Midterm Exams: 3 Points

6/10/2020 Midterm Exams
Midterm Exams
1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

hypotheses? Explain. (2 mark)
It is the hypothesis testing study. Hypothesis testing studies are higher order studies and are explanatory in
nature. Jonathan wants to test the relationships between already identified/explored and described
variables, therefore, this is the explanatory and hypothesis testing study.
2. While delineating the causal and correlation study, also indicate Is Jonathan’s study 3 points
causal or correlational in nature? (3 mark)
Causal studies are concerned whether or not change in variable "a" causes changes in variable "b". They
discuss causes of the problem. Correlational studies just ascertain whether or not two variables are related
with each other. They discuss factors relevant to a problem. For example "smoking causes cancer" is a
causal whereas "smoking and cancer are related" is a correlational study. Jonathan's study is causal as he
is investigating the effect of provision of objective calorie information on people’s experience of hunger. He
is trying to ascertain whether or not provision of objective calorie information causes any change in
people's experiences of hunger.
3. There are various degrees of interference in research – minimal, moderate, and 3 points
excessive interference. To what extent does Jonathan interferewith the normal flow of
events in his study? (3 mark)
Jonathan is conducting a lab experiment in artificial/contrived settings, dividing the participants into three
groups and measuring different psychometric behavior of food consumption. I think his interference is
moderate, as he introduces some eatables and measure behaviors of the participants afterwards.
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4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point
College students arranged in three distinct "groups" are the 'unit of analysis' in Jonathan's study.
5a. As a researcher, how would you describe the operational definition and why do you 5 points
think, is it necessary in research ? (5.5 marks)
The operational definition is a concise and succinct definition of a construct. It breaks down a construct
into its constituent dimensions and further into elements that are observable and can be measured. Without
operationalization of a variable, you cannot measure it. For example, Job satisfaction cannot be accurately
measured unless we measure some observable behaviors of this latent construct.
5b. Goodness of measures is an important aspect in whole research, please explain how 5 points
this can be achieve? (5.5 marks )
Goodness of measurement refers to two basic properties of a measuring instrument called scale in
research called reliability and validity. Reliability or consistency refers to the scale's ability to continuously
give the same results of a measurement. Two main types of reliability are consistency and stability. Validity
refers to the scale's ability to accurately measure what it purports to measure, Different forms of validity are
content validity, criterion validity and congruent validity. Highly reliable and valid scales would give
consistent and accurate results.
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According to my thinking pattern, I believe that Jonathan's study is exploratory in nature. By exploratory
study, we mean that we don't know much about the situation at hand. There is no or very little prior
information available and there are only a few studies conducted in that area. In the case of Jonathan's
study, few facts are known but more information is needed. Jonathan had the initial information which he
obtained by reading Brian Wansink's famous study with the "bottomless bowls", then the concepts which
were under consideration for his study had also been described earlier like how the effect of nutrition labels
was playing a role in peoples attitudes towards the product, their buying intentions and perceived
healthiness of food product. According to the concept of exploratory research Jonathan wanted to explore
multiple behaviors of people to formulate hypotheses.
While delineating the study I think Jonathan's study is correlational in nature as there is a relationship being
formed in his study which is between obesity and eating habits of people. The correlational study basically
helps us identify the important factors and the problems which are associated with the problem.
I think, Jonathan's interference with the normal flow of events in his study was minimal to moderate as it is
a correlational study which is normally done in a natural environment without any forced interference.
The 'Unit of Analysis' of Jonathan's study had been groups of people. This is where data is collected in the
form of a group and even individual data can be aggregated in the form of group to achieve group results.
As a researcher, I think operational definition or to operationalize the problem is very important as it helps to
define a concept and tell if it's measurable by going through the dimensions and then elements of the
problem. It is about understanding, retention, and explanation. For example, the concept we have is Dark
Triad then we further explain the concept of the dark triad in three dimensions which are psychopathy,
