Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 739–746

www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesa

Bubble free resin for infusion process

Md Afendi*, W.M. Banks, D. Kirkwood
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Centre of Advanced Structure Material, University of Strathclyde,
James Weir Building, 75 Montrose Street, Glasgow, Scotland G1 1XJ, UK
Received 15 October 2004; accepted 25 October 2004

Abstract
The vacuum infusion process has been found to be very versatile for making large composite structures. During the resin impregnation
process, the vacuum causes the nucleation and formation of air bubbles from gasses dissolved in the resin. One solution to this would be a
degassing process prior to infusion. Recent experiments have shown that a degassing process, conducted in batches with a small quantity of a
bubble nucleation agent (Scotch–Brite) and an air sparging method could reduce void formation in the vacuum infusion process. At 90 mbar,
this method of degassing may remove 40–50% of the dissolved gas. However, despite reducing the level of dissolved gas, some micro-
bubbles remain suspended due to the viscosity of the resin and contribute to void formation. While these results were quite encouraging, there
is a need to design a system to ensure a continuous supply of degassed resin as a better way forward. In a continuous degassing system, it is
necessary to establish the relationship between the degassing process quality and void content reduction from the perspective of strength and
performance, besides signifying the most viable method of degassing.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: B. Mechanical properties; Vacuum infusion

1. Introduction dielectric properties and surface finish [1,2]. Judd and

Developments in the field of advanced composite materials
over the past decades have significantly altered both their
current and potential role in structural applications. Composites
offer structural designers materials of higher strength, stiffness,
and lower distortion than previously available engineering
materials. Fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites are one
example of such a material. These composite systems are
finding widespread use in the transportation, marine, aerospace,
energy and even sporting goods industries. As these structures
become more optimized for mechanical properties in terms of
performance and consistency, there is a requirement to
improve material quality while reducing the weight and cost.
1.1. Effects of voids
Voids are undesirable within composite materials owing
to their effect on mechanical properties especially strength,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C44 141 548 2321.
E-mail addresses: affendi@fkm.utm.my (M. Afendi), bill.banks@
strath.ac.uk (W.M. Banks).
1359-835X/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2004.10.030
Wright [3] reviewed the effects of voids on the mechanical
properties of composites and ‘concluded that, regardless of
resin, fibre type or fibre surface treatment, the interlaminar
shear strength of a composite decreases by about 7% for
each 1% voids up to a total of about 4% (beyond which the
rate of decrease of interlaminar shear strength diminishes).
Other mechanical properties are also affected, although not
to the same degree, or extent’. Hence, it is beneficial to keep
the void content to a minimum. Judd and Wright also
identify the difficulties in determining the void content
especially at percentages in the region of 1%.
Ghoirse [4] also investigated the effect of voids on the
mechanical properties and reported that flexural and inter-
laminar strengths are reduced by 10% for every 1% addition
of void contamination, whereas the flexural modulus is
affected by 5%. Above 5% void content, crack initiation was
identified as becoming complex. Harper and Staab [5] and
Tang and Lee [6] have also reported that the mechanical
properties of composites are very sensitive to voids.
To produce composite products with very low void
volume fractions requires dependable controlled
manufacturing techniques especially, where composites
740 M. Afendi et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 739–746

with fibre volume fractions in excess of 50% and void

content below 1% are required.

1.2. Effect of the manufacturing process on void content

Kardos et al. [7] have reviewed the growth of voids

during manufacture of polymer composites. According to
Yu and Middleman [8] and Kurematsu and Koshi [9], the
main driving force for void formation in resin transfer
moulding is related to the heterogeneous nature of the
preform at the micro-structural level, where it is composed
of arrays of fibre bundles (tows). In fast flow conditions, the
resin tends to flow around the tow, as the open space
between adjacent tows is much less resistant to flow than the
tows themselves. Void formation occurs primarily within
the tows in this flow regime. Alternatively, the flow front
within the fibre tows may lead the bulk flow front owing to
wicking processes when capillary forces outweigh viscous
forces. In this case, void formation is more likely to occur in
the open space between the tows.
Oliver [10] stated that there are several causes of void Fig. 1. Typical capillary pressure–wetting fluid saturation curves
formation, with two of them being the focus of significant illustrating hysteresis.
study and modelling. The first factor is the entrapment of
gases (most often wet air) during the lay up or during is in the non-wetting fluid. At Snw%Snwo, the non-wetting
impregnation of the fibre reinforcement with resin. The fluid ceases to flow.
second factor is volatile materials within the resin system. Kiljanski [13], in a study of centrifugal degassing, states
Void growth may occur via diffusion of air or by that surface tension tends to make the bubble spherical. In
agglomeration with other surrounding voids. Beyond these 1928, Bond [13] proposed a simplified formula for the
two phenomena, void growth can also occur as the critical diameter at which a gas bubble or liquid droplet is
temperature increases. In the later case, the equilibrium midway between the rigid and fluid state:
between the void and the resin pressures and the void
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
surface tension is disturbed. s
For epoxy resin, Wood and Bader [11] measured the dcr Z 2 (1)
Drg
equilibrium gas concentration of nitrogen at atmospheric
pressure to be approximately 1.7% by volume. This 1.7% of
For an epoxy resin of surface tension sZ32 dyne/cm
dissolved gas may not seem like a considerable amount of
(32!10K3 N/m) and resin density rZ1102.8 kg/m3 with
gas, but at a vacuum pressure of 20 mbar, which is
gZ9.813 m/s2, the bubble critical diameter dcrZ3.44 mm.
commonly used in vacuum injection, this would expand
Therefore, a bubble of diameter lower than this critical
50 times if brought into solution.
value (e.g. from 1 mm down to dust like particles) will be as
rigid as can be theoretically accepted.
1.3. Imbibition and drainage
There is a need to explain what happens to the bubbles.
As they cannot pass through a woven cloth, the following
In studies of multiphase flow through porous media [12],
formula derived from the Young–Laplace equation should
it is found that capillarity governs most of the permeation
be able to verify the condition. Pressure P inside a bubble of
process. Bubbles in the fluid may be termed non-wetting
radius r is given by:
fluid while the resin mixture may be termed a wetting fluid.
Due to the complexity of a random configuration in a
naturally porous medium [12], a capillary tube has been 4s
PZ (2)
used in most experiments to ideally represent the actual r
mono-system. For a single bubble of non-wetting fluid to be
forced in to a capillary (to promote drainage), slightly The pressure inside a small bubble is greater than that
higher pressure needs to be induced compared to the process inside a large one. When small and large bubbles coalesce,
of imbibition by the wetting fluid that takes place naturally the smaller ones inflate the larger and collapse. Therefore,
due to the capillary pressure. This is clearly shown in Fig. 1 the result will be that the coalescing bubbles that cannot
below. Drainage starts at point A (Fig. 1), in unsaturated penetrate through the filter will increase in buoyancy, rise
flows, where Snwo indicates the amount of entrapped air that and diffuse at the surface.
 M. Afendi et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 739–746
1.4. Vacuum infusion
Vacuum infusion is one of the manufacturing techniques
suitable for large load carrying composite and sandwich
structures. Resin infusion shares many of the characteristics
of vacuum bag moulding and resin transfer moulding
(RTM). All these techniques reduce emission of volatile
components into the workplace by wetting out and curing
the laminate in a closed system.
In comparison with traditional hand lay-up, the infusion
process has obvious health and safety advantages, through
reductions in human contact with liquid resin and in reduced
emissions to the environment. Additionally, laminate
mechanical properties are improved by higher fibre content
and lower voidage. In comparison with conventional
(matched mould) resin transfer moulding, the process can
offer a substantial reduction in tooling cost, especially for
large parts. These processes are most suitable for making
large structures as they minimise mould and laminate
deformation during the process as the tooling is uniformly
subjected to external atmospheric pressure. Petrie [14]
strongly emphasized that the vacuum infusion process
virtually eliminates styrene emissions, making for a cleaner
and healthier workplace. This process not only improved the
air quality, but also reduced non-construction solid waste
products significantly.
The generic form of resin infusion itself can be traced to
the use of the Marco method [15] in 1950, where the dry
reinforcement was placed onto a solid male tool and then
encapsulated by a semi-flexible female tool used for
compaction, and vacuum sealing. The use of a silicone
rubber bag as one of the tool halves can be traced to the
development by Gotch [16] in 1985 in response to the need
for lower styrene emissions. Le Compte [17] extended these
methods to the fabrication of large structural components
including hulls for surface effect ships up to 50 m length.
The development of various vacuum bagging materials for
low cost, better compaction, and flow development was
conducted by a number of researchers including Brittles
[18], Marcus [19] and Shepheard [20].
The process is often practiced with one of the solid
mould faces replaced by a polymeric film. This is known by
a confusing array of acronyms. In the United Kingdom, it is
commonly referred to as Resin Infusion under Flexible
Tooling (RIFT) [21]. In the United States of America, it is
known as Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding
(VARTM) [22]. The use of a high permeability distribution
medium adjacent to the preformed reinforcement has been
patented and is known as SCRIMPe [23–25].
Labordus [1,26] investigated void formation in the
vacuum infusion process and verified that voids may be
due to local variation in permeability of the reinforcement at
the resin flow front, leakage, boiling of volatile components
in the resin or gas dissolved in the resin coming out of the
solution. In the case of dissolved gas, it is quite difficult to
know the extent to which a solution is effectively degassed.
741
After infusion, voids can also be formed as a result of resin
shrinkage. Labordus and Soderlund [26] suggest that one
way to reduce the void content is to use degassed resin.
Labordus [1] reported that some reinforcement materials
(e.g. Unifiloe) cause more bubble nucleation than other
materials, and thus result in laminates with a higher void
content. Labordus reported resin degassing procedures
using bubble nucleation material and air sparging showing
very good results in reducing the void formation during
vacuum infusion.
The aim of the current studies on the process of vacuum
infusion is to fully understand the specific sources of voids
and to reduce void formation. Even though it is not
imperative to eliminate all the voids, it is essential to
minimize the void content as well as assuring the
homogeneity of the laminates. Investigations throughout
the process have been taken to identify the sources of voids
in order to control the void formation during production.
Lower resin viscosity, achieved by heat treatment can
improve the degassing process as well as the wetting profile
and infusion rate but this action also shortens the pot life of
the resin solution, resulting in limiting the time the process
has to completely infuse. For the infusion of large
structures, the quantities of resin and hardener to be
mixed can make the process very vulnerable to exothermic
reaction. Therefore, it is preferable for the manufacturer to
have a continuous supply of resin to maintain productivity
and minimise quality concerns.
Two issues have been given special attention in this
research; one is to seek an appropriate method of degassing
suitable for a continuous process and the other the
production of bubble free resin.
2. Experimental
2.1. Degassing dissolved gas
In the case of dissolved gas, it is quite difficult to know
the extent to which a solution is effectively degassed. The
gas concentration at equilibrium, generally increases
linearly with respect to the absolute pressure (Henry’s
Law), whereas the gas concentration at absolute vacuum is
zero. Thus, for manufacturing methods, where the mould is
evacuated (vacuum injection, resin transfer moulding, etc.),
it is likely that the resin will become over-saturated with gas
when exposed to lower absolute pressure.
Dalton’s law states that the total pressure exerted by a
mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures that
would be exerted by each of the gases. For a container filled
by three gases, the gases together would have a partial
pressure of 1 and each alone would have a partial pressure
relative to its percentage of the whole. For normal air, the
partial pressure of each gas would be as shown in Table 1.
Henry’s law states that the amount of any given gas that
will dissolve in a liquid at a given temperature is a function
742 M. Afendi et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 739–746

