Petrology: Petroleum Geology I 2011-2012

Petrology
Petroleum Geology I
2011-2012
P.B.Jadhav
Petroleum Geology I P B Jadhav
Petrology
Earth is a system made up of many interacting parts. This idea is better
illustrated in the rock cycle. As it can be seen from this figure, magma, which
is a molten material, form inside the Earth. Magma cools a nd solidifies. This
process called crystallization and may occur either beneath the surface or
following a volcanic eruption at the surface. In both cases, the resulting rocks
are called igneous rocks.
If igneous rocks are exposed a t the surface, they will undergo weathering, in
which the atmosphere slowl y affects these rocks and disintegrate and
decompose them. The resultant materials move downslope by gravit y or by
many other erosional agents such as running water, glaciers, winds or waves.
These particles and dissolved particles are called sediments. Sediments come
to rest in the ocean or other depositional sites such as river floodplains, desert
basins, swamps and dunes.
The accumulated sediments undergo lithification (i.e. solid ify to rocks)
changing into sedimentary rocks. If the resulting sedimentary rocks are buried
deep within the Earth, it will be subjected to great pressure and or heat
changing into metamorphic rocks. When metamorphic rocks are subjected to
additional pressure or heat, it will melt, creating magma, which will eventuall y
crystallize into igneous rocks.
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Minerals
The Earth's crust is formed or rocks, rocks are defined as aggregate of

minerals. So, minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Mineralogy is the
science dealing with minerals.
A mineral is a naturall y occurring homogeneous solid, formed due to inorganic

processes with a definite chemical composition or definite range of chemical
composition and an ordered atomic structure.
The definition may b e discussed as follows
 "Naturally occurring" This restricts minerals to substances found in

nature. Plastic isn't a mineral, steel isn't a mineral, but a synthetic
quartz crystal, grown in the lab but otherwise identical to quartz
occurring in nature, is a mineral.
 "Generally inorganic" This excludes coal and other forms of organic
carbon. Exclusion of organic compounds is an old tradition that is
beginning to give way. I'm old school and am hanging on to it, but like
most geologists, I let coal be a roc k. Why? It's a valuable natural
resource. Letting it be a rock puts it under the purview of geology.
 "Crystalline solid" Minerals are solids, thus excluding liquids and gases
from ever being minerals. Since minerals are crystalline, the atoms that
form them are arranged in an orderl y, repeating, three -dimensional
array. Glass, which certainl y seems solid, is not a mineral because it has
no orderl y structure (it's actuall y a super -cooled liquid).
 "Specific chemical composition" A mineral's composition is f ixed or
varies within a well -defined range. Although many minerals share the
same crystal structure, the combination of structure and composition is
unique to a single mineral
 The following are some examples of mineralic and non -mineralic
substances:
 Iron ore (Fe 2 O 3 ; Hematite) is a mineral. Steel (particular iron alloy) is
not. The reason steel is not a mineral is because steel never occurs in
nature. The steelmaking process involves a complex set of chemical
reactions, high temperatures and low pressures t hat do not occur
naturall y.
 Quartz (solid SiO 2 ) is a mineral. Glass (super -cooled SiO 2 ) is not.
Although quartz and glass share the same composition, glass isn't
orderl y.
 Rock salt (NaCl) is a mineral. Sugar is not. Sugar has organic carbon,
salt is inorganic.
The composition of minerals
Each of Earth's 4000 minerals is defined by its chemical competition and

internal structure. Minerals are made up of chemical elements (such as K, Na
and Ca). There are 112 known elements. Of these 92 onl y are naturall y
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occurring. Some minerals like gold or sulfur are made entirel y of one element,
but most minerals are a combination of two or more elements, joined to form a
chemicall y stable compound.
The structure of minerals
A mineral is composed of an ordered a rray of atoms chemicall y bonded

together to form a particular crystalline structure. This orderl y packing of
atom is reflected in the regularl y shaped objects we call crystals.
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There can exist several minerals all sharing the same composition. We call
these pol ymorphs (literall y, "many forms"). A good example is the pol ymorph
of C. Diamond is a 3D, cubic lattice of covalentl y bonded carbon atoms.
Graphite is also pure carbon, but here the carbon atoms form sheets that are
held together by weak v an der Waals forces. These pol ymorphs can exist
together, but they are not formed at similar pressure and temperature
conditions. To understand this we need to examine the phase diagram of C. At
high pressures and temperatures, diamond is the preferred min eral. At low
temperatures and pressures, graphite is more stable.
In the diagram, the geothermal gradient (how temperature varies with depth or
pressure in the Earth) is superimposed on the stabilit y fields of Carbon. Thus
we know that when we find diamon d it came from someplace in the Earth
where the temperature is greater than 1500oC and the pressure is higher than
50,000 atmospheres (equivalent to a depth of about 170 km).
Physical properties of minerals
Minerals are solids formed by inorganic processes . Each mineral has an orderl y
arrangement of atoms (crystalline structure) and a definite chemical
composition, which give it a particular set of physical properties. Because the
internal structure and chemical composition of a mineral are difficult to
determine without the aid of sophisticated tests and equipment, the more easil y
recognized physical properties are frequentl y used in identification. The
following are the main physical properties of minerals:
 Crystal form
Most inorganic solid objects are co mposed of crystals, however, most crystals
do not exhibit their crystal form.
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Crystal form is the external expression of a mineral that reflects the orderl y
internal arrangement of atoms.
Whenever a mineral is permitted to form without space restri ctions, it will

develop individual crystals with well -formed crystal faces. Some crystals (such
as Quartz) have a very distinctive crystals form that can be helpful in
identification. However, most of the time crystal growth is interrupted because
of the competition for space, resulting in intergrowth mass of crystals, none of
which exhibits its crystal form.
 Luster
Luster is the appearance or qualit y of light reflected from the surface of a

mineral. Luster is divided into two major t ypes:
 Metallic luster: minerals that have the appearance of metals regardless

of colour.
 Nonmetallic luster include several characters such as:Vitreous (glass y),
pearl y, silky, resinous, earth (dull)
 Pearl y: play of colours
 Resinous; like resin
 Colour
Although colour is an obv ious feature of a mineral, it is often an unreliable

diagnostic propert y. Impurities in the common mineral quartz, it gives a
variet y of colours including pink, purple, white and even black. Some minerals
such as sulfur, which is yellow, has a constant col our all the time.
 Streak
Streak is the colour of the mineral powder and it is obtained by robbing the
mineral across a piece of unglazed porcelain termed streak plate. The streak
colour may be different from the colour of the mineral and it is generall y mo re
reliable tool in mineral identification. Metallic minerals generall y have a
dense, dark streak.
 Hardness
Hardness is one of the most useful diagnostic properties, which is the measure
of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching. This proper t y is
determined by rubbing a mineral of unknown hardness against one known
hardness or vice versa.
 Moh's Scale of Hardness
This is a numerical scale consists of ten minerals arranged in order from 1