narcissism, and Machiavellianism, and explain them according to their definitions as they are the broad
characteristics of our concept. Then, we take each dimension for example we are taking the dimension of
Machiavellianism we tell that Machiavellians are manipulators, self-sufficing, etc. Similarly, the concept of
narcissism tells about the elements of self-love, admiration, etc. So, further, sub-division is the element of
an operational definition.
The significant measurement features are reliability and validity without which any research is not
considered effective and proficient. The main purpose of research goes all in vain if the instrument doesn't
measure what it is actually supposed to. Scale reliability and effective research go hand in hand. It is vital to
make sure that the instrument which has been developed can measure the variable it has been developed
for. Some scales are often not developed correctly hence, they affect the accuracy of the result of the
research. By validity, we need to understand how in the best possible way the instrument intends to
measure a variable. Validity can be categorized into content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct
validity.
Reliability is a method of estimation where it considering itself to be reliable assigns a similar score to
people with equivalent qualities. Reliability also tests to finds out about the Internal Consistency of the
instrument. It tells us if the result produced with the help of the instrument are stable and consistent or not.
If both validity and reliability are not taken under consideration the research will no longer remain reliable
and valid and won't stand any importance in the world of knowledge.
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Jonathan needed to comprehend, and build up some theory through his examination therefore this
investigation was exploratory. He investigated the conduct of individuals to build up his theory, it was not
only a portrayal dependent on appearance or extraneous practices.
The correlational investigations are done to investigate the connection or reliance of at least two exercises
on one another. For instance the connection among's stoutness and dietary patterns.
Jonathan’s study is "correlational" as he wants to establish a relation between obesity and eating habits of
the people,
It was a moderate interference by Jonathan with the normal flow of events. His study was a field
experiment with little interference with the normal flow of events and was also concerned on the factors
that can lead people to eat more or the factors that can make people conscious of how much they eat, if
some additional information are available to them on the food that they are eating, e.g. quantity and
nutritional information.
Jonathan study had been focused on "GROUP OF PEOPLE".
Each great brain science study contains an operational definition for the factors in the exploration. An
operational definition permits the specialists to depict with a particular goal in mind what they mean when
they utilize a specific term. By and large, operational definitions are concrete and quantifiable.
Characterizing factors along these lines permits others to check whether the examination has legitimacy.
Legitimacy here alludes to if the scientists are really estimating what they planned to quantify.
we can define it as: An operational definition is the statement of procedures the researcher is going to use
in order to measure a specific variable.
We need operational definitions in brain research with the goal that we know precisely what specialists are
discussing when they allude to something. There may be various meanings of words relying upon the
setting wherein the word is utilized. Consider how words mean something else to individuals from various
societies. To maintain a strategic distance from any disarray about definitions, in look into we clarify
obviously what we mean when we utilize a specific term.
The two most important and fundamental characteristics of any measurement procedure are reliability and
validity and lie at the heart of competent and effective study. reliability and validity are concepts used to
evaluate the quality of research. They indicate how well a method, technique or test measures something.
Reliability is about the consistency of a measure, and validity is about the accuracy of a measure.
RELIABILITY:
The extent to which the results can be reproduced when the research is repeated under the same
conditions.reliability can be accessed by checking the consistency of results across time, across different
observers, and across parts of the test itself. A reliable measurement is not always valid: the results might
be reproducible, but they’re not necessarily correct.
VALIDITY:
The extent to which the results really measure what they are supposed to measure. validity can be accessed
by checking how well the results correspond to established theories and other measures of the same
concept. A valid measurement is generally reliable: if a test produces accurate results, they should be
reproducible.
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Jonathon's study is to test hypotheses as it is being used to test the relationships among certain selected
variables. with his study Jonathon wants to know whether people who consume food with lesser calories
feel hungrier earlier than those who have the same food but have no information regarding calorie intake.
Jonathon's study is a correlational one as he is trying to determine how important calorie information is as
a variable when it comes to hunger. he is trying to figure out which factors contribute to his problem
statement and not an exact cause and effect relationship between the two.
Jonathon's study has moderate influence as it was not taking place in a very natural setting but the
participants were made aware that they were part of an experiment and were even being paid for their
participation. although the flow of events in his study was normal and not altered or artificially created.
the unit of analysis for Jonathon's study is groups as a unit of analysis as he made three groups and each
member from that group's response was taken in account. group 1 participants that got t know the number
of calories group 2 participants that didn't know about the calorie count group 3 participants that didn't get
to taste the bar.
operationalizing a variable means turning a non measurable item into an aspect of behaviour or
characteristics that can be measured. e.g turnover intention it can be measure by further breaking this
phenomenon to how often other job opportunities were searched, how many chances of promotion at the
current job and e.t.c.
It is important because without it the abstract idea cannot be measured or data on it cannot be acquired
and analysed to determine conclusive results.
goodness of measures generally includes item analysis, validity and reliability tests, to ensure that the
measures developed to operationalize the variable are actually measuring the idea that they were supposed
to measure.
item analysis: each item in the instrument is tested to see if it belongs there the t values of high scoring and
low scoring items are analyzed to see which ones should be kept in the instrument,
Reliability:
Stability of Measure : if the measure remains stable over a period of time despite the conditions in which
the experiment is conducted or even the respondents behaviour. this includes test- retest reliability by using
the reliability coefficient by asking for the same respondents after somet ime using the same measure the
higher the coefficient the more reliable it is.
Parallel-Form Reliability: when responses from two very comparable set of instruments from the same
construct are high then it means that its reliable.
Consistency
Interitem Consistency: a test of consistency of respondents answers to all the items in the instrument used
to test that items were independent measures of the same concept. Cronbach‘s coefficient alpha is the
most used method.
Split-HalfReliability: shows the correlations between the two halves of the instrument.
Validity;
Content validity ; that the instrument includes all the necessary items to measure the variable
Criterion-Related Validity: this includes concurrent and predictive Validity
Construct Validity: o how well the results obtained from the use of the
measure fit the theories around which the test is made for.
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The purpose of Jonathans's study was exploratory in nature because he wanted to develop a hypothesis to
determine the food calorie information relation to people experience of hunger. he explored the behaviour of
different people to establish his hypothesis it was not mere observation of behaviors.
Co-relation studies are those which try to find relationship between two variables. For instance in this case
study the researcher is trying to find relation between obesity and eating habits, whereas a casual study
determines to find causes behind a particular act. For example, the reason behind a airplane crash that
whether it was pilot's mistake or it was some technical fault.
Jonathan's study is correlational in nature because he was trying to find relationship between eating habits
and obesity.
Jonathan interference was moderate in nature, he didn't change the life of his variables to demonstrate
casual relationship hence the flow of events were normal.
The unit of analysis in Jonathan's study had been group of people in order to find the casual relationship
between his variables.
An operational definition is how a researcher defines and measures his/her variable. It is to get clear,
concise definition of a variable in the process of data collection. It id quite fundamental to have an
operational definition of variables because there can be hundred ways to measure a single variable, hence it
is necessary to have an operational definition
One more reason to have an operational definition is that everyone in the study has the same
understanding and also collects the data in the same order.
Goodness of measures can be achieved by two analysis: The validity analysis and The reliability analysis.
Validity analysis indicates the accuracy of a measure, whereas reliability refers to the consistency of a
measure. These measures justify he productivity of research. For instance, if a researcher is unable to have
his/her instrument valid or even the items of instrument are not consistent then how come a research will
be called as a good and productive research. Hence, it is quite vital for a researcher to ensure the goodness
of measure.
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Midterm Exams

Purpose of Jonathan's study was exploratory as this was only a preliminary research with the aim of
clarifying the nature of the problem. He tried to discover respondent’s behavior and establish hypothesis
which could be further tested in any descriptive research in the future
Jonathon's study was correlational as he was trying to establish relationship between people's obesity and
with their eating habits.
What is Causal & Correlation Study?
A correlational study is a type of research design where a researcher seeks to understand what type of
relationship naturally occurring variables have with one another. in other words it seeks to figure out if two
or more variables are related to each other or not.
Causal research is the investigation of cause and effect relationship. it try's to observe variations in
variables which are assumed to cause the change in other variables and then measure the changes in other
variables.
In research, excessive interference (that is high level of interference) is generally required only in causal
research in which the researcher is trying to control as many variables as possible.
However as Jonathan's study research was not correlational study, only moderate interference was required
as carried out by the researcher.
Unit of Analysis is the entity that frames what is being analyzed in a study. In other words it is the entity
being studied. In Jonathan's case – Unit of analysis is “Group of People”
Operational definition is how the researcher decides to measure the variables in his/her study. Please note
that variables are anything that can be measured. It is a detailed definition of a measure.
The need for operational definition in research is fundamental when collecting Data. It is particularly
important when a decision is being made about whether something is correct of not.
When collecting data, it is essential that everyone in the system has the same understanding and collects
data in the same way. Operational definitions should therefore be made before the collection of data begins.
Goodness of measure is established through different kinds of validity and reliability. The results of any
research can only be as good as the measures that tap the concept in the researcher’s framework. The use
of better instruments will ensure more accurate results which in turn will enhance the quality of research.
Researchers can achieve goodness of measure through reliability which is dependent on consistency and
stability of data and validity which is dependent on content, criterion and congruent validity.
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The purpose of the study of jonathan's study is exploratory in nature, as it is the study whose facts were
unknown to some extents as due to past researches, it is used as quantitative research here for sample size
60, by evaluating 7 point scale, 1 not hungry and 7 hungry participants and this situation also was rare to
examined by the researchers, the purpose of the study was to introduce the diet plan having food with low
calories and healthy for customers.
The jonathans study is correlational in nature, as it associate the elements calories/diet , hunger and
obesity, one influence to other , not shows cause and effect relation ,as lowers the calories to loss the
weight as to decrease the obesity issue in that situation, high calories food intake was the actual problem
and to introduce the food with same ingredients and size shape with low calories in order to decrease the
obesity . low calories decrease the weight as obesity it correlate the elements , calories , obesity and hunger
as well.
In the recent study the jonathan as researcher has minimal interference throughout the research work, as in
this case beyound administrating the experimental work and sample size collection , the researcher not
interfered with the other activities, climate situations, management and other related elements. He was with
his supervisor, only concerned with the experimental work , data collection and analysis.
The unit of analysis of Jonathan s study was at the Group level . As the problem statement was related to a
specific group having problem of obesity with high calories food, the data was gathered from relevant
people comprising as two groups of many people , one group having healthy food with low calories and 2nd
with healthy food with more calories . then they aggregate the individual data of 60 individuals into group
data.
The operational defination , is the term which is basically a statement used to specify the procedure (the
operation), task , techniques used to measure the variables under consideration. it refers to the how se
measure the concept and variables and which operating activities or tools are selected to measure them.It
is not a variable and nor a scaling item itself. It is the way in which different termonologies we use to select
the techniqe to measure the concept and variables and constructs
Concept of learning:
In order to clearify the operations in reserch, it is the way to learn, as in institute a student's learning
estimation cant be done by physically seen manner. there are three ways Understanding, it is the estimate to
which extentr he was attentive in class and how much he understand, Retention, shows how he intrestngly
was there to listen as he remember the learning topic for long term and than it was cleared out whhen he
apply that in his social or practicle life.These all are the operational activities to infuence the Learning.
Example:
As if we judge a person s personality, than there is no physical appearance of that we judge that by
measuring the ideas and concepts about his physical attraction , intelligence , behaviour , socio-economic
level, house clothing etc. we use measuring tools to detect the rating as we can arrange his IQ test, we can
estimate his monthly income etc. these all task of operations comes under the operational defination. than
scaling the measurement and than quantify for analysis.
As intelligence is a variable has to measure, we cant meaure it directly we do operational activities to
estimate the intelligence, we observe the relevant items as called Constructs to intelligence as to which
extant someone can solve problem, how much quickly can understand, how quick he learn
The goodness of measure refers to the operationally measurement of variables and applyng scaling
techniques to make sure that instrument we use is accurate . the reliability and validity of measurement are
accurate and consistent. the variables , instruments we use , scaling we use is appropriate enough to
conclude the exact actual desired outcome.
the final actual and desired result cant be finalized if there wouldnt be correct instrument and instrumental
items has used to measure the variables, which also related to the theoratical framework. there are many
