract and to break and reassemble
during cell division.
 The fatty acid chains resemble a thick oily fluid providing the term fluid for the
model.
 The proteins embedded in the bilayer form mosaics, thus the term mosaic in the
model name.
 The lipid component of the plasma membrane is responsible for the membrane’s
flexibility.

 Cholesterol in animal cells and phytosterol in plants/bacterial cells increase plasma

membrane flexibility.

Functions of the Plasma Membrane –

Function Description
Active/Selective Boundary  The plasma membrane separates the cell from its external
environment.

Denotes Cell Identity
Receives External Signals
Transports Materials
 It allows the passage of some substances only (semi-permeable).
 Typically glycoproteins act as a recognition protein.
 They help identify the cell as a normal body cell belonging to
the individual.
 Cells receive signals from the external environment.
 Proteins on the outer surface of the plasma membrane acts as
receptors for these signals.
 The signal binds to the protein and a response is initiated in the
cell.
 Transport proteins, which are embedded in the plasma
membrane, assist in the transportation of some substances
across the plasma membrane.

Crossing the Plasma Membrane –

Factors Affecting the Crossing of the Plasma Membrane –

Factor Description Examples

Small Gases and smaller molecules O2
Molecules are able to diffuse directly CO2
across the phospholipid H20
bilayer.
Large Larger molecules find it more Glucose
Molecules difficult to diffuse directly and
usually require a trans-
membrane protein to diffuse.
Charged Ions can’t diffuse across the K+
Molecules phospholipid bilayer because CI-
they are repelled by the
hydrophobic fatty acid chains.
Polar Polar molecules that are small Small/Uncharged:
Molecules and uncharged are able to Water
cross easily. However large Ethanol
molecules that are charged
can’t pass through. Charged/Polar:
Amino Acids
ATP
Lipophilic Substances that are lipid- Estrogen
Molecules loving find it easy to directly Progesterone
diffuse across the plasma Alcohol
membrane Steroid Hormones
Hydrophilic Substances that like water are Glucose
Molecules unable to cross because they
are repelled by the fatty acid
chains (hydrophobic).
Direction of Substances that are moving
Concentration with the concentration
Gradient gradient (from high to low) can
diffuse easily however this is
not the case when they are
moving against the gradient
(low to high).

Ways to Cross the Plasma Membrane –

Method Description Diagram Examples of

Substances
Simple  The movement of  O2
Diffusion substances across  H20
the phospholipid  Alcohol
bilayer from a  Lipophilic
region of high Substances
concentration to  Ethanol
one of low
concentration.
 No energy
required.
Osmosis  The movement of
water from a region
of low solute
concentration (high
water
concentration) to a
high solute
concentration (low
water
concentration).
 No energy
required.
Facilitated  Substances move  Ions
Diffusion from a region of  Glucose
(Channel high concentration  Amino Acids.
Proteins) to a region of low
concentration.
 Channel proteins
form narrow
passageways so
ions and other
substances that
 can’t normally pass
are able to pass.
 No energy
required.
Facilitated  Substances move  Glucose
Diffusion from a region of transporter
(Carrier high concentration protein
Proteins) to a region of low
concentration.
 Carrier proteins
bind to molecules
on one side of the
membrane.
 The protein then
changes shape and
releases the
substances on the
other side.
 Slower rate of
movement than
channel proteins.
 No energy
required.

Active  The movement of Ions

Transport substances from a
region of low
concentration to a
region of high
concentration.
 Special protein
transporters (carrier
proteins) known as
pumps, embedded
in the plasma
membrane, carry
out the process.
 Energy is required
in the form of ATP.
Endocytosis  The process of bulk  Bacteria (white
transport of blood cells)
material into a cell.  Other large
 A section of the solids or other
plasma membrane liquids.
encloses the
material and
pinches off to form
a vesicle.
 The vesicle then
moves into the
cytosol.
 Solids:
Phagocytosis
 Liquids: Pinocytosis
 Requires energy in
the form of ATP.
Exocytosis  Bulk transport of  Large
material out of a substances
cell. within the cell.
 Vesicles formed
within a cell fuse
with the plasma
membrane and
then releases its
content to the
exterior of the cell
or the material is
secreted from the
cell.
 Requires an input
of energy in the
form of ATP.

Types of External Solutions (Osmosis) –

Types of Solution Description Animal Cell Plant Cell

Hypotonic Having a lower solute
concentration then the
cell contents.

Lysed (Burst) Turgid

Isotonic Having an equal solute
concentration to the cell
contents.

Hypertonic Having a higher solute

concentration then the
cell contents.

Crenate Flaccid

Rates of Diffusion –

 In simple diffusion, the rate at which substances move across the plasma membrane, is
determined by the difference of the concentrations.
 The higher its concentration gradient, the faster a substance will move by simple
diffusion across the plasma membrane.
 Similarly in facilitated diffusion, the
difference of concentration determines the
rate of movement.
 However it is only up to a point because
transporter proteins are limited. When the
point is reached, the rate will not continue to
rise but plateau.

For summary on cell organelles see cell organelle table.