NORDIC-BALTIC PHO 2019 - SOLUTIONS iv) (2.5 points) Since L⊙ and m are constant, eration a are related by a = αr.

elated by a = αr. The equation (the length of time where itʼs not equal to
we need to minimise the quantity T J. Note of motion therefore reads that gets proportionally smaller as A0 is in-
1. SATELLITE (8 points) — Taavet Kalda. that the minimal angular momentum cor- creased). Rewriting,
responds to the case when the satellite is ( )
i) (1 point)From the energy conservation law, Iα = F r = −kxr. Fµ
launched directly opposite to the motion of −k x − = M ẍ.
2 Earth. It turns out that this also corresponds Simplifying, k
mvm GM⊕ m
− = 0, to the minimal orbital period. Let ⃗v2 be the We see that the cylinder undergoes sinus-
2 r⊕ 3
satelliteʼs velocity in Sunʼs
√ frame. Then ⃗v2 = M a = −kx. F
oidal point around x = kµ but because A0 ≫
GM⊙ 2
hence √ ⃗v1 − ⃗v⊕ , where v⊕ = R⊕ is Earthʼs ve-
A⋆ , this is negligible.
2GM⊕ This corresponds to a harmonic oscillator
vm = . locity. For convenience, letʼs write x = vv⊕2 . The rotational equation of motion yields
with a period of 1
r⊕ Consider the total energy of an elliptical or-
2
2Mr α = rFµ = rM gµ so α = M2r Fµ . Since
√ the direction of the frictional force is con-
bit Etot = − GM2a⊙ m . On the other hand, the 2π 3M
ii) (2 points) Let the speed of the satellite just mv22 GM⊙ m T =√ = 2π . stant during 0 ≤ t ≤ T /2, we have ω =
after leaving Earthʼs gravitational field be v . total energy is Etot = 2 − R . combin-
1 ⊕ 3M
2 k 2 k 2
M r Fµ t and this is maximal at t = T /2 so
R⊕
From energy conservation, ing the two equations and rearranging, a = gµT
v22 R⊕ ωmax = .
mv02 GM⊕ m mv12 2− = 2 − x2 . From Keplerʼs III Law, iii) (2 points) The motion of the cylinder is si-
GM⊕ r
− = , ( ) nusoidal:
√2πR⊕ 2 − x2 −3/2 .
3
2 r⊕ 2 T2 4π 2
a3 = GM⊙ . Thus, T = GM⊙ (√ ) v) (2 points) From the last part, we saw that ϵ
2 k is constant but opposite in sign for 0 < t <
where M⊕ is Earthʼs mass. Furthermore, we As we can see, in order to minimise T , v2 x = A sin t .
needs to be minimal as well. 3M T /2 and T /2 < t < T with the magnitude
have g = GM2
r⊕
⊕
. Thus, equal to ϵr = 2gµ. The linear acceleration,
In conclusion, Iavg is maximal when the
√ satellite is launched directly against the mo- From the horisontal force balance, on the other hand, follows(√harmonical
) mo-
√
2GM⊕ tion of Earth. The corresponding value for tion. From, x = A0 cos k
v1 = v0 − = v0 − 2gr⊕ . M t , a = ẍ =
2 2
Iavg is −kx + Fµ = M a,
r⊕
−Mk
A cos(2πt/T ). The approximate plots are
√ so the frictional force is linearly dependent
shown in the figures below.
iii) (2.5 points) The average solar irradiance L⊙ GM⊙ 1 ( )3/2 on the acceleration and given by
Iavg = 2 − x2 =
can be expressed as 2
4πR⊕ R ⊕ v2
1
∫ T
Fµ = − M a.
1 2
Iavg = I(t)dt, L⊙ (2 − x2 )3/2
T 0 2 , The acceleration is
4πR⊕ x
where I(t) the solar irradiance at time t. We √ √ a = ẍ = −
2 k
A sin(ωt).
