INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
ELE 2116

LECTURE IV

Lecturer: Jomo N. Gill

CONCEPTS TO BE EXAMINED

- Space waves
- Radio horizon
- Antenna gain
- Calculating received power
- Path loss
- Frequency allocations

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 SPACE WAVES

 There are two types of space waves: the

direct wave and the ground reflected
wave.

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 … cont’d
 The direct wave is by far the most widely
used mode of antenna communications.
The propagated wave is direct from
transmitting to receiving antenna and
does not travel along the ground. The
Earth’s surface, therefore, does not
attenuate it.

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 … cont’d
 Direct wave radio signaling is often
referred to as line-of-sight
communication. The waves are not
refracted, nor do they follow the
curvature of the earth to any significant
extent.
 Direct wave signals travel horizontally
from the transmitting antenna until they
reach the horizon, at which point they are
blocked.
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RADIO HORIZON

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 … cont’d

 If a direct wave signal is to be received

beyond the horizon, the receiver must be
high enough to intercept it.

 The antenna height and the curvature of

the Earth are the limiting factors. The
actual radio horizon is about 4/3 greater
than the geometric line of sight because
of diffraction effects and is empirically
predicted as:
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 … cont’d

 where D=radio horizon (miles)

ht=height of transmitter (ft)
hr=height of receiver (ft)

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 … cont’d
 The diffraction effects cause the slight
wave curvature, as shown in the figure. If
the transmitting antenna is 1000 ft above
ground level and the receiving antenna is
20 ft high, a radio horizon of about 50 mi
results. This explains the coverage that
typical broadcast FM and TV stations
provide because they propagate directly
by space wave propagation.

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 … cont’d
 The reflected wave is an example of
multipath reception. If the phase of these
two received components is not the
same, some degree of signal fading
and/or distortion will occur. Phase shifts
occur because the two signals arrive at
the receiver at different times since the
reflected signal has a further distance to
travel.

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 … cont’d
 The reflected signal is weaker than the
direct signal because of the inverse
square-law relationship of signal strength
to distance and because of losses
incurred during reflection.

 Multipath is of particular concern in mobile

systems because of the phenomenon of
Rayleigh fading created as the result of
many reflected signals causing
constructive and destructive interference.
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 … cont’d
 Line-of-sight communication is
characteristic of most radio signals with a
frequency above approximately 30 MHz,
particularly VHF, UHF, and microwave
signals. Such signals pass through the
ionosphere and are not bent.

 To extend the communication distance at

VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies,
repeater stations are employed.

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… cont’d

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 ANTENNA GAIN

 Antenna gain is achieved by focusing its

radiated energy in a preferred direction at
the expense of other directions.

 Antenna gain is represented with respect to

a reference antenna, which is often the
point-source radiator with its theoretical
spherical radiation pattern.

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 … cont’d

 The dipole, therefore, has a gain relative to

the isotropic radiator because dipole energy
is radiated in the doughnut-shaped pattern
rather than equally in all directions.
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… cont’d

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 CALCULATING RECEIVED
POWER
 A transmitted signal is radiated at a specific
power level. The output power of a
transmitter can be accurately determined
by calculation or measurement. That power
level is increased if the antenna has gain
because of improved directivity. As a signal
leaves an antenna, it immediately begins to
become attenuated. The degree of
attenuation is proportional to the square of
the distance between the transmitter and
receiver. 17
 … cont’d
 Received power of an antenna is given by:

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 … cont’d
 This formula is normally used only for
ground wave, direct wave, or space wave
calculations. It is not used for sky wave
signal predictions because the refraction
and reflection that occur make predictions
highly inaccurate.

 Worked example

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 PATH LOSS

 Signal loss during transmission is given by:

Where f is in MHz and d is in miles

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FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS

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… cont’d

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 ASSIGNMENT

 Explain the structure and important roles

of the ITU and the relevant local body
charged with regulating the
telecommunications sector and managing
frequency allocations.

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