(soft) to 10 (hardest) and as follow:
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Hardness of some
Relative scale Mineral
common objects
Hardest 10 Diamond
9 Corundum
8 Topaz
7 Quartz
6 Feldspar
5.5 glass,
5 Apatite
pocketknife
4 Fluorite
3 Calcite 3 copper penny
2 Gypsum 2.5 fingernail
Softest 1 Talc
Moh's Scale of Hardness.
Any mineral of unknown hardness can be compared to these minerals or to

other objects of known hardness such as fingernail or copper coins.
 Cleavage
In the crystal structure of a mineral, some bonds are weaker than others. These
bonds are where a m ineral will break when it is stressed. Cleavage is the
tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weak bonding. Not all minerals
have definite planes of weak bonding but those that posses cleavage can be
identified by the smooth surfaces that are produ ced when the mineral is
broken.
Some minerals have cleavage in one direction such as mica breaking into thin,
flat sheets. Some minerals have several cleavage planes, which produce smooth
surfaces when broken (calcite), while others exhibit poor cl eavage and others
have no cleavage at all (quartz).
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 Fracture
Minerals that do not exhibit cleavage when broken, such as quartz are said to
fracture. These that break into smooth curved surfaces resembling broken glass
have a conchoidal fracture. Others break into fibers or splinters, but most
minerals fracture irregularl y.
 Specific gravity
Specific gravit y is a number representing the ratio of the weight of a mineral

to the weight of an equal volume of water. You can estimate the specific
gravit y of minerals by hefting them in your hand.
Other properties of minerals
In addition to the properties men tioned above, some minerals can be

recognised by other distinctive processes such as:
 Taste: salt
 Magnetism: Magnetite
 Ductile: Gold
 Feeling: Talc has a soapy feeling, graphite has a greasy feeling.
 Double refraction: calcite
 Bad smell (rotten egg): Sulfur
 Effervescence when treated with diluted acid: Calcite
Common silicate minerals
The silicates are the most abundant mineral group and have the silicate ion
(SiO4-4) as their building block. The major silicate groups and common
examples are given in table ( 2.2). The feldspars are the most plentiful silicate,
comprising over 50% of Earth's crust. Quartz, the second most abundant
mineral in the continental crust, is the onl y common mineral made completel y
of silicon and oxygen.
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Most silicate minerals form (crystallize) as molten rock is cooling. This
cooling can occur at or near Earth's surface (low temperature and pressure) or
at great depth (high temperature and pressure). The environment during
crystallization and the chemical composition of the molten rock determine to a
large degree which minerals are produced.
Some silicate minerals form at Earth's surface from the weathered products of
older silicate minerals. Others formed under the extreme pressure associated
with mountain building. Therefore, each sil icate mineral has a structure and a
chemical composition that indicate the conditions under which is formed.
Ferromagnesian (Dark) Silicates
The dark or ferromagnesian silicates are those minerals containing ions of iron
(iron: Ferro) and / or magnesium i n their structure. Because of their iron
content, ferromagnesian silicates are dark in colour and have a greater specific
gravit y. The most common dark silicate minerals are:
Olivine: olivine is a famil y of high -temperature silicate minerals that are black
to olive green in colour and have a glassy luster and a conchoidal fracture.
Olivine is composed of small, rounded crystals.
Pyroxenes are a group of complex minerals thought to be important

components of Earth's mantle. The most common member augite is a black
opaque mineral with two directions of cleavage that meet at nearl y 90 -degree
angle.
Hornblende is the most common member of a complex group called

amphiboles. Hornblende is usuall y dark green to black in colour.
Biotite is the dark iron -rich member of the mica famil y. Like other micas,
biotite posses a sheet structure that give it excellent cleavage in one direction.
Biotite has also a shiny black appearance.
Garnet is similar to olivine in that its structure is composed of individual

tetrahedra linked by metallic ions. It has a glassy luster, lack cleavage and has
a conchoidal fracture. Although the colours of garnet are varied, this mineral
is most often brown to deep red. Garnet is a gemstone.
Nonferromagnesian (light) silicates
As the name implies, the light (or nonferromangnesian) silicates are generall y
light in colour and have a specific gravity of about 2.7, which is lower than the
ferromagnesian silicates. These differences are attributed to the presence or
absence of iron and magnesium. The light silicates contain varying amounts of
aluminum, potassium, calcium and sodium rather than iron and magnesium.
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The most common minerals of these groups are:
Muscovite is a common member of the mica famil y. It is light in colour and has
a pearl y luster. Like other micas, muscovite has excellent cleavage in one
direction.
Feldspar the most common mineral group can form under a very wide range of
temperatures and pressures. All of the feldspars have similar physical
properties. They have two planes of cl eavage meeting at near 90 degree and are
relativel y hard (6 on the Moh's scale) and have a luster that ranges from glass y
to pearl y.
The group member rich in potassium is called Orthoclase, the group that
contains both sodium and calcium ions are called pl agioclase.
Quartz is the onl y common silicate mineral consisting entirely of silicon and
oxygen. As such, the term silica is applied to quartz, which has the chemical
formula SiO2. In a pure form, quartz is clear and has hexagonal crystal form.
If contains impurities, it may take several colours. The most common are
milky, smoky, rose and pinky.
Quartz is a major constituent in acidic igneous rocks and clastic sedimentar y

rocks particularl y sandstones and siltstones.
Clay Mineral is a term used to describe a variet y of complex minerals that

have a sheet structure. The clay minerals are very fine grained. They are the
products of the chemical weathering of other silicate minerals. Thus, clay
minerals make up a large percentage of soil. Based on the atomic str ucture and
presence of water molecule in the structure, the clay minerals are called as
swelling, non-swelling and mixed clays. Clay minerals are silicate minerals,
fine-grain aluminum with well -defined microstructures Their small size and
large ratio of surface area to volume gives clay minerals a set of unique
properties, including h igh cation exchange capacities, catal ytic properties, and
plastic behaviour when moist.
There are three principal groups with wh ich we are concerned and they are
distinguished by their structure which controls their behavior. These groups
are the montmorillonite / smectite (expanding lattice , three layer t ype ), the
kaolinite (two layer structures) and the illite (non-expanding lattice, three
layer structure) .
Clay minerals are most problematic minerals in Petroleum Industry related to

wellbore stabilit y, pore pressure prediction, seal integrit y and drilling fluid
problems
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Important nonsilicate minerals
Other mineral groups can be considered rare when compared to the silicates ,
although many are important economically.
Carbonate minerals : the carbonate minerals have less complex structure than
silicates. This group is composed of the carbonate ion (CO2 -2) and one or
more kinds of positive ions. The two most common carbonate mi nerals are
calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg (CO 3 ) 2 ). When calcite is the dominant
mineral, the rock is called limestone, whereas, dolostone results from a
predominance of dolomite.
Halite and Gypsum (Evaporites): Both minerals are commonl y found in thick
layers that deposited from ancient seas. Both are important nonmetallic
resources. Halite is the mineral name for the common salt table (NaCl).
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is the mineral of which plaster and other similar
building materials are composed.
The Native Elements are just that, minerals of a single element. Native Copper
(Cu) is an example. These are usuall y found in places where very warm water
has reacted with other rocks, enriching it in elements that don't enter into rock -
forming minerals readil y.
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Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form the major part of the Earth's crust. They along with the
metamorphic rocks constitute 95% in terms of weight proportion in the earth’s
crust. When it comes to volume proportion the igneous and metamorp hic rocks
(20% + 5%) cover 25% of the earth’s surface.
The term Igneous is derived from the Latin root ignis, which means fire,
because these rocks form as molten rocks that cool and solidify. The parent
materials for igneous rocks are called magma, which form by partial melting of
rocks within the Earth's crust and upper mantle at depths that may be more
than 200 km.
Once formed, the magma will rise toward the surface because it is less dense
than the surrounding rocks. In some cases, molten rocks break through
surrounding rocks forming volcanoes. Magma that reaches Earth surface is
called lava.
Based on the relationship with the parent rocks the igneous rocks are classified
as intrusive and extrusive rocks (figure below). The intrusive rocks maintain
concordant or discordant relationship with parent rock and the extrusive rocks
overlie the parent rock. The intrusive rocks are further divided into Plutonic
(deep seated) and Hypabyssal (shallow depth) based on their depth of
crystallization.
The concordant intrusions grow parallel to the parent rock and are called sills
while the discordant intrusions maintain angular contact with host and based
on their geometry abs scale of development they are given different names
(dyke, batholith, laccolith)
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Pyroclastic
Extrusive
Classification of igneous rocks on the basis of mode of occurrence
Intrusive
Shallow
Intrusion
Plutonic Igneous Activity
Although volcanic eruption may be the most violent events in nature, more
magma is placed depth. Thus, an understanding of intrusive igneous activit y is
as important to geologists as the study of volcanic events. The structures that
result from the emplacement of igneous material at depth are called plutons,
named for Pluto, the god of the lower world in Greek m ythology. Because all
plutons form out of vi ew beneath Earth's surface, they can be studied onl y
after uplifting and erosion have exposed them. The challenge lies in
reconstructing the events that generated these structures millions or even
hundreds of millions of years ago.
Nature of Plutons
Plutons are said to be discordant if they cut across existing structures and
concordant if they form parallel to features such as sedimentary strata. As you
can see in Figure plutons are closel y associated with volcanic activit y. Many
of the largest intrusive bo dies are the remnants of magma chambers that once
fed ancient volcanoes.
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Dikes
Dikes are tabular discordant bodies that are produced when magma is injected
into fractures. The force exerted by the emplaced magma can be great enough
to separate the walls of the fracture further. Once crystallized, these sheetlike
structures have thicknesses ranging from less than a centimeter to more than a
kilometer. The largest have lengths of hundreds of kilometers. Dikes often
weather more slowly than the surrounding rock. When exposed by erosion,
these have the appearance of a wall, as shown in Figure
Sills
Sills are tabular plutons formed when magma injected along bedding surfaces
and along the boundary. Horizontal sills are the most common, at all
orientations, even vertical. Because of their relativel y uniform thickness and
large areal extent, sills are likel y the product of very fluid magmas. Magmas
having low silica content are very fluid; so most sills are composed of the rock
basalt.
In many respects , sills closel y resemble buried lava flows. Both are tabular and
often exhibit columnar jointing. Columnar joints form as igneous rocks cool
and develop shrinkage fractures that produce elongated, pillar like columns.
Further, because sills generall y form in near-surface environments and may be
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onl y a few meters thick, the emplaced magma often cools quickl y enough to
generate an aphanitic texture .
Laccoliths
Laccoliths are similar to sills because they form when magma is intruded
between sedimentary layers in a near-surface environment. However, the
magma that generates laccoliths is more viscous. This less fluid magma
collects a lens -shaped mass that arches the overl ying strata upward.
Batholiths
These are the largest intrusive igneous bodies; they occur i n groups that form
linear structures several hundreds of kilometers long and up to 100 km wide.
Smaller batholiths less than 100 km 2 are called stocks.
Magma is molten rock that contains suspended crystals and dissolved gases,
mainl y water vapor that is co nfined within the magma by the pressure of the
surrounding rocks. The bulk of magma is composed of mobile ions of eight
most abundant elements of the Earth's crust. These elements include silicon,
oxygen, aluminum, potassium, calcium, sodium, iron and mag nesium.
As the magma cools, the movement of these ions slow and they begin to
arrange themselves into crystalline structures. This process is called
crystallization, and lead to the precipitation of minerals from the magma.
Igneous Textures
Texture: is the overall appearance of the rock based on the size, shape and
arrangement of its interlocking crystals. Texture can reveal a great deal about
the environment in which the rock is formed.
Factors affecting crystal size
There are three factors that affect th e crystal size of igneous rocks:
1. The rate at which magma cools: rapid cooling produces fine grained
textures and vice versa. Very rapid cooling produces glass: amorphous
materials with no texture.
2. The amount of silica present.
3. The amount of dissolved gases in the magma.
Types of igneous textures
Aphanitic (fine-grained) texture: Igneous rocks that form at the surface or as

small masses within the upper crust where cooling is relatively rapid posses a
very fine-grained texture termed: aphanitic. The crystals that make up the
aphanitic texture are too small to be distinguished with the unaided eye.
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In some aphanitic rocks, there are void left by gas bubbles that escape during
the magma cooling. These are called vesicles and the resultant texture many be
called vesicular.
Textures of igneous rocks

(From top left: Aphanitic, phaneritic, porphyritic, and glassy)
Phaneritic (coarse -grained) textu re: When magma slowl y solidifies far below
the surface, they form igneous rocks that exhibit a coarse -grained texture
described as phaneritic. These rocks consist of intergrown crystals, roughl y
equal in size and large enough to be identified with the unai ded eye.
Porphyritic texture: This texture consists of large crystals floating in finer

groundmass. If magma containing some large crystals should change
environments, for example by erupting at the surface, the molten portion of the
lava would cool quick l y. The resulting rock, which has large crystals
embedded in a groundmass of smaller crystals, is said to have porphyritic
texture. The large crystals are termed phenocrysts and the smaller crystals are
called groundmass. A rock with such a texture is call ed porphyry.
Glassy texture: Rapid cooling may generate rocks having a glassy texture.
Glass results when unordered ions are "frozen" before they are able to unite
into a crystalline form. Obsidian is a common t ype of natural glass.
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Magmas with high silica content tend to form long structures before full
crystallization. Magma movement is a function of its viscosit y, which is a
measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.
Pyroclastic texture: This texture result from the consolidation of individual

rock fragments that are ejected during a violent eruption. These ejected
particles might be very fine ash, molten blobs, or large blocks.
Pegmatitic texture: Under special conditions, exceptionally coarse -grained

igneous rocks called pegmatites may form. These rocks are larger than a
centimeter in diameter.
Composition of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are mainl y composed of silicate minerals. The mineral

composition of a certain igneous rock is determined by the chemical
composition of the magma from which it crystalli zes. We mentioned earlier
that magma is composed of the eight elements that are the major components
of the silicate minerals. Silicon and ox ygen are the most abundant components
of igneous rocks. These elements plus potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and
Iron (Fe) make up around 98% by weight of most magmas. Magma also
contains small amounts of many other elements such as titanium and
manganese with trace amounts of much rarer elements such as gold, silver and
uranium.
As magma cools, these elements combine to form two major groups of silicate
minerals: the dark (or ferromagnesian) silicates that are rich in iron and / or
magnesium and low in silica, and the light silicates that include quartz,
muscovite and the most abundant group, the feldspar.
Despite their great compositional diversity, igneous rocks can be divided into
broad groups according to their content of light and dark minerals.
1. Granitic rocks: these are rocks composed mainl y of the light -coloured
silicates- quartz and feldspar. They contain 70% silica and they form the
continental crust.
2. Basaltic rocks contain abundant, dark (ferromagnesian) minerals and about

50% silica. They make up the ocean floor as well as many of the volcanic
islands located within the ocean basins. Basalt is also found on the continents,
whereas, granite is almost totall y absent from the ocean basins.
Igneous rocks with compositions between these major groups as well as those
totall y devoid of either light or dark minerals are also known.
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Bowen's reaction series
Dunite
Basalt
Syenite
Diorite
Granite
Bowen Reaction series
In laboratory experiment, Bowen demonstrated that as basaltic magma cools,

minerals tend to crystallize in a systemati c fashion based on their melting
points. The first mineral to crystallize is the olivine, Further cooling generates
calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar as well as pyroxene, and so forth down the
diagram.
During crystallization process, the composition of the melt continuall y

changes, For example, the removal of iron, magnesium and calcium will cause
the melt to become enriched in sodium, potassium and aluminum. Further,
olivine contains onl y around 40% silica; the remaining melt would be richer in
SiO2. Thus, the silica component of the melt becomes enriched as the magma
evolves.
Bowen also demonstrated that if the solid components of a magma remain in

contact with the remaining melt, they will chemicall y react and evolve into the
next mineral in the sequence shown in Figure 3 -?. For this reason, this
arrangement of minerals became known as Bowen's reaction series.
Discontinuous reaction series : The upper left branch of Bowen's reaction

series shows that as a magma cools, olivine (individual silica tetahedra) will
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react with the remaining melt to form the mineral pyroxene (single chain). As
the magma cools further, the pyroxene crystals will react with the melt to
generate amphibole (double -chain). This reaction will continue until the last
mineral in this series, biotite is formed. This branch of Bowen's series is called
discontinuous reaction series because at each step a different silicate structure
emerges.
Continuous reaction series : represents the right branch of the reaction series
and illustrates that c alcium-rich plagioclase feldspar crystals react with sodium
ions in the melt to become progressively more sodium -rich. During the last
stage of crystallization, after much of the magma has solidified, potassium
feldspar forms. Finally the remaining melt ha s excess silica, the mineral quartz
will precipitate.
Magmatic differentiation
Bowen demonstrated that minerals crystallize from magma in a systematic

fashion. To explain the diversit y of igneous rocks, it has been shown that, at
one or more stages during crystallization, a separation of the solid and liquid
component of a magma can occur. One example is called crystal settling. This
process occurs if the earlier -formed minerals are denser (heavier) than the
liquid portion and sink toward the bottom of the magma chamber, When the
remaining melt solidifies (either in its place or move to another), it will form a
rock with a chemicall y composition much different from the parent magma,
The formation of more than one magma from a single parent magma is called
magmatic differentiation.
Assimilation and magma mixing
Once a magma body forms, its composition can change through the
incorporation of foreign material. This process is called assimilation. This
process may operate in a near -surface environment where rocks are brittle. As
the magma pushes upward, stress causes numerous cracks in the overl ying
rock. The force of the injected magma is often strong enough to dislodge
blocks of "foreign" rock and incorporate them into the magma body. In other
environments, the magma may be hot enough to simpl y melt and assimilate
some of the surrounding host rock.
Magma mixing: this is another process that occurs whenever one magma body
intrudes another. Once combined, the two magmas generate a fluid with a
different compositio n. Magma mixing may occur during ascent, as a more
buoyant magma body overtakes a mass of magma that is rising more slowl y.
Naming igneous rocks
Igneous rock t ypes
* The first minerals to crystallize -olivine, pyroxene, and calcium -rich

plagioclase- are high in iron, magnesium, or calcium and low in silicon. As we
mentioned earlier, basalt is a common rock with third mineral makeup -the term
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basaltic is often used to describe any rock of similar composition.
Furthermore, because basaltic rocks contain high pe rcentage of ferromagnesian
minerals, these rocks are also called mafic rocks (from magnesium and
ferrum), the Latin name for iron). They are t ypicall y darker and denser than
other igneous rocks.
* Among the last minerals to crystallize are potas sium feldspar and quartz, the
primary components of the abundant rock granite. Igneous rocks in which these
two minerals predominate are said to have a granitic composition. Geologists
refer to granitic rocks as being felsic (from feldspar and silica: quar tz).
* Intermediate igneous rocks contain minerals found near the middle of

Bowen;s reaction series. Amphibole and the intermediate plagioclase feldspars
are the main components of this compositional group. We will refer to rocks
that have a mineral makeup between that of granite and basalt as being
andesitic (or intermediate) after the common volcanic rock andesite.
* Another important igneous rock, peridotite, contains mostl y olivine and

pyroxene and thus falls near the very beginning of Bowen's reaction series.
Because peridotite is composed almost entirel y of ferromagnesian minerals, its
chemical composition is referred to as ultramafic. These are believed to be the
main constituent of the upper mantle.
Felsic (Granitic) rocks
Granite
Granite is perhaps the best known of all igneous rocks. This is because of its
natural beaut y, which is enhanced when it is polished, and partl y because of its
abundance in the continental crust.
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Granite is a phaneritic rock composed of between 25 -35% quartz and over 50%
potassium Fe;feldspar and sodium -rich plagioclase. The quartz crystals, which
are roughl y spherical in shape, are often glassy and clear to light -gray in
colour. In contrast to quartz, feldspar crystals are not as glassy, are generall y
white to gray or pink in colour and exhibit a rectangular shape.
Other common constituents of granite are muscovite and some dark silicates,
mainl y biotite and amphibole. Although the dark components generall y make
up less than 20% of most granites, dark minerals appears to be more prominent
than their percentage would indicate.
Rhyolite
Rhyolite has the same mineral components of granite but with a fine -grained
volcanic texture. Like granite, this rock is composed of light -coloured
silicates. This fact accounts for its colour, which is usually buff to pink or
sometimes very light grey. Rhyolite is usuall y aphanitic and frequentl y
contains glassy fragments and voids indicating rapid cooling in the surface.
Obsidian
Obsidian is a dark -coloured, glassy rock that forms when silica -rich lava cool
rapidl y. This rock is not composed of minerals in the same sense as most other
rocks.
Although black or reddish -brown in colour, it has a high silica content, Silica
is clear like window glass, the dark colour results from the presence of
metallic ions.
Pumice
Pumice is a volcanic rock that, like obsidian, has a glassy texture. Usuall y
found with obsidian, pumice forms when large amount of gas escape through
lava to generate a grey, frothy mass. In some samples, the voids are noticeable.
Because of the large percentage of voids, many samples of pumice will float
when placed in water.
Intermediate (Andesitic) rocks
Andesite
Andesite is a medium grey, fine -grained rock of volcanic origin. Andesite

commonl y exhibits a porphyritic texture.
Diorite
Diorite is a coarse -grained plutonic rock that looks similar to grey granite. It
can be distinguished from granite by the absence of visible quartz crystals. The
main components of diorite are sodium -rich plagioclase and amphibole. with
lesser amount of biotite.
20
Mafic (Basaltic) rocks
Basalt
Basalt is a very dark green to black, fine -grained volcanic rock composed
mainl y of pyroxene and calcium -rich plagioclase with lesser amount of olivine
and amphibole. It is the most common volcanic igneous rock. Man y volcanic
islands such as the Hawaiian Islands are composed mainl y of basalt. The upper
layer of the oceanic crust consists of basalt also.
Gabbro
Gabbro is the plutonic equivalent of basalt. Like basalt, it is very dark green to
black in colour and compo sed primaril y of pyroxene and calcium -rich
plagioclase. Gabbro makes up a significant percentage of the oceanic crust.
Pyroclastic rocks
Pyroclastic rocks are composed of fragments ejected during volcanic eruption.

One of the most common pyroclastic rocks called tuff, which is composed of
tiny ash-sized fragments that were later cemented together. In the cases, where
the particles remained hot enough to fuse, the rock is called welded tuff.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Environments
Recall from the sectio n on the rock cycle that metamorphism is the
transformation of one rock t ype into another. Metamorphic rocks can be
transformed from igneous, sedimentary, or even from other metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphism is a very appropriate name for this process becau se it literall y

means to "change form." The agents of metamorphism include heat, pressure
(stress), and chemicall y active fluids. The changes that occur are both textural
and mineralogical.
Metamorphism occurs incrementall y, from slight change (low grade) to

dramatic change (high grade). For example, under low -grade metamorphism,
the common sedimentary rock shale becomes the more compact metamorphic
rock called slate. Hand samples of these rocks are sometimes difficult to
distinguish.
In other cases, high -grade metamorphism causes a transformation so complete

that the identit y of the original rock cannot be determined. In high -grade
metamorphism, such features as bedding planes, fossils, and vesicles that may
have existed in the parent rock are obliterated. Further, when rocks at depth
are subjected to uneven pressure (stress) they slowl y flow and bend into
intricate folds. In the most extreme metamorphic environments, the
21
temperatures approach those at which rocks melt. However, during
metamorphism some mate rial must remain solid, for if complete melting
occurs, we have entered the realm of igneous activit y.
Metamorphism takes place where rock is subjected to conditions unlike those

in which it formed. In response to these new conditions, the unstable rock
graduall y changes until a state of equilibrium with the new environment is
reached. Most metamorphic changes occur at the elevated temperatures and
pressures that exist in the zone extending from a few kilometers below Earth's
surface to the crust -mantle boundary.
Metamorphism most often occurs in one of three settings:
1. When rock is near or touching a mass of magma, contact metamorphism

takes place. Here the changes are caused primaril y by the high temperatures of
the molten material, which in effect "bake " the surrounding rock.
Contact metamorphism
2. The least common t ype of metamorphism occurs along fault zones and is
called cataclastic metamorp hism. Here rock is broken and pulverized as crustal
blocks on opposite sides of a fault grind past one another.
22
3. During mountain building, great quantities of rock are subjected to directed

pressures and high temperatures associated with large-scale deformation called
regional metamorphism. The end result may be extensive areas of metamorphic
rocks.
Dynamothermal
Metamorphism
23
By far the greatest volume of metamorphic rock is produced during regional

metamorphism in conjunction with mountain building. He re, large segments of
Earth's crust are highl y deformed by folding and faulting. Further, in the most
intense zones of metamorphism, magma may be generated. Thus, areas affected
by regional metamorphism frequentl y display zones of contact metamorphism,
as well as cataclastic metamorphism. After examining the agents of
metamorphism and some common metamorphic rocks, we will return to the
topic of metamorphic environments.
Agents of Metamorphism
As stated earlier, the agents of metamorphism include heat, pre ssure (stress),
and chemicall y active fluids. During metamorphism, rocks are often subjected
to all three metamorphic agents simultaneousl y. However, the degree of
metamorphism and the contribution of each agent vary greatl y from one
environment to another . In low-grade metamorphism, rocks are subjected to
temperatures and pressures onl y slightl y greater than those associated with the
lithification of sediments. High -grade metamorphism, on the other hand,
involves extreme tectonic forces and temperatures cl ose to those at which
rocks melt.
In addition, the mineral makeup of the parent rock determines, to a large

extent, the degree to which each metamorphic agent will cause change. For
example, when intruding magma forces its way into existing rock, hot, ion -rich
fluids (mostl y water) circulate through the host rock. If the host rock is quartz
sandstone, very little alteration may take place. On the other hand, if the host
rock is limestone, the impact of these fluids can be dramatic and the effects of
metamorphism might extend for several kilometers from the magma body.
Heat as a metamorphic Agent
Perhaps the most important agent of metamorphism is heat because it provides

the energy to drive the chemical changes that result in the recrystallization of
minerals. Rocks formed near Earth's surface may be subjected to intense heat
when they are intruded by molten material rising from below. The effects of
this contact metamorphism are most apparent when it occurs at or near the
surface where the temperature contra st between the magma and the host rock is
most pronounced. Here the adjacent host rock is "baked" by the emplaced
magma. In this high -temperature and low-pressure environment, the boundary
that forms between the intruding magma and the altered rocks is usu all y quite
distinct.
In addition to magma rising and metamorphosing near -surface rocks, rocks

near the surface may be slowl y thrust downward to become metamorphosed at
depth. As we discussed earlier, Earth materials are continuall y being
transported to gre at depths at convergent plate boundaries. Recall that
temperatures increase with depth at a rate known as the geothermal gradient. In
the upper crust, this increase in temperature averages between 20°C and 30°C
24
per kilometer. When buried to a depth of onl y a few kilometers, certain
minerals, such as clay, become unstable and begin to recrystallise into
minerals, such as muscovite (mica), that are stable in this environment. Other
minerals, particularly those found in crystalline igneous rocks, are stable at
relativel y high temperatures and pressures and therefore may require burial to
20 kilometers or more before metamorphism will occur.
Pressure and Stress as Metamorphic Agents Pressure, like temperatures, also

increases with depth. Buried rocks are subjec ted to the force, or stress, exerted
by the load above. This confining pressure is analogous to water pressure
where the force is applied equall y in all directions. The deeper you go in the
ocean, the greater the pressure on all sides. The same is true for rocks at depth.
In addition to the confining pressure exerted by the load of material above,

rocks are also subjected to directional tectonic forces during mountain
building. These forces, which are unequal in different directions, are called
differential stresses. Most often these differential forces are compressional and
act to shorten a rock body. In some environments, however, the stresses are
tensional and tend to elongate, or pull apart, the rock mass .
Differential stress can also cause a rock to sh ear. Shearing is similar to the
slippage that occurs between individual cards when you hold a deck flat
between your hands and slide your hands in opposite directions, shearing the
deck. In near-surface environments, shearing results when relativel y brittl e
rock breaks into thin slabs that are forced to slide past one another. This
deformation grinds and pulverizes the original mineral grains into small
fragments. By contrast, because rocks located at great depths are warmer, and
under greater confining pre ssure, they tend to behave plasticall y during
deformation. This accounts for their abilit y to flow and bend into intricate
folds when subjected to shearing .
Chemical Activity as a Metamorphic Agent
Chemicall y active fluids also enhance the metamorphic pro cess. Most
commonl y, the fluid is water -containing ions in solution. Water is plentiful,
because some water is contained in the pore spaces of virtually every rock. In
addition, many minerals are hydrated (have water bound chemicall y) and thus
contain water within their crystalline structures.
When deep burial occurs, rocks become more compact, reducing the amount of
pore space. Thus, water is forced out of the rock and becomes available to aid
in chemical reactions. Further, heating causes the dehydration of minerals and
the release of water. Water that surrounds the crystals acts as a catal yst by
aiding ion migration. In some instances water promotes the recrystallization of
minerals, which form more stable configurations. In other cases, ion exchange
among minerals results in the formation of completel y new minerals.
Complete alteration of rock by hot, mineral -rich water has been observed in
the near-surface environment of Yellowstone National Park. On a much larger
25
scale similar activit y occurs along the mid-ocean ridge system. Here, seawater
circulates through the still -hot basaltic rocks, transforming iron - and
magnesium-rich minerals into metamorphic minerals such as serpentine and
talc.
How Metamorphism Alters Rocks
The metamorphic process causes many changes in rocks, including increased

densit y, growth of larger crystals, reorientation of the mineral grains into a
layered or banded texture, and the transformation of low -temperature minerals
into high-temperature minerals. Further, the introduction of ions generates new
minerals, some of which are economicall y important. Thus, the grade of
metamorphism is reflected in the texture and mineralogy (mineral makeup) of
metamorphic rocks.
Textural Changes
When rocks are subjected to low -grade metamorphism, th ey become more

compact and thus more dense. A common example is conversion of the
sedimentary rock shale into the metamorphic rock slate. When shale is
subjected to temperatures and pressures onl y slightl y greater than those of the
sedimentary processes th at formed it, slate results. In this case, the directed
pressure causes the microscopic clay minerals in shale to align into the more
compact arrangement found in slate. This realignment of particles that occurs
when shale is converted to slate gives slate a distinctive texture. (Recall that
texture is the size, shape, and distribution of particles that constitute a rock.)
Foliated Textures : Under more extreme conditions, pressure causes mineral

grains in a rock to do much more than just realign. Pressure c an cause certain
minerals to recrystallize. In general, recrystallization encourages the growth of
larger crystals. Consequentl y, many metamorphic rocks consist not of
microscopic crystals, but of visible crystals, much like coarse grained igneous
rocks.
26
The crystals of some minerals, such as micas (plat y minerals) and hornblende
(needlelike minerals), will recrystallize with a preferred orientation. The new
orientations will be essentiall y perpendicular to the direction of the
compressional force as shown on the right side in Figure 7.5. The resulting
mineral alignment usuall y gives the rock a layered or banded texture termed
foliation (Figure 7.5). Simpl y put, a foliated texture results whenever the
minerals and structural features of a metamorph ic rock are forced into parallel
alignment.
Various t ypes of foliation exist, depending largel y upon the grade of

metamorphism and the mineralogy of the parent rock. We will look at three:
rock or slat y cleavage; schistosit y; and gneissic texture.
Rock or Slaty Cleavage. During the transformation of shale to slate, clay

minerals (stable at the surface) recrystallize into minute mica flakes (stable at
much higher temperatures and pressures). Further, these platy mica crystals
become aligned so that their fla t surfaces are nearl y parallel. Consequentl y,
slate can be split easil y along these layers of mica grains into rather flat slabs.
This propert y is called rock cleavage or slat y cleavage, to differentiate it from
the t ype of cleavage exhibited by minerals . Because the mica flakes
composing slate are minute, slate is often not visibl y foliated. But slate is
considered foliated because it can be split easil y into slabs, evidence that its
minerals are aligned.
27
Schistosity. Under more extreme te mperature-pressure regimes, the very fine

mica grains in slate will grow many times larger. These mica crystals, which
are up to a centimeter in diameter, give the rock a scal y appearance. This t ype
of foliation is called schistosit y, and a rock having thi s texture is called schist.
Many t ypes of schist exist depending on the original parent rock, and they are
named according to their mineral constituents -mica schist, talc schist, and so
on. By far the most abundant are the mica schists.
Gneissic Texture. During high-grade metamorphism, ion migrations can be

extreme enough to cause minerals to segregate. An example is Figure 7.5,
lower right. Notice that the dark and light silicate minerals have separated,
giving the rock a banded appearance called gneissic texture. Metamorphic
rocks with this texture are called gneiss (pronounced "nice") and are quite
common. Gneiss often forms from the metamorphism of granite or diorite but
can form from gabbro or even the high -grade metamorphism of shale. Although
foliated, gneiss will not usuall y split parallel to the crystals as easil y as will
slate.
Nonfoliated Texture. Not all metamorphic rocks have a foliated texture. Those
that do not are nonfoliated. Metamorphic rocks composed of onl y one mineral
that exhibits equidi mensional crystals usuall y are not visibl y foliated. For
example, when a fine-grained limestone (made of a single mineral, calcite) is
metamorphosed, the small calcite crystals combine to form relativel y large
interlocking crystals. The resulting rock, mar ble, has a texture similar to that
of a coarse-grained igneous rock. Although most marbles are nonfoliated,
microscopic investigation of marble may reveal some flattening and
parallelism of the grains.
Further, some limestones contain thin layers of clay m inerals that may become
distorted during metamorphism. The "impurities" will often appear as curved
bands of dark material flowing through the marble, a clear indication of
metamorphism.
Mineralogical Changes
In the metamorphism of shale to slate, you saw that clay minerals recrystallize
to form mica crystals. During most recrystallization, including this example,
the chemical composition of the rock does not change (except for the loss of
water and carbon dioxide). Rather, the existing minerals and availab le ions in
the water will recombine to form minerals that are stable in the new
environment. A common example is when limestone (CaCO3), containing
abundant quartz (SiO2), is heated during contact metamorphism. The calcite
and quartz crystals chemicall y re act to form wollastonite (CaSiO3), and carbon
dioxide is liberated. In some environments, however, new materials are
actuall y introduced during the metamorphic process. For example, rock
adjacent to a large magma body would acquire new elements from hydrot her-
mal solutions (hot water). Many metallic ore deposits are formed by the
deposition of minerals from hydrothermal solutions.
28
With the development of plate tectonics, it became clear that some metal -rich
hydrothermal deposits originate along ancient spre ading centers (mid-ocean
ridges). As seawater percolates through newl y formed oceanic crust, it
dissolves metallic sulfides from the basaltic rocks. The hot, metal -rich fluids
rise along fractures and gush from the seafloor as particle -filled clouds called
black smokers. Upon mixing with the cold seawater, the sulfides precipitate to
form massive metallic deposits. This is the origin of the copper ores mined
today on the island of C yprus. Some of Earth's richest copper deposits have
formed in this manner.
Common Metamorphic Rocks
As you learned, metamorphism causes many changes in rocks, including

increased densit y, growth of larger crystals, reorientation of the mineral grains
into a layered or banded appearance known as foliation, and the transformation
of low-temperature minerals into high -temperature minerals. Further, the
introduction of ions generates new minerals, some of which are economicall y
important. We will now examine some of the most common rocks generated by
diverse metamorphic processes (Tabl e).
Table : Common metamorphic rocks.
Foliated Rocks
Slate. To review, slate is a very fine -grained foliated rock composed of minute
mica flakes. The most noteworthy characteristic of slate is its excellent rock
29
cleavage, or tendency to break into flat slabs. This propert y traditionall y made
slate a most useful rock for roof and floor tile, blackboards, and billiard tables
(Figure 7.7).
Slate is most often generated by the low -grade metamorphism of shale,

although less frequentl y it is metamorp hosed from volcanic ash. Slate's color
depends on its mineral constituents. Black (carbonaceous) slate contains
organic material (carbon -bearing), red slate gets its color from iron oxide, and
green slate usuall y contains chlorite, a mica -like mineral form ed by the
metamorphism of iron -rich silicates.
Because slate forms during low -grade metamorphism, evidence of shale's

original bedding planes is often preserved. However, the orientation of slate's
rock cleavage is at a pronounced angle to the original sed imentary layering
(Figure 7.8). Thus, unlike shale, which splits along bedding planes, slate splits
across them.
Phyllite. Phyllite represents a gradation in metamorphism between slate and

schist. Its constituent plat y minerals are larger than those in sla te, but not yet
large enough to be clearl y identifiable. Although phyllite appears similar to
slate, it can be easily distinguished from slate by its glossy sheen (Figure 7.9).
Phyllite usuall y exhibits rock cleavage and is composed mainl y of very fine
crystals of either muscovite or chlorite.
Schist. Schists are strongl y foliated rocks that can be readily split into thin
flakes or slabs. By definition, schists contain more than 50 percent plat y and
elongated minerals that commonl y include mica (muscovite, biotite) and
amphibole. Like slate, the parent material from which many schists originate is
shale, but to form schist, the metamorphism is more intense. In addition, most
schists are products of major mountain -building episodes.
The term schist describes the texture of a rock. To denote the composition, the
mineral names are used as well. For example, schists composed primaril y of
the micas muscovite and biotite are called mica schists. Depending upon the
degree of metamorphism and composition of the paren t rock, mica schists often
contain accessory minerals unique to metamorphic rocks. Some common
accessory minerals include garnet, staurolite, and sillimanite, in which case the
rock is called garnet -mica schist, staurolite -mica schist and so forth (Figure
7.10). Some schists contain another accessory mineral, graphite, which is used
as pencil "lead," graphite fibers (used in fishing rods), and lubricant
(commonl y for locks).
In addition, schists may be composed largel y of the minerals chlorite or talc,

in which case they are called chlorite schist and tak schist, respectivel y. Both
chlorite and talc schists can form when rocks with a basaltic composition
undergo metamorphism.
Gneiss. Gneiss is the term applied to banded metamorphic rocks that contain
mostl y elongated and granular (as opposed to plat y) minerals. The most
common minerals 4n^ gneiss are quartz, potassium feldspar, and sodium
30
feldspar. Lesser amounts of muscovite, biotite, and hornblende are common.
The segregation of light and dark silicates is developed in gneisses, giving
them a characteristic banded appearance. Thus, most gneisses consist of
alternating bands of white or reddish feldspar -rich zones and layers of dark
ferromagnesian minerals. Folding and flowing often deform these banded
gneisses while in a plastic state. Some gneiss will split along the layers of
plat y minerals, but most break in an irregular fashion.
Those gneisses that have a composition similar to that of granite are probabl y
derived from granite or its aphanitic equivalent. However, they may also form
from the high-grade metamorphism of shale. In this instance, gneiss represents
the last rock in the sequence of shale, slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.
Like schists, gneisses may also include large crystals of accessory min erals
such as garnet and staurolite. Gneisses can also be made up primaril y of dark
minerals such as those that compose basalt. For example, an amphibole -rich
rock that exhibits a gneissic texture is called ampbibolite gneiss.
Nonfoliated Rocks
Marble. Marble is a coarse, crystalline rock whose parent rock was limestone
or dolostone. Pure marble is white and composed essentially of the mineral
calcite. Because of its attractive color and relative softness (hardness of 3),
marble is a popular building stone in banks and government buildings. White
marble is particularly prized as a stone from which to carve monuments and
statues, such as the famous statue of David by Michelangelo. Unfortunatel y,
because marble is basicall y calcium carbonate, it is readil y att acked by acid
rain. Some historic monuments and tombstones already show severe chemical
weathering.
Often the limestone from which marble forms contains impurities that color the
marble. Thus, marble can be pink, gray, green, or even black. Also, when
impure limestone is metamorphosed, the resulting marble may contain a variet y
of accessory minerals (chlorite, mica, garnet, and commonl y wollastonite).
When marble forms from limestone interbedded with shales, it will appear
banded. Under extreme deformation, such banded marble may become highl y
contorted and give the rock a rather artistic design.
Quartzite. Quartzite is a very hard metamorphic rock most often formed from
quartz sandstone (Figure). Under moderate -to-high-grade metamorphism, the
quartz grains in sandstone fuse like chips of glass melting together (inset in
Figure). The recrystallization is so complete that when broken, quartzite will
not split between the original quartz grains, but through them. In some
instances, such sedimentary features as crossbedding are preserved and give
the rock a banded appearance. Quartzite is t ypicall y white, but iron oxide may
produce reddish or pinkish stains. Dark mineral grains may impart a gray
color.
31
Contact Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism occurs when magma i nvades cooler rock Here, a zone
of alteration called an aureole (or halo) forms around the emplaced magma.
Small intrusive magma bodies that generate dikes and sills have aureoles onl y
a few centimeters diick. By contrast, large magma bodies that crystalli ze to
form batholiths may create zones of metamorphic rock several kilometers
thick. These large aureoles often consist of distinct zones of metamorphism.
Near the magma body, high -temperature minerals such as garnet may form,
whereas farther away such low -grade minerals as chlorite are produced.
In addition to the size of the intrusive magma body, the mineral composition of
the host rock and the availabilit y of water greatl y affect the size of the aureole
produced. In chemicall y active rock such as limestone, the zone of alteration
can extend 10 kilometers or more from the magma body. Here the occurrence
of minerals such as garnet and wollastonite mark the areas of metamorphism.
Most contact metamorphic rocks are fine grained, dense, tough, and of various
chemical compositions. For example, during contact metamorphism, clay
minerals are baked, as if placed in a kiln, and can generate a very hard, fine -
grained rock resembling porcelain. Because directional pressure is not a major
factor in forming t hese rocks, they generall y are not foliated. Homfe l is the
name applied to the wide variet y of rather hard, nonfoliated metamorphic rocks
formed during contact metamorphism.
When large igneous plutons cool, hot, ion -rich fluids (hydrothermal solutions)
that do not crystallizeare expelled. These solutions percolate through the
surrounding host rock, chemicall y reacting with it and promoting the
metamorphic process. In addition, hydrothermal solutions are the source of a
variet y of metallic ore deposits that can be profitabl y extracted from
32
metamorphic rocks. Such deposits include ores of copper, zinc, lead, iron, and
gold.
Contact metamorphism is easil y recognized onl y when it occurs at the surface