R⊕
can express the solar irradiance as I(t) = where x = GM⊙ v02 − 2gr⊕ − 1. 3M
L⊙
4πr(t)2 . Furthermore, it might be more con-
2. ROLLER (8 points) — Lasse Frantti (iv,v: Maximal frictional force is given by
venient to integrate over the angle instead of
dα Jaan Kalda).(Solution of parts iv and v: Taavet
time so we can use dt = ω(α) , where ω is the 1 2 k 3µM g
Kalda). Fµmax = µM g = M · A→A< .
angular velocity of the satellite. This yields 2 3M k
i) (1 point) If there is no friction between the
∫ ∫ 2π cyinder and the board, the cylinder will not Or in other words,
1 2π L⊙ dα L⊙ dα
Iavg = = . rotate, and we have
T 0 4πr2 ω 4πT 0 ωr2 √ a simple spring-block os- 3µM g
cillator, T0 = 2π M /k. A⋆ = .
k
Note that the denominator in the integrand is ii) (1 point)
very similar to the angular momentum of the
satellite. Indeed, the angular momentum is Because the cylinder is not slipping, itʼs iv) (2 points) The equation of motion still
J = mvr = mωr2 = Const. Thus, rotating about the point of contact with the reads
ground. The moment of inertia with respect −kx + Fµ = M ẍ,
∫ 2π ∫ 2π 2 1 2
L⊙ dαm L⊙ m L⊙ m to the contact point is I = M r + 2 M r = but now, Fµ is equal to M gµ for most of 3. MOTION IN B (8 points) — Andréas Sund-
Iavg = = dα = . 3 M r2 . The angular acceleration α and accel- the motion so it can be treated as a constant ström, Joonas Kalda (ii,iii).
4πT 0 J 4πT J 0 2T J 2
i) (1 point) In the homogeneous electric
field of strength E along the x-axis, we can
write down an electrostatic potential ϕ(x) =
−xE. For the particle not to hit the wall, the
particleʼs kinetic enregy mv 2 /2 must be less
than qϕ(l) = −qlE, thus |E| > mv
2
2l|q| ; the dir-
ection of E is such that qE < 0.
ii) (2 points)In the magnetic field, the particle
moves along a circle with radius R such that
the Lorentz force is equal to the centrifugal
force, qvB = mv 2 /R. Since the particle
barely reaches the screen, the circular orbit
must touch the screen. So R = l and B = mv lq .
iii) (2 points)
The first particle travels for a quarter
period before stopping i.e. t = T4 = 2v πl
. For
the second particle the total Lorentz force
must be zero so u = B E
. Equating times gives
u
l
= πl
2v i.e. E = 2Bv
π .
4. RETROREFLECTIVE FILM (12 points) — Treilis. the functional dependence of the angular ve-
Eero Uustalu and Jaan Kalda.(Solution: Taavet i) (2 points) The ball that moves on the or- locity on the roll angle ω (θ) such that the
Kalda) ange curve is under an effective acceleration point at the top is at the same position as
√ the point mass for all time. We can find the
i) (2 points) By shining the laser straight on aef f = √ H g , so aef f t2o = H 2 + L2 and
to the retroreflective film, we see six dots ap- √ H 2 +L2 2 components of the velocity vy = Rω (θ) sin θ
2(H 2 +L2 ) and vx = Rω (θ) [1 − cos θ] , hence v 2 =
pear on the screen. These dots represent to = gH . The ball that moves on 2
the laser beam refracting through the six dif- the blue curve initially falls for a time t1 = 2R2 ω (θ) [1 − cos θ] = 2gR [1 − cos θ] , where
√ the last equality comes from energy conser-
ferent prisms that appear on the film. In 2H/g and then moves with a velocity v =
the symmetrical case, where αi = const., √2gH for the remainder, hence t = √ L vation of the ball. Hence we can conclude
we expect the dots to lie on the vertices
2 2gH that the angular velocity
√ is constant
√ ω2 =
2H+L
of a hexagon. What we actually see is a and the total time is tb = t1 + t2 = √2gH π2
t2min
= g
R and tmin = π R
g =π H
2g .