Table 1 Table 3
Gas component fraction and partial pressure in normal air Percentage of oxygen content in degassed resin by various methods

Percent of component (%) Partial pressure
Nitrogen 78.08 0.7808
Oxygen 20.95 0.2095
Carbon dioxide 0.03 0.0003
Other 0.94 0.0094
Total 100 1.0000
of the partial pressure of the gas that is in contact with the
liquid and of the solubility coefficient of the gas in the
particular liquid.
Two epoxy resin systems were used in the experiments
(Table 2). The PRF resin system is very much less viscous
than the Vantico system. The PRF resin is about 100 times
more viscous than water, and hence the Vantico resin is
around 1000 times more viscous than water. Both resins are
Newtonian fluids.
The resin and the hardener were mixed in the proportions
recommended by the respective supplier. Some air bubbles
were found to be suspended in the solution. The solution was
degassed under vacuum at 90 mbar absolute, with a piece of
‘Scotch–Brite’ to act as a bubble nucleation agent. Bubble
nucleation had usually stopped after degassing for 15 min.
The viscosity has a very significant effect on the out-
gassing process. The PRF resin system took a shorter time
for degassing than the Vantico resin system. In the highly
viscous liquid, bubble nucleation was seen to be very slow
although detailed timing was not measured. After the
degassing process, it was found that the mixture contained a
lot of micro-bubbles in suspension. These micro-bubbles
take a long time to travel up to the surface of the resin: about
4 h for the PRF resin mixture and much longer for the
Vantico resin.
To measure how much dissolved gas has been extracted
from a resin solution after being degassed, the resin needs to
be analyzed for its chemical content, especially, the amount
of gas still remaining in the solution. One standard method
is the dissolved oxygen meter, normally used for measuring
water-based solution. Oxygen is much easier to measure
than nitrogen and the relationship between the level of air
and that of oxygen is well correlated. Therefore, the oxygen
content should be able to give an approximate represen-
tation of the effectiveness of dissolved gas removal in any
degassing method.
All degassing processes were done at 90 mbar absolute.
Degassing at lower vacuum pressure should give lower
readings of oxygen content. When degassing starts, a lot of
Table 2
Resins and hardeners: supplier, type and viscosities in mPa s
Epoxy resin mixture Oxygen content (%)
After mixing 85–96
Fully saturated with air bubble 100
After 15 min degassing with bubble nucleation 53–63
After 60 min degassing with bubble nucleation 50–60
After 120 min degassing with bubble nucleation 50–60
After 15 min degassing with air sparging 50–60
After 60 min degassing with air sparging 50–60
After 120 min degassing with air sparging 50–60
Degassing Thin filament through 1 mm orifice 65–75
Degassing thin film through narrow passage 68–78
(1 mm)
Degassing of thin film on spinning disc 55–65
(1000 rpm)
Degassing of thin film on spinning disc 55–65
(3000 rpm)
bubbles develop in the mixture. When using bubble
nucleation agent, the bubbling activity diminished after
15 min. A sample was taken and tested with the dissolved
oxygen meter (Rank Brothers Ltd, Digital Model 10). The
dissolved oxygen meter gives an unstable reading (for
reasons which are not fully understood) resulting in the
range of values quoted above. The variation may result from
non-uniform diffusion of oxygen due to the resin viscosity
and the permeation behavior through the Teflon membrane
of the oxygen meter.
The oxygen content of the degassed resin dropped from
the range of 85–96% down to a range of 53–64% after 15 min
degassing with bubble nucleation agent (Table 3). However,
the test equipment does show significant reduction of oxygen
content. The same procedure of testing has been carried out
on different samples with variation of prolonged exposure to
vacuum and different methods of degassing.
2.2. Micro-bubble analysis
After degassing using bubble nucleation, it is found that
the resin mixture contains a lot of micro-bubbles in
suspension. Degassing (by one of our industrial partners)
with lower vacuum pressure of 5 mbar gave the same result.
Mass-spectral analysis of the bubble showed that the content