or in a near-surface environment where the temperature contra st between the
magma and host rock is great. Undoubtedl y, contact metamorphism is also an
active process at great depth. However, its effect is blurred owing to the
general alteration caused by regional metamorphism.
Metamorphism along Fault Zones
Near the surface, rock behaves like a brittle solid. Consequentl y, movement
along a fault zone fractures and pulverizes rock. In some cases, rock may even
be milled into very fine components. The result is a loosel y coherent rock
called fault breccia that is compo sed of broken and crushed rock fragments.
Displacements along California's San Andreas fault have created a zone of
fault breccia and related rock t ypes over 1000 kilometers long and up to 3
kilometers wide. This type of localized metamorphism, which invol ves purel y
mechanical forces that pulverize individual mineral grains, is called cataclastic
metamorphism.
Much of the intense deformation associated with fault zones occurs at great
depth. In this environment the rocks deform by ductile flow, which genera tes
elongated grains that often give the rock a foliated or lineated appearance.
Rocks formed in this manner are termed mylonites. Worldwide, the quantit y of
metamorphic rock generated solel y by faulting is small when compared to the
other processes. Never theless, in some areas these granulated rocks are quite
abundant.
Regional Metamorphism
As indicated earlier, the greatest quantity of metamorphic rock is produced

during regional metamorphism in association with mountain
building. During these dynamic e vents, large segments of Earth's crust are
intensel y squeezed and become highl y deformed . As the rocks are folded and
faulted, the crust is shortened and thickened, like a rumpled carpet. This
general thickening of the crust results in terrains that are l ifted high above sea
level.
Although material is obviousl y elevated to great heights during mountain

building, an equall y voluminous quantit y of rock is forced downward, where it
experiences high temperatures and pressures. Here in the "roots" of mountains ,
the most intense metamorphic activit y occurs. On occasion, the deformed rock
is heated enough to melt. Once enough magma forms, it will buoyantl y rise
toward the surface. Magmas emplaced in a near -surface environment will cause
contact metamorphism withi n the zone of regional metamorphism. Thus, areas
affected by regional metamorphism frequentl y display zones of contact
metamorphism, as well as cataclastic metamorphism.
33
Consequentl y, the cores of many mountain ranges consist of folded and faulted
metamorphic rocks often intermixed with igneous rocks. As these deformed
rock masses are uplifted, erosion removes the overl ying material to expose the
igneous and metamorphic rocks that comprise the central core of the mountain
range
=========================== ===============================
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Petrology

The Earth's crust is formed or rocks, rocks are defined as aggregate of

A mineral is a naturall y occurring homogeneous solid, formed due to inorganic

The definition may b e discussed as follows

 "Naturally occurring" This restricts minerals to substances found in

The composition of minerals

Each of Earth's 4000 minerals is defined by its chemical competition and

The structure of minerals

A mineral is composed of an ordered a rray of atoms chemicall y bonded

Physical properties of minerals

Whenever a mineral is permitted to form without space restri ctions, it will

Luster is the appearance or qualit y of light reflected from the surface of a

 Metallic luster: minerals that have the appearance of metals regardless

Although colour is an obv ious feature of a mineral, it is often an unreliable

 Moh's Scale of Hardness

This is a numerical scale consists of ten minerals arranged in order from 1

Moh's Scale of Hardness.

Any mineral of unknown hardness can be compared to these minerals or to

Specific gravit y is a number representing the ratio of the weight of a mineral

Other properties of minerals

In addition to the properties men tioned above, some minerals can be

Common silicate minerals

Ferromagnesian (Dark) Silicates

Pyroxenes are a group of complex minerals thought to be important

Hornblende is the most common member of a complex group called

Garnet is similar to olivine in that its structure is composed of individual

Nonferromagnesian (light) silicates

The most common minerals of these groups are:

Quartz is a major constituent in acidic igneous rocks and clastic sedimentar y

Clay Mineral is a term used to describe a variet y of complex minerals that

Clay minerals are most problematic minerals in Petroleum Industry related to

Important nonsilicate minerals

Classification of igneous rocks on the basis of mode of occurrence

Plutonic Igneous Activity

Factors affecting crystal size

Types of igneous textures

Aphanitic (fine-grained) texture: Igneous rocks that form at the surface or as

Textures of igneous rocks

Porphyritic texture: This texture consists of large crystals floating in finer

Pyroclastic texture: This texture result from the consolidation of individual

Pegmatitic texture: Under special conditions, exceptionally coarse -grained

Composition of igneous rocks

Igneous rocks are mainl y composed of silicate minerals. The mineral

2. Basaltic rocks contain abundant, dark (ferromagnesian) minerals and about

Bowen's reaction series

Bowen Reaction series

In laboratory experiment, Bowen demonstrated that as basaltic magma cools,

During crystallization process, the composition of the melt continuall y

Bowen also demonstrated that if the solid components of a magma remain in

Discontinuous reaction series : The upper left branch of Bowen's reaction

Bowen demonstrated that minerals crystallize from magma in a systematic

Assimilation and magma mixing

Naming igneous rocks

Igneous rock t ypes

* The first minerals to crystallize -olivine, pyroxene, and calcium -rich

* Intermediate igneous rocks contain minerals found near the middle of

* Another important igneous rock, peridotite, contains mostl y olivine and

Felsic (Granitic) rocks

Intermediate (Andesitic) rocks

Andesite is a medium grey, fine -grained rock of volcanic origin. Andesite

Pyroclastic rocks are composed of fragments ejected during volcanic eruption.

Metamorphism is a very appropriate name for this process becau se it literall y