hexagon, where two dots are squished in- . The equation to = tb can be solved to give
wards while the other four are equidistant H L
= 43 6. SELF-GRAVITATING GAS (10 points) — Eero
Vaher (v: Jaan Kalda).(Solution: Taavet Kalda)
from the centre. This implies that four ii) (2 points) To understand this point one
angles and two angles are pairwise the same. needs to apply Fermatʼs principle, which i) (2 points) Consider the parcel having cross-
We could say that faces 1 and 4 correspond states that light always takes the path of loc- sectional area of S and thickness dr. Let
to the dots that are squished inwards. In that ally least time between two points. Since the the local density of the gas at that parcel be
case, α1 = α4 , α2 = α3 = α5 = α6 and speed of the ball will vary based on height, ρ. Due to spherical symmetry, the gravita-
α1 < α2 . this is reinterpreted as a height-variable in- tional field acting on the parcel will be g =
ii) (2 points) We can find the minimal de- dex of refraction. From energy conservation −G Mr(r)
2 and thus, the gravitational force is
2

iv) (3 points) In order to derive the adiabatic flection angles by holding the laser and the it is know that mv(y) = mgy , hence v (y) = Fg = −G M (r)m = −G Mr(r)
2 Sdrρ. This is es-
√
2 √ r2
invariant, we note that the magnetic flux of screen in place while tilting the film. In that v(H)
2gy and n (y) = v(y) = H sentially due to Gaussʼ Law for gravitational
y .
the helixal trajectory follows Φ ∝ Area × case, the changing deflection angles are dir- field. The gas will also experience the gas
Bz ∝ R2 Bz ∝ Bz /v⊥ 2
, where v⊥ is the com- ectly represented by the movement of the iii) (2 points) From Snellʼs law we know that pressure p from the bottom side acting out-
ponent of the velocity thatʼs perpendicular to dots on the screen. Then the only thing left n (y) sin θ = const. = C , so we need to ex- ward and gas pressure p + dp acting inward
the magnetic field. Therefore the adiabatic is to find the orientation of the film such that press dxdy
= cot θ in terms of sin θ (notice that from the top surface. This pressure will ex-
invariant can be written as v⊥ 2
/Bz . the deflection of the dots on the screen is derivative is the cotangent is this case, be- ert a total force of Fp = (p − p − dp) S. In
minimal. Measurements yield β1 ≈ 28° and cause of the way how the angle is defined a hydrastatical equilibrium, Fp + Fg = 0,
During the motion of the electron, its kin- β2 ≈ 40°.
etic energy is conserved because the mag- in optics). Use the result that √ 1 + cot2 θ = thus Sdp = −G M (r)Sρr2 dr or in other words,
netic field doesnʼt do any work. In the crit- iii) (4 points)Minimal deflection angle corres- ′ M (r)ρ
p = −G r2 .
2
2
1
sin2 θ= n(y)
C 2 , hence
dy
= An (y) − 1
ical case, where the electron is almost reflec- ponds to the rays traversing the prisms sym-
dx
1 ii) (2 points) All the subsequent integrals will
with A = C 2
ted, the perpendicular compoment of the ve- metrically. This allows us to conveniently be from the centre of the gas cloud all the way
locity of the electron at the surface of the find the minimal deflection angle in terms of
dy
iv) (2 points) We know that (y = 0) =
dx to the edge where the pressure will be 0. The
earth will be equal to u0 . The adiabatic in- α and γ, where γ is the angle of the film with 0 (from the grazing condition),√ so find thermal∫energy of the gas can be expressed
respect to the laser beam. Further measure-
variant then yields n (0) = n0 and dx dy
(y = 0) = An20 − 1 as U = n(r)4πr2 dr ⟨E⟩, where ⟨E⟩ = 23 kT
ments show γ1 = 11° and γ2 = 9°. From geo- 1
, hence A = n2 . This in turn gives us is the average energy of one gas molecule.
2
v⊥0 2
u0 metry, we get β/2 = α/2 − γ so α = 2γ + β. √ 0
= . This gives α1 = 50°, α2 = 58°. 2 From
∫ the ideal gas law, p = nkT so U =
B(R0 ) B(RE )
dy
dx = (1 + αy) − 1 , so dxdy
(y = h) = 3
. We want the integral to be of the
√ 2 pdV ∫
iv) (1 point)For our values, cos2 α1 + cos2 α3 + 2 2
2αh + α h , hence d = dy/dx(y=h) h
= form U = −α V dp. For that we can use in-
Now v⊥0 = u0 sin α so the critical angle is cos2 α5 = 0.97. Either by trying different val- ∫ edge ∫
given by ues or binary searching, we see that we can
√ h
2αh+α2 h2
. tegration by parts: pdV = pV |centre − V dp.