Supplier Resin Resin Hardener Hardener Mix

viscosity viscosity viscosity
PRF RSL 135i 1100 RSH 137i 50 200
Vantico LY 3505 7218 XB 3403 20 400
Fig. 2. Micro-bubbles (white dots) during degassing.
 M. Afendi et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 739–746
Table 4
Void content analysis using loss ignition method (BS EN ISO 7822:1999—
average values from four sample of each variation)
Lamination sample 25!25 mm Void content (%)
With no visible voids 0.53
Containing dispersed voids 15.75
Containing localized micro-bubbles 8.30
is mainly air components with a few traces of aromatic
compounds. The size of these micro-bubbles varied from
500 mm to dust like particles. These micro-bubbles (Fig. 2)
take a long time to travel up to the surface of the resin.
Degassing with the air sparging method on the other hand,
shows less micro-bubble development. In fact, the bubble
size developed during degassing is much larger. Based on
the results of the degassing experiments, it is assumed that
the quality of the bubble produced also plays an important
role (Table 4).
The small bubbles (less than 1 mm in diameter) as shown
in Fig. 2, moved very slowly to the surface. Theoretically, the
terminal velocity U of the rising bubble can be represented as
2 rgr 2
UZ (3)
9 m
Taking resin dynamic viscosity mZ200 mPa s (0.2 N s
/m2), resin density rZ1102.8 kg/m3, gZ9.8134 m/s and r is
the radius of the bubble, the terminal velocity for the rising
bubble of 1.0 mm diameter would be 12 mm/s and for
bubbles of 0.01 mm diameter would be 12 mm/s. By
calculation, for the depth of 50 mm the 0.01 mm bubble
will take 11 h to rise to the surface. Due to the dynamic
behaviour of these micro-bubbles (coalescing into larger
bubbles), it is found that the bubble clearing time was
reduced to 4 h.
Several experiments were done in an effort to eliminate
bubbles after degassing with either bubble nucleation or
bubble sparging, such as forming thin film and thin filament
in vacuum. Theoretically, using these methods should be
able to position any bubble closer to the liquid–vacuum
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of experimental equipment setup.
743
interface and help it to diffuse easily. Unfortunately, bubble
rupture time is mostly dependent on the resin viscosity and
surface tension [27]. As the thin film and filament is
continuously flowing, the undiffused bubbles were carried
along with the resin.
Another experiment using a spinning disc to break the
bubbles also does not give a very satisfactory result. It could
not be verified whether the spinning disc managed to break
the bubble. Droplet formation, where the edge of the
spinning disc impinged on the vacuum container side wall
developed finer bubbles. Degassing with the spinning disc
showed a 55–65% oxygen content (Table 3).
2.3. The filtering medium
The filtering medium used in this experiment is made of
fine woven (50% polyester: 50% polyamide) fibre. It is
supplied in sheet form and the pore size is fine (an estimated
range from 50 to 100 mm) and distributed randomly. The
woven cloth thickness is about 2 mm. Each fibre is so thin
that it can only be seen in a microscope, which can magnify
at least 1000 times. Just 1 g of the cloth contains 39 km of
fibre. The cloth feels smoother and softer than the finest
terry. Rather than using fine mesh, this woven micro fibre
cloth was seen to be appropriate since the bubble size
developed in the experiment varies from dust like particle.
2.4. Bubble filtering experiment
An experiment was done incorporating degassing with
the nucleation agent and capillary separation. The vacuum
chamber is made of 150 mm glass cylinder with 5 mm
thickness. A cylindrical filter was formed by wrapping the
woven fine fibre cloth around a 100 mm diameter PVC tube
to form in which about 100 holes (10 mm) were drilled to
allow the resin to be in contact with the filter. The PVC
tubing is closed at the bottom with a thick aluminium plate.
All the components were placed in the vacuum chamber as
shown in Fig. 3.
744 M. Afendi et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 739–746

