Explosives

George B. Clark1

7.1-1. Introduction. The fundamentals of blasting involve both the prop-

erties of explosives and of the rock being blasted. While the knowledge
of property correlation between rocks and explosives for most effective
blasting is far more complete, many quantitative evaluations have been
made. Four of the most important explosive properties appear to be energy
density, bulk density, rate of energy release, and the pressure-time history
of the gases produced. Important rock properties are density and porosity.
strength, and energy absorption properties, including the effective moduli
of elasticity. Rock structure also has a marked effect on its breaking prop-
erties, i.e., joints, bedding, fractures, alteration, etc.
Several mechanisms enter into rock fragmentation by blasting. These
include slabbing, radial fracturing, crushing, and bursting by the gas bubble.
All of these factors are closely related to properties of both explosives
and rock. Slabbing depends upon the character of the first generated stress
wave, whose shape and magnitude are a result of the pressure generated
by the explosive, its time history, and the resultant response of the rock,
including its ability to sustain the stress wave. Actual slabbing, in turn,
is a function of the magnitude and shape of the pressure pulse and the
tensile strength of rock. Further fragmentation depends to a great extent
upon the amount of gas in the bubble and its energy and pressure.
Blasting rounds are best designed by taking the above factors into con-
sideration. This is effectively accomplished by use of cratering curves which
relate breakage- parameters to the explosive energy. Optimum depths from
single charge cratering curves must be adjusted to changes in shot geometry
and related to multiple hole blasting.
Blasting damage may occur from either air blast or ground waves, and
in the latter ease may be due to direct vibration or to settlement caused
by vibration. Technical information indicates that blasting damage is often

'Director, Rock Mechanics Research Group, University of Missouri at Rolla, Rolla,

Missouri.
342 BLASTING [Ch. 7.1
exaggerated by property owners, and one of the best means of protection
is a thorough photographic survey of all pertinent properties prior to the
beginning of blasting operations.
The use of nuclear explosives for large-scale blasting appears to have
its best possible application in the excavation of canals, harbors, and similar
projects. Costs are reasonable where the project is large enough and the
attendant problems concerning radiation, shock waves, etc. can be resolved.
7.1-2. Explosives. While the first explosive used by mankind was prob-
ably black powder, and nitroglycerin served as the explosive base for the
first dynamites, there is now a very large assortment of ingredients for
explosives which may be employed depending upon the blasting require-
ments. Based on composition or energy source, explosives may be classified
as black powder, dynamite, ammonium nitrate blasting agents, slurries,
metallized explosives, military explosives (TNT, etc.), and nuclear
explosives.
The development of the hydrodynamic theory of detonation and its appli-
cation to condensed explosives (3) in the last three decades has added
greatly to the knowledge of explosive performance parameters. This theory,
coupled with appropriate thermodynamic laws, law of kinetics, and a modi-
fied equation of state for gases, permits accurate calculations of detonation
pressures, velocities, etc. For example, the initial experiments with slurries
were performed on the computer before any physical testing was done,
the tests confirming the calculations. The development of ANFO blasting
agents and slurries has greatly improved the efficiency of many surface
and underground blasting operations, and effected marked cost reduction
in many cases in both surface and underground mining.
The distinguishing characteristic of high explosives is that they detonate,
i.e., the explosion consists of a shock wave supported by the energy from the
accompanying' chemical reaction. Low explosives do not develop a shock
wave in the reactants when they are exploded, but deflagrate or burn a t a
very high rate.
DESIGN OF EXPLOSIVES. Chemical explosives usually yield more energy
per unit weight if they are oxygen balanced; also they give off a minimum
of noxious fumes. For example, if an explosive is composed entirely of
C, H , 0 , and N in its constituent compounds, then if there is just enough
oxygen to react to form COz from the carbon and H,O from the hydrogen
with the nitrogen all forming N,, it is ozygen balanced (OB). That is,

If sodium, calcium, aluminum, or other reactive elements are present, then

in computing the oxygen balance, enough oxygen must also be allowed
to form the appropriate oxides of these elements.
Art. 7.1-21 EXPLOSIVES 343
The difference in energy yield is well illustrated by the reaction of ammo-
nium nitrate without and with enough carbon for OB. If the following
reaction is assumed (oxides of nitrogen actually are formed)

while if enough carbon is present for OB,

The energy yield of chemical explosives is produced as kinetic energy of

the gaseous molecules, atoms, and ions produced by the explosion, and
these particles transmit a portion of their energy mechanically to their
surroundings.
The immediate energy yield from nuclear explosives, on the other hand,
is mostly in the form of radiant heat, and the mass per unit volume of
the explosive device is very small compared to chemical explosives. Thus,
nuclear explosives must "adopt" a mechanical transport agent from their
environment. Nuclear explosives in air are inefficient because of the low
density of air, but when completely confined in rock or soil they may
have a blasting efficiency approaching that of chemical. explosives.
METALLIZED EXPLOSIVES. When certain metals combine with oxygen, the
reaction is exothermic and considerable heat is given off. Mixing of such
metals with oxygen-rich compounds such as ammonium nitrate generates
much more energy than mixing with fuel oil. The complete reaction for
AN-A1 mixture is, assuming that A1203is formed:

For AN-fuel oil the reaction is

That is, for stoichiometric mixtures of AN and Al, the energy of complete
explosion is more than twice as great as for fuel oil. Difficulties in mixing
preclude the use of high percentages of powdered Al, however, but smaller
amounts can be employed to give a higher energy yield. Other metals
whose oxides have high heats of formation, such as Fe and Mg, may also
be used, but practical considerations such as cost, mixing problems, sensi-
tivity, oxidation, etc., have precluded extensive use of other than minor
amounts. Also, the resulting explosive is often too strong, i.e., releases too
much energy for given rocks, and the rate of release of energy is also
too great to provide the proper shape of pressure pulse for most rocks.
Too much explosive energy may, in addition, cause too much throw in
broken rock or ore.
344 BLASTING [Ch. 7.1
Example 7.1-1. Calculate the oxygen balance of an explosive of the following
composition :
Nitroglycerine '18%
TNT 3
Ammonium nitrate 55
Sodium nitrate 10
s pulp 12
Calcium carbonate 2

For one kilogram of explosive, the composition is determined from Table

7.1-1, as follows:
Ho No 00 CO Ca Na
NG 18% 3.964 2.378 7.133 2.378 -
-
A

TNT 3 0.660 0.396 0.793 0.925 -

NHdN08 55 27.484 13.739 20.614 - -e -
NaN08 10 - 1.176 3.530 - 1.176
S DU~D 12 7.560 - 2.568 5.004 - -
C~CO~ 2 - - 0.600 0.200
- 0.200
- -
Total 39.668 17.689 35.238 8.507 0.200 1.176
OB = (35.238 - 0.200 - 34 X 1.176) - 2 X 8.507 - X 39.668
= -1.44 gram atoms/kg

DYNAMITES. The first dynamites were composed primarily of nitro-

glycerin and finely-powdered silica. The silica was later .replaced by a
combustible material, usually wood pulp, which made the explosive more
powerful, that is, it yielded more energy per unit weight. Other early dyna-
mites contained blasting gelatin comprised of 92-93% nitroglycerin and
7-8% collodion cotton. Various mixtures of the above two basic explosives,
and substances such as ammonium nitrate, potassium nitrate, and similar
materials, including antifreezes such as ethylene glycol, have been the prin-
cipal ingredients of dynamites for many years. The strength of these explo-
sives, their detonation velocities, pressure, and energy generated could be
varied over a considerable range depending upon the composition and
density.
AMMONIUM NITRATE.I n the early 1950's it was found that mixtures of
commercially available ammonium nitrate prills could be made to detonate
in 3-in. diameter or larger boreholes when mixed with the proper proportion
of finely divided carbon or a hydrocarbon fuel to give an oxygen-balanced
agent. ANFO blasting agent,s are capable under the best conditions of giving
the same blasting effectiveness as a 60% dynamite, and they are adaptable
to many types of rock.
Prills of AN are made by spraying a 95% AN, 5% H,O melted mixture
in a tower to form pellets of 8/20 mesh size. Evaporation of the HzO
after prilling produces a porous spheroid which has more reaction surface
exposed than a solid sphere. This porosity of the prills gives the equivalent
 TABLE 7.1-1
DATAFOR EXPLOSIVES
AND EXPLOSIVE
INGREDIENTS