(√ ) subtract ∆α = 0.5° to get almost exactly 1 as The limits for pV are both zero because in
( v) (2 points) In this case there is a trivial cyc-
B(R0 ) √ ) the value for the sum of cosines squared. both cases, either p = 0 or V = 0. Therefore
α0 = arcsin = arcsin 1/5 5 = 5.1°. loid linking the points A and B that also sat- ∫
B(RE ) isfies the initial condition vA = 0 . Choose
v) (3 points) From Snellʼs law, sin(α − γ) = 3
H L U =− V dp,
n sin(α/2) so n = sin(β + γ)/ sin(γ + β/2) ≈ a wheel with radius R = 2 = π , so that 2
The angle α has to be smaller than α0 for 1.5. the wheel completes exactly half a revolution
the electron to reach the surface of the and α = 32 .
between points A and B . We want to find
Earth. 5. BRACHISTOCHRONE (10 points) — Rūdolf iii) (3 points) Gravitational potential energy
 ∫ √ ( )
is of the form EG = − GMr (r) dM = 3g 2 i) (2 points) If we were to measure the res- switch the order of the resistors A and B, the
∫ GM (r) ωi2 + 1− √ . istance of each of the resistors separately, reading becomes negative: V1′ = −17.5 ±
− r 4πr2 drρ. To simplify this, we can ℓ 5
use the result from the first part GM = the reading would be something like 4.67 kΩ, 0.5 mV: the potential of the junction P be-
− dp r2 The collision of two dominoes is inelastic, and the uncertainty would be four last di- came smaller. In the first case, the junctionʼs
dr ρ . Therefore,
∫ ∫ so after the collision the two dominoes move gits, 40 Ω, plus 1% of the reading, 47 Ω, all potential was U rA /(rA + rB ), in the second
3
EG = dp4πr = 3 dpV. together (for a negligibly short time before together δr = 87 Ω. This can be a system- case — U rB /(rA + rB ). So we conclude rA >
the first domino bumps into the corner of a atic error which means that different meas- rB . Repeating this procedure with different
From this we see that step). After the two dominoes collide, let the urement errors can be strongly correlated so connections, weʼll find rA > rC > rD > rB .
EG 2 angular velocity of the first one be ωi′′ . Since that for the sum rA +rB +rC +rD , we need to iv) (5 points) With the data of the previous
=− U the two dominoes move in unison, add the uncertainties (as opposed to adding task we have
3 3 squared uncertainties in the case of uncor-
or ℓ 1 rA − rB V1 − V1′
1 cos(α)ℓωi = cos(α) ωi+1 =⇒ ωi = ωi+1 . related errors). Therefore, the uncertainty of
′′ ′′
= .
U = − EG . 2 2 r̄ = (rA + rB + rC + rD )/4 would be also 87 Ω. rA + rB U
2 (2)
Therefore β = 12 . Alternatively, one can During the collision, the force between the However, we can also measure a series
connection of any number of these resistors. Similarly we can have
write this immediately down from virial the- two dominoes is always horizontal (since
orem. there is no friction between the two), let this It can be easily seen that the smallest un-
rA − rC V2 − V2′
iv) (1 point) With heat radiation, the total en- force be F (t), where t is the time. Let us con- certainty will be if we connect all the four =
rA + rC U
ergy of the system is slowly being radiated sider the angular momentum of the iʼth dom- resistors in series, in which case we obtain
ino w.r.t. its base. rA + rB + rC + rD = 18.68 kΩ with the un-
away. In this model, the total energy is negat- certainty of 187 + 40 = 227 Ω; hence, r̄ = with V2 = 7.5 ± 0.5 mV and V2′ = −0.8 ±
ive and some observations about the system ∫ uniformiz. of velocities 0.4 mV; also
′ ′′ 4.67 kΩ ± 57 Ω.