instrument which resercher use instead of having their own which has chances to accurate outcomes. The
goodness of measurement related to psychometric properties as validity and reliabilty of the instrument
while data analysis.
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The purpose of Jonathan's study is exploratory in nature. He wanted to find out how Nutrition's Label on the
packaging shaped the attitudes of consumers towards the product, their buying intentions and perceived
healthiness of the food items they thought were healthy.
He wanted to explore how the calorie and nutrition label on the food items impacted and influenced peoples
experience towards hunger. For this purpose he conducted an experiment where he divided his sample into
three categories
1. participants who sampled a healthy food item with the nutrition label
2. participants who sampled a healthy food item without the nutrition label
3. participant with no sample of healthy food but with the nutrition label information
He explored the participants reaction towards the nutrition label and the perceived healthiness of the food
items they were provided. he was always interested in exploring why people over consumed food products.
In this research he wanted to explore if nutrition labels were a reason behind the perceived healthiness of
food items thus resulting in food consumption.
Causal and Correlation study are two types of investigations.
In causal study, we see the causal effect of one variable onto another. For example: Does smoking causes
heart attack? Here we can see that the study is trying to establish a causal relationship of smoking on
having an heart attack.
Correlation study is the type of study that studies the relationship of between two or more variables.
Correlation study does not tell us anything about the cause and effect, but only that there is a relationship
between the variables.
Jonathan's study here is a Correlational study in nature. he is trying to explore if there is any relationship
between the nutrition label/calorie information on to the excessive food consumption.
There are three levels of researcher interference within different study settings.
when there is a minimal interference and the study setting is non-contrived, it can be taken as a field study.
when there is a moderate or some level control by the researcher and the study setting is contrived, it can
be taken as a field experiment.
when there is a high level of control and the study setting is contrived, it can be taken as a lab experiment.
in this study, the researcher Jonathan had a minimum interference and study setting was non contrived. the
students were in their natural habitat and none of the other factors were controlled. he did not interfere
with the normal flow of events.
"Unit of Analysis" is the population that a researcher wishes to study. it can be in the form of individuals,
dyads, groups, organizations, etc.
The "unit of analysis" for Jonathan's study is "group". He took 90 undergraduate students from Tilburg
University, Netherlands.
He took a group of students, out of those 90 students , the frequency of men was 52 and women was 38.
Operationalization is done by looking at the behavourial dimensions or properties. these dimensions and
properties are denoted by the concepts. these concepts are then translated into observable and measurable
elements in order to develop a list of measurement of concepts.
by developing these measurements, a researcher can reduce the abstract nature of the concepts and turn
them into a measurable in a tangible way thus operationalizing the concepts.
i think it is necessary to operationalize the constructs we want to measure. especially because it helps us
define our concepts and helps us build instrument that can help us measure them.
Goodness of measure is an important aspect in whole research process. after a researcher operationalizes
the variables and builds the instruments to gauge them. it is on the researcher to find the goodness of the
whole process by checking that the instruments we are using to gauge these variables are in fact accurate
and precise and are suppose to measure what we are trying to measure.
this can be done doing the item analysis, validity and reliability test.
item analysis will help ensure that the items within the instrument we are using are actually relevant to our
variable.
reliability test will help us determine how consistent our instruments are over the time in evaluating gauging
the same instrument. it answers the question: are these instruments consistent when tried and tested
again and again?
validity test will help us determine how well the concept is being measured by the developed instrument.
there are three types of validity tests: content, criterion and construct validity. this test helps us answer the
question, does this instrument measures what it is supposed to measure?
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Jonathan's study is exploratory in nature. Exploratory studies are conducted when there is not much known
about the situation or problem at hand. In such cases primary data is extensively gathered . These studies
are also conducted when more in depth information is required to develop a theoretical framework.
Jonathan's study is exploratory , as he wanted to study a concept regarding which he wanted to explore the
behavior of people.
A causal study is one where a defined cause and effect relationship is established. In a causal study the
dependent variable is effected , if the independent variable is altered. In short changes in one brings about
changes in another . Researcher wants to know the cause of a problem. When a change in one causes a
change in another. For example a causal study on does increase in poverty leads to an increase in crime
rate. A correlational study is one where a researcher is studying the factors related to a problem ,there are
cases where there are many factors associated with a problem , in this case a definitive cause and effect
relationship cannot be studied , rather the researcher will look for all the possible factors. Correlation can be
liner and non-liner , negative or positive. Correlation study can be to study whether age and smoking is
related ? In this case a certain cause and effect relationship will not be defined rather certain factors linked
to the problem will be identified.
Jonathan's study is correlational as establishes a relationship between eating habits of people and obesity.
For this he conducts a research where he forms three sample groups and provides each with a certain or no
calorie information. He checks their hunger ratings after they have consumed a bar . The motive was to
study how people fulfill their hunger and how hungry they feel before and after consuming a healthy
product. Here no definite cause and effect relationship is established , it is a study of factors that eventually
lead to obesity , the problem at hand .
Minimal interference is where the researcher observes a problem in a natural setting, moderate interference
is where normal flow is interfered with mildly in order to study a correlation or certain conditions are set to
observe or study a phenomenon Excessive interference is to establish a cause and effect relationship under
strict and controlled conditions and where the researcher does not want other external factors to effect .
Jonathan's study was moderate interference , he did not sit silently at a restaurant or in a shop and observe
what people order and buy , he did interfere with what the participants were consuming. However, it was not
so excessive to the extent of a lab experiment . He provided a bar to participants and asked them to give in
their hunger rating later. Had it been excessive interference he could have asked them to not eat anything
for 10 hours before the experiment and 10 hours later too.
He studied groups of people , every group had a different piece of information and recorded responses
accordingly. unit of analysis is important step of a research design. The research question determines the
unit of analysis , which indicates the level of aggregation of data.
Operationally defining a variable means defining in in terms of its properties so it is measurable for
scientific investigation . In research every concept has dimensions , these dimensions have elements .
These elements are measurable . Scientific research cannot be vague thus any concept is step by step
broken down into measurable elements . For example learning is a concept , it can be further explained by
its three dimensions , understanding , retention and application , this clarifies a vague concept , further each
dimension has its own elements , like learning can be assessed by the ability to give answers and apply
concepts to give examples , retention is retaining the content after sometime and applying it later and
application is solving problems and link with other material.
My own example -concept -stress
The dimensions being - 1. Absent mindedness
-2. lack of physical energy
- 3. Anti-social behavior
Elements of 1. Forgetfulness , no focus , difficult to follow instructions
2. insomnia , loss of appetite , unwillingness to carry out small tasks
3. Avoiding peers , introversion , difficulty in public speaking
These elements can be studied via questions and measured to assess the level of stress , which at the
beginning sounded just a concept.
As a researcher it is very important to operationally define the concepts , to give research a purpose and
apply it later to solve problems and take real life decisions. Also it ensures that a concept is same for all
researchers and data is collected in the same way.
When a concept is operationally defined, it is important that the instrument we have design as a researcher
accurately and actually measures the concept. That all important dimensions and elements are included
and there are no irrelevant ones. One of the ways is to do the item analysis , in this it is tested whether items
of an instrument are meaningful. It accepts or rejects the items of an instrument based on their difficulty
and discriminate power.
Reliability tests how consistent the results are and , and without any bias. It is further explained by test
retest , where a same questionnaire is given to the same respondents now and later and the responses if
highly correlated means it is good. Second test is Parallel form reliability , where two comparable sets of
measures are taken , if they show high correlation , it means the reliability is good. Inter item checks that all
items hang together , they are independent measures of same concept . Split -half reliability tests
correlation between two halves of an instrument. It depends how the halves are divided on the researcher.
Validity measures whether the instrument actually measured the concept it was designed for. Content
validity measures the items , as truly representative and adequate.
Criterion-related validity helps to measure the criterion as predicted of a variable . it is further divided into
concurrent and predictive.
Construct validity measures tests how well the measure fits the theories it was designed after. It is
significant in research to link the research done to an existing theory in order to contribute . It can be further
divided in convergent and discriminant .
Goodness of measure can be tested by different forms of reliability and validity tests. A stable concept is
important , no matter where it is studied .
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6/10/2020 Midterm Exams

1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point

This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.

1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

causal or correlational in nature? (3 mark)

4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point

This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.

1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

hypotheses? Explain. (2 mark)

causal or correlational in nature? (3 mark)

4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point

Jonathan study had been focused on "GROUP OF PEOPLE".

think, is it necessary in research ? (5.5 marks)

this can be achieve? (5.5 marks )

This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.

1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point

think, is it necessary in research ? (5.5 marks)

This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.

1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point

think, is it necessary in research ? (5.5 marks)

This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.

1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

causal or correlational in nature? (3 mark)

What is Causal & Correlation Study?

4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point

think, is it necessary in research ? (5.5 marks)

This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.

1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

causal or correlational in nature? (3 mark)

4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point

This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.

1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

Causal and Correlation study are two types of investigations.

4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point

this can be achieve? (5.5 marks )

This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.

1. Is the purpose of Jonathan’s study exploratory in nature, descriptive, or is it to test 3 points

4. What is the ‘unit of analysis’ of Jonathan’s study? (1 mark) 1 point

This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.

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