The vacuum chamber was firstly decompressed to

90 mbar. As the resin was mixed there were some bubbles
present in the mixture. After reaching a stable vacuum
pressure, the resin inlet valve was opened to feed in the
resin. As the resin came into contact with the nucleation
agent (Scotch–Brite) the nucleation begun. After approxi-
mately 1 min the resin started wetting the filter and clear
resin started to ooze from the filter outer surface. After
15 min, about 500 ml were estimated to have passed
through the filter and collected at the bottom of the vacuum
chamber.
The collected resin was found to be free of any bubbles,
although a few dust likes particles were present at the
surface of the resin. These particles, located towards the Fig. 5. Localized micro-bubbles under !40 magnification (scale
outer circumference of the filter, rise with the resin level. 0.1 mm/division at random orientation).
When the vacuum pressure was released to one atmosphere,
these particles disappeared. As a rise in temperature reduces the epoxy resin viscosity
The capability of bubble nucleation and air sparging it can help the bubbles to rise to the surface. This action also
methods for removal of dissolved gas and volatile reduces the resin pot life. Some manufacturers prefer to heat
components, as observed during the experiments, led into the resin during infusion as this may help the resin to flow by
further analysis of bubble behaviour in the degassing reducing the viscosity albeit while shortening the curing
process. time. Temperature elevation during curing also helps to
Howell [27] states that bubble film eventually becomes localize the bubble, otherwise the bubble will disperse in
thin enough (around 0.1 mm) before rapid rupture. In the between the fibres due to the shrinkage process.
case of the bubble nucleation process, it is found that the In the experimental work, infusion (in-plane flow with no
shear thinning criteria and rupture that occur during flow medium) with degassed and non-degassed (PRF) resins
the coalescing of two or more bubbles gives a significant was used to distinguish the differences in void formation
contribution in molecular diffusion. In relation to degassing along the impregnation route. A layer of twill woven E-glass
process, this method is capable of removing 40–50% roving (600 g/m2) and a layer of glass tissue were used to
dissolved oxygen. Besides the nucleation of bubbles, the make a 300!400 mm sample (Fig. 4). The degassing
shear thinning process plays an important role in providing process using bubble nucleation agent was conducted at
diffusion surface area for gas molecules and volatile 90 mbar for 15 min. The resin was left for approximately
component liberation. This evidence is well proven as 1 h, to let the bubbles produced during mixing and
degassing with air sparging is also showing the same result degassing diffuse to the surface, then the infusion process
as degassing with bubble nucleation method. was done at 110 mbar.
During the infusion of both samples, the first 150 mm
2.5. Infusion from the resin inlet point eventually became totally clear of
any bubbles. Bubbles were present beyond 150 mm.
It is essential to have bubble free resin before vacuum Beyond this point and in both samples, some bubbles
infusion can start. If the infusion starts immediately after were formed by air-entrapment at the crossover between
degassing, any unreleased bubble may migrate into the
lamination. During curing, the shrinkage of the resin will
pull the bubble surface in between the fibre tow creating
higher void content. Therefore, the degassing time needs to
be extended to allow for the bubbles to clear the resin.

Fig. 6. Diffused micro-bubbles under !40 magnification (scale 0.1 mm/di-

Fig. 4. Sample schematic diagram. vision at random orientation).
 M. Afendi et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 739–746
Fig. 7. Localized micro-bubbles under !100 magnification
(0.1 mm/division).
the weave fibre bundles. In the room-temperature cured
plate made with degassed resin, the first 150 mm from the
inlet point was found to be totally clear of bubbles and
visible void formation. From this 150 mm point to the resin
outlet point most of the bubbles were diffused in between
the fibre tows (Figs. 6 and 8). In the case of using non-
degassed resin, the whole laminate was full of voids.
Other samples were made and then cured at an elevated
temperature (60 8C). After curing, both the samples were
found to have the same distribution of bubbles. The first
150 mm area from the inlet point was found to be clear of
any visible bubble and void formation. The bubbles found in
the region beyond 150 mm from the inlet point, seem to be
localized (i.e. not associated with a fibre tow). They do not
diffuse in between the fibre tows (Figs. 5 and 7).
Therefore, from these experiments it is found that
degassed resin has a significant effect in the reduction of
void formation especially when elevated temperature is not
available during the curing process. On the other hand,
curing at elevated temperature also gives a beneficial result
Fig. 8. Diffused micro-bubbles under !100 magnification
(0.1 mm/division).
745
in the effort of reducing voids when non-degassed resin is
used.
3. Conclusions
In the best interests of designing of a continuous system,
bubble nucleation and sparging removes 40–50% dissolved
gasses and leaves micro-bubbles (500 mm to dust like
particles). These bubbles in a viscous resin are very difficult
to eliminate. Immediate infusion after degassing of a resin
with bubble nucleation or an air sparging method may result
in inconsistency of void content along the lamination and
can in fact increase void content. Bubble thin films, rupture
in bubble nucleation and sparging methods are the main
elements that can assist degassing and removal of dissolved
gas molecules and volatile components from viscous liquid.
The experiments reported here show that separating micro-
bubbles can be done using a fine fibre medium. The
capillary effect of the porous medium acting as a micro-
suction pump is capable of removing the resin from the
bubbly medium. As the system used in the experiment is
capable of degassing and filtering the bubble, a continuous
feeding system might be developed from this simple
experimental configuration.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank an industrial partner for
undertaking the high vacuum degassing. Further, we
appreciate the assistance of the referees and guest editor
in refining the text of this paper.
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