Composition, gram atoms/kg

Heat of Formation,
Name M. Wt. Formula C H N 0 kcal./mole kcal./kg

Nitroglycerin
Ethylene glycol dini-
trate
Nitrocellulose
11.05% Na
11.64% Na
12.20% Nn
12.81 % Na
13.45% Np
14.12% Na
Trinitrotoluene (2-4-6)
Dinitrotoluene
Lead aside
Mercury fulminate
S:G Pulp
x Pulp
Paraffin
Cellulose
Ammonium nitrate
Sodium nitrate
Calcium carbonate
346 BLASTING [Ch. 7.1
of a finer particle size and permits detonation of confined charges as
small as 2-in. critical diameter. ~ e g u l a rcrystalline AN has a larger critical
diameter because of its nonporosity.
Sensitivity and detonation velocity are determined by particle size, pack-
ing density, confinement, chemical balance, and homogeneity of mixing.
If a charge is made more dense, its velocity increases but its sensitivity
decreases. Crushing to finer particle sizes produces materials that will
detonate in 1-in. diameter holes. Usually a t least stick of 40% dynamite
or its equivalent serves as an initiator. Packing densities vary from approxi-
mately 0.90 to 1.00
SLURRIES. A further development of blasting agents led to the use of
slurries, the first of which consisted primarily of ammonium nitrate, T N T ,
and water. Granular mixtures of ammonium nitrate and T N T have a rela-
tively low density. The addition of water increases the effective density
and markedly alters the kinetics of the reactions involved as well as increas-
ing the detonation velocity and pressure. More recent developments in
slurries have led t o the use of rather chemically-inactive substances such
as ammonium nitrate, potassium nitrate, and other agents which may be
mixed together to form a blasting agent as the mixture enters a borehole.
Both ANFO blasting agents and slurries require fairly strong boosters to
initiate a detonation in them; this is a desirable safety feature if the critical
diameter is not too large.
7.1-3. Detonation of Explosives. The temperature, pressure, gas density,
and velocity of the detonation wave comprise the important detonation
state paramete~s,while temperature, pressure, and available work in the
gases well behind the detonation wave constitute the explosion state
parameters.
A detonation wave in a high explosive is a shock wave supported by
the accompanying chemical reaction in the shock front. The relation be-
tween energy, specific volume, pressure, and specific volume may be deter-
mined by utilization of the laws of conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy.
A cylindrical column of explosive with a plane detonation wave (Fig.
7.1-1) may be analyzed using a coordinate system moving with the detona-
tion wave with a velocity ul = -D toward the right. The mass, of material
entering the shock front per unit cross-sectional area per unit time must
be equal to the wave velocity times the explosives density, which in turn
is equal t o the mass leaving to the left.
Therefore :
uipi = Unpz (7.1-6)
or
Art. 7.31 EXPLOSIVES 347

Refraction

(0) Preuure Profile

of Gawr
(c) Velocitirr in Fired Coordinote System

(dl Velocitler in Coordinate Syetem Movlng Wlth Velocity D

Fig. 7.1 -1. Detonation system schematic.

Fig. 7.1 -2. Variation of covolume factor, a, with v,.

348 BLASTING [Ch. 7.1

where: pl is density of explosive

pz is density of gases in shock wave
vl is specific volume of explosive = l/pl
vz is specific volume of gaseous products = llpz
The momentum of the unit masses of solid and gas is equal to the mass
times the velocity plus the momentum of the molecules which generate
pressure, or

The total energy of a nonreactant shock is equal to the internal energy,

E, kinetic energy of the explosive and gas masses, and the energy of com-
pression of explosive and gases. To this must be added the heat of reaction,
Q, for a detonation (reactant) wave.

where Q2 = heat of formation of products minus heat of formation of

reactants.
If u2 is eliminated from Eq. 7.1-6 to 7.1-9, the detonation velocity is

In gases at ordinary temperatures and pressures, the ideal gas equation

may be employed to obtain the relationship between temperature, pressure,
and volume. Temperatures in explosives are as high as 6000°K and pres-
sures up to 200,000 atm. A modified Abel equation of state with a variable
covolume factor, a (Fig. 7.1-2) has been found suitable (3) for these
conditions :
p(v - a) = nRT (7.1-11)
The explosion is considered to be adiabatic in character, and from the
appropriate thermodynamic equations and Eq. 7.1-11 an expression for
the detonation temperature, T2,may be derived:

where:

Qz is heat of explosion
T1 is 298°K
R is gas constant = 0.00198 when Qz is in kilocalories per kilogram
and ni in moles per kilogram
Cvis average heat capacity
Cvis ideal heat capacity.
Art. 7.1 -31 EXPLOSIVES
It may also be determined that:

and that:

The procedure (3,4) for calculation of detonation prameters of an oxygen-

balanced (OB) explosive is 1) to write the reaction equation and determine
the heat of reaction; 2) assume values for T, and v,; 3) iterate Eq. 7.1-12,
7.1-13, and 7.1-14; 4) calculate D from Eq. 7.1-15 and p, from Eq. 7.1-11
using R = 0.08207 liter-atm/mole/OK.
I n the explosion state it is assumed that the gases occupy the original
volume of the explosive, i.e., p, = p,. The temperature is calculated from

For an OB explosive, Q, = Q,, and Eq. 7.1-16 must be solved by iterative

procedures for T, and the pressure then determined from Eq. 7.1-11. For
most practical purposes, Q, may be taken as the value of available work.
It is necessary in making the above calculations to utilize tabulated
values of heats of formation (Table 7.1-2), heat capacities (Table 7.1-3),
and density-covolume relationships (Table 7.1-4). When an explosive is not
ozygen balanced, chemical equilibrium constants and fugacity corrections
are also required, the computations in this case being several orders of
magnitude more difficult than for an OB explosive (3).

TABLE 7.1-2
HEATS OF FORMATION (PRODUCTS OF EXPLOSION)
(KCAL./MOLE)
AT 29S°K*

H2 - N -85.09
N2 - 0 -59.16
' C02 -I-94.05 HCN -31.2
CO +26.42 CHzO +27.7
H2 0 +57.80 CzH4 -12.50
NHs +11.04 CzHe +20.24
CH4 +17.89 CzHIOH +56.24
CHsOH +48.08 c (8) -
CHzOz +86.67 SO2 +70.5
0 2 - Na20 +loo. 0
OH -10.06 CaO +155.0
NO -21.60 Alzoa +392.0
H -52.09
* Adapted from National Bureau of Standards "Selected Values of Chemical Thermo-
dynamic Properties," Circular 500.
 [Ch. 7.1
TABLE 7.1-3
AVERAGE
AND IDEALMOLAL HEATCAPACITIES
cal./mole/"K

Average C, Ideal 6,
T°K N' COz H20 Nz COz H20

300 4.974 6.907 6.039

1000 5.323 9.395 6.867 5.829 11.008 7.874
1500 5.653 10.302 7.564 7.343 12.001 9.147
2000 5.900 10.884 8.168 6.615 12.515 10.021
2500 6.082 11.293 8.656 6.772 12.830 10.567
3000 6.219 11.600 9.045 6.874 13.056 10.926
3500 6.328 11.841 9.359 6.947 13.229 11.160
4000 6.415 12.039 9.614 7.002 13.368 11.321
4500 6.488 12.204 9.824 7.048 13.488 11.437
5000 6.550 12.347 10.001 7.089 13.599 11.534
5500 6.603 12.472 10.153 (7.127) (13.681) (11.608)
6000 6.651 12.586 10.286 (7.154) (13.752) (11.667)
NazO = 19.5 CaO = 15.2 AlzOa = 28.0

TABLE 7.1-4
COVOLUME-SPECIFIC
VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS

Density Specific Co-

Density
P
Factor Volume
(v)
volume
((I) v
a =
- (I (dv)8 \.A
-
v4 v (I

1.577 1.429 0.795 0.6340 0.250 0.100

2.000 1.250 0.750 0.5000 0.300 0.200
2.525 1.111 0.715 0.3960 0.350 0.300
3.125 1.000 0.680 0.3200 0.390 0.400
3.845 0.9091 0.649 0.2601 0.430 0.500
4.623 0.8333 0.617 0.2163 0.470 0.600
5.580 0.7692 0.590 0.1792 0.500 0.750
6.523 0.7143 0.561 0.1533 0.530 0.900
7.710 0.6667 0.537 0.1297 0.560 1.050
8.929 0.6250 0.513 0.1120 0.590 1.250
10.50 0.5882 0.493 0.0952 0.620 1.500
11.82 0.5556 0.471 0.0846 0.650 1.750
13.40 0.5263 0.450 0.0763 0.670 1.950
14.29 0.5000 0.430 0.0700 0.700 2.150
15.58 0,4762 0.412 0.0642 0.720 2.400
17.09 0.4545 0.396 0.0585 0.740 2.700

CRITICAL DIAMETER. Every explosive material, when formed in a cylindri-

cal shape, has a diameter below which it will not propagate a detonation
wave. For the primary explosives such as lead azide, the critical diameter
is so small as to be virtually nonexistent. For P E T N it is likewise very
small as evidenced by small diameters of explosive fuse available. The
critical diameter for crystalline ammonium nitrate, on the other hand, may
be as high as 10 in.
Art. 7.1 -31 EXPLOSIVES
Example 7.1-2. Oxygen-balanced explosive:

NG 20% 2.642 4.404 2.642 7.926 - - 72.8

AN 56.5% - 28.233 14.114 21.176 - - 620.4
s pulp 12% 5.004 7.560 - 2.568 - - 126.0
NaNOs 10.5 % - - 1.235 3.707 - 1.235 138.9
CaCOs 1 % 0.100 -
- - - - - 0.300 -
0.100 -- -
28.7
Total 7.746 40.197 17.991 35.677 0.100 1.235 986.8

OB = 00- Ca - >$Na - 2C02 - j5H2O = -0.63

Heat of formation of products = 1967.4 kcal./kg
Heat of formation of reactants = 986.8 kcal./kg
Heat of explosion and detonation Q2 = 980.6 kcal./kg
Detonation stateapproximated u2 = 0.625
Trial Calculations

Trial 1 Trial 2

Assumed T2"K
ZniC. (gases) kcal./kg
ZniC. (gas and solids) kcal./kg
Zni (mole/kg gases)
p (from Eq. 7.1-13)
Calculated Tz (Eq. 7.1-12)
Adjusted vz
PZ(atm)
D (meter/sec, Eq. 7.1-15)
Calculation of Explosion state conditions
Detailed procedure is as follows: 1) Follow procedure similar to that for detonation
state, 2) assume a temperature Ts, 3) calculate average heat capacity of products, 4)
iterate with Eq. 7.1-16 until calculated temperature agrees with assumed temperature,
5) calculate explosion pressure.

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Assumed Ta°K 3300 3175 3190

~ n i f l(gas
. and solids) kcal/kg 0.3468 0.3445 0.3448
Calculated Ta°K (Eq. 7.1-16) 3175 3195 3192
Explosion pressure (atm) - - 45,485

The factors which affect critical diameter are particle size, reactivity,
density, and confinement. Thus, the reactivity of prilled AN is increased
by the addition of fuel oil and other additives, and the critical diameter
is reduced accordingly. Grinding of prills and confining them in a steel
pipe or a borehole makes it possible to reduce the critical diameter below
one inch. Too dense packing, however, tends to increase the critical diame-
 BLASTING
ter. Hence, an optium must be established for particle size and bulk
density to obtain desired performance.
AVAILABLEENERGY. The available energy from commercial explosives
depends upon their composition. Blasting gelatin yields approximately 1400
kcal./kg and energy diminishes to approximately 620-700kcal./kg for the
lowest percentage gelatin in nitrate and straight gelatin mixtures. The en-
ergy yield for AN-fuel oil is about 927 kcal./kg depending upon the value
used for the heat of formation of fuel oil, or approximately the equivalent
of a 50% dynamite. Aluminized mixtures of AN may yield as high as
1470 kcal./kg or about the same energy as blasting gelatin. AN slurry ex-
plosives yield only 760 kcal./kg, but are very effective because of their
high bulk density (1.41) and consequent high explosion pressure.
Slurries are particularly effective, not because of their very high energy
density, but because of the high, persistent pressure generated. That is,
the addition of water increases bulk density, lowers the energy density,
but compensates by increasing the magnitude and duration of the explosion
pressure. This confirms the logic that it is a combination of factors which
make an explosive suitable for a given rock. These are: 1) optimum energy
density, 2) optimum loading density, 3) suitable pressure-time values for
generation of stress pulse, and 4) persistence of pressure in gas bubble
to complete breakage around the borehole.
7.1-4. Blasting Processes. The logical sequence of events in a blasting
process appears to be first the formation of an outgoing stress pulse by
the detonating explosive. If the pulse is strong relative to the confined
strength of the rock, there will be considerable initial crushing and fractur-
ing near the explosive. Beyond the fracture zone the'pulse travels as an
elastic wave until it reaches a free face, where i t is reflected as a tensile
wave. Slabbing ensues until the pulse is consumed in the process. If enough
slabs are formed to reach back to a zone near the explosive, still under
high stress from the gas bubble, the remaining rock will be fractured and
thrown outward, usually with a higher velocity than the initial slabs. Thus,
a very important part of the work is done by the expanding gas bubble. It
is evident that adequate stemming is required for both the formation of
the initial pulse and the retention of gases long enough for them to do
the necessary pv work in bursting the rock inside the slabbing zone and
causing a good portion of fragmentation and throw.
Inasmuch as the shock wave in the explosive is of very short duration
a t any point in the borehole, it does very little useful work. The sustained,
or explosion, pressure appears to be responsible for almost all of the work
done by the detonation gases.
7.1-5. Cratering Experiments. In cratering investigations to determine
the performance parameters of explosives, three types of scaling have been
Art. 7.1-61 EXPLOSIVES 353
employed: 1) energy scaling, 2) weight scaling, and 3) volume scaling (see
Chapter 7.3). All three types have their proper application. This requires
that for rigorous comparison, rock and explosive properties may be constant
for a given experiment. However, the application of the laws of similitude
must be followed in each case. Explosives are usually compared on an
energy basis, but in open pit applications where hole volumes and drilling
costs are important, volume scaling is useful for comparison of effectiveness
of two explosive charges of the same size.
A recommended procedure for adaptation of cratering results to open
pit blasting is first to plot scaled crater data for volume, radius, and depth.
Most of the shots may be limited to points near the optimum, i.e., it is
not necessary to obtain a complete cratering curve. The optimum portions
of the curves themselves give the best measure of the explosive performance.
Results must then be adjusted from single-shot crater geometry to multi-
ple-shot open pit rounds. Short charges are often employed in cratering,
while longer charges are used in open pit work. Hole spacing may be deter-
mined, with some adjustments, from scaled radii data obtained through
experimental cratering.
7.1-6. Selection of Explosives. The reasons why one explosive will break
a given rock better than another are now much better understood as a
result of extensive research than they were a decade ago. When an explosive
is breaking to one or more free faces, the slabbing mechanism provides
a basic explanation of the initial surface breakage which must occur in
order for the rock around the explosive charge to break completely. Conse-
quently, the shape and magnitude of the strain pulse transmitted to the
rock are critical factors. These are determined by the properties of the
explosive (such as pressure developed) which in turn depend upon the
composition and density of the explosive. While the specific energy of the
explosive is a controlling factor, explosive effectiveness is usually dependent
upon several factors.
For example, granular mixtures of AN-TNT ( 3 ) , with a mass density
of 1.0 and specific energy of 870 kcal./kg, develop an explosion pressure
of 32 k-bars. The same mixture with water has a mass density of 1.41,
has a specific energy of 900 kcal./kg of dry ingredients and develops an
explosion pressure of 50 k-bars. Because of their high pressure, slurries
have been found effective in hard iron ores and associated rocks.
While some experimentation is necessary to find the best explosive for
a particular rock, this can usually be determined if the physical properties
of the rock mass are known.
One of the important parameters of energy transmission from explosive
to rock is the coupling, or impedance matching, between explosive and
rock. If the rock is assumed to be elastic beyond a transition zone, and
the values of p and C for the explosive are taken as the explosive density
354 BLASTING [Ch. 7.1
and the detonation velocity ( I ) , calculations and experimentation indicate
that relative energy transmission may be estimated more closely than strain
or pressure. However, the compressibility of the rock determines to a great
extent the amount of strain energy transmitted to the rock (2).
Energy of a confined explosive may be assumed to be partitioned in
the following categories :
1. Crushing 4. Kinetic energy of throwout
2. Fracturing 5. Friction
3. Strain wave energy 6. Residual energy in escaping gmes
While part of the strain wave energy is converted to kinetic energy of
throwout, crater ejecta are also accelerated by escaping gases. Hence, it
would be difficult to distinguish between energy as defined in categories
3 and 4. In the final analysis the amount of energy transmitted from the
explosive is determined by
E = Jpdv (7.1-17)
Since there is very little cavity expansion during the formation of the
initial pulse (except in porous rock), the pv work of the explosives would
necessarily be small during this phase of the process. In extensive measure-
ments of energy a t seismic (large) distances, the porosity of the rock has
been found to have a marked effect on coupling (5).

Bibliography
1. ATCHISON,T. C., and PUDLIESE, J. M. "Comparative Studies of Explosives in
Granite, Second Series of Tests," US. Bur. Mines, R J., 6434, (1964).
2. CLAY,R. B., et al. "Behavior of Rocks During Blasting," VZZ Symp. on Rock
Mech., Penn State, (June, 1965),438.
3. COOK, M. A. The Science of High Explosives, Reinhold, (1958).
4. LEWIS,R. S., and CLARK,G. B. The Elements of Mining, Wiley, (1964).
5. SPRINQER, D. L. "Seismic Coupling of Underground Nuclear Explosions," UCRL-
1.4464, (October 20, 1965).