can be made. If we increase the dimension of I(ωi −ωi ) = ℓ cos(α) F (t)dt
the gas cloud, then clearly the magnitude of beginning of collision ii) (2 points) The problem with the given rA − rD V3 − V3′
(3) resistors is that the ohmmeter cannot oper- =
the total energy will go down. If we increase rA + rD U
For the second domino, we have an analog- ate in the more precise 4 kΩ range. How-
the temperature, then the magnitude of the
ous equation. ever, if we connect two resistors in parallel, with V3 = 17.5 ± 0.5 mV and V3′ = −0.8 ±
total energy will go up. This is sufficient to
determine that due to heat radiation, the tem- ∫ uniformiz. of velocities weʼll measure directly their harmonic aver- 0.4 mV. With a very good approximation
ℓ
perature of the gas cloud will go up while the Iωi+1 = cos(α) F (t)dt age, and the ohmmeter will operate in the (negligible relative error), we can use rA +
2 beginning of collision 4 kΩ range. Note that we shouldnʼt connect
radius of the gas cloud will get smaller. rB = rA + rC = rA + rD = 2r̄ so that with the
(4) more than two resistors as that would reduce given data we obtain:
v) (2 points)In the case of a plasma ball, both Equations (3) and (4) together imply rA −rB
the reading without changing the range and = (8.34 ± 0.3) · 10−4 ,
the electrons and protons are free to move 2r̄
rA −rC
around. Both electrons and protons can be
′ ′′
ωi − ωi = 2ωi+1 . (5) hence, increase the relative error. So, we can 2r̄ = (2.78 ± 0.3) · 10−4 ,
obtain rA rB /(rA + rB ) = rC rD /(rC + rD ) = rA −rD
= (6.10 ± 0.3) · 10−4 .
treated as exerting equal pressure. This ef- We can now plug equations (2) and (1) into (5) 2.337 kΩ±27.4 Ω, hence ⟨r⟩ = 4.674 kΩ±55 Ω 2r̄
fectively doubles the average energy of one If we add up all these equalities, we obtain
to express ωi+1 in terms of ωi . iii) (1 point) The precision of direct meas- 2(rA − r̄) = r̄ · (17.2 ± 0.9) · 10−4 . With
molecule from 23 kT to 3kT while keeping √
the gravitational energy expression the same. ( ) urments is not sufficient for distinguishing, r̄ = 4.67 kΩ (which has negligbly small rel-
∫ 2 ′ 2 3g 2
Therefore U = −3 V dp = −EG so the new ωi+1 = ωi = 2
ωi + 1− √ (6) which resistors have bigger resistance, and ative error), we end up with
5 5 ℓ 5 which have smaller. So, we need to build
proportionality factor between the thermal
energy and gravitational energy is β = 1. a bridge connection by connecting. For in- rA − r̄ = (4.02 ± 0.21)Ω.
By stability, ωi = ωi+1 = ω. This lets us fi-
stance, we can connect the minus of the
7. DOMINOES (6 points) — Kaarel Hänni. Let nally evaluate ω.
voltage source to the resistor A, connect A to In a similar way, we can find
the iʼth domino have initial angular velocity ( )
4 2 12g 2 B, and B — to the plus of the voltage source;
ωi . Let us first find ωi′ , the angular velocity 2
ωi = ω + 1− √ =⇒ weʼll do the same with C and D, and meas- rB − r̄ = (−3.78 ± 0.21)Ω,
of this domino just before colliding with the 25 i 25ℓ 5
√ ( ure voltage between the junction P between
next one. A collision occurs after the dom- ( ) ) A and B and junction Q between C and D. In rC − r̄ = (1.43 ± 0.21)Ω,
ino has fallen by an angle of α = arctan 12 . 4g 2
ω = ωi = 1− √ order to get the highest precision, weʼll use
By conservation of energy, 21 Iωi′2 = 12 Iωi2 + 7ℓ 5 the highest possible voltage of U = 30 V. If and
rD − r̄ = (−1.68 ± 0.21)Ω.
2 mgℓ(1 − cos(α)).
1
√ Hence, we connect Q to the minus of the voltmeter
8. FOUR RESISTORS (10 points) — Jaan Kalda
mgℓ and P to the plus of the voltmeter, we might
ωi′ = ωi2 + (1 − cos(α)) = (1) and Eero Uustalu.
get the reading V1 = 7.5 ± 0.5 mV. If we
I