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A nursing metaparadigm perspective

of diabetic foot ulcer care

al, 2014; Macioch et al, 2017; Sekhar et al, 2015). Patients


ABSTRACT exhibiting blood glucose levels of HbA1c ≥8 mmol/mol,
Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are a serious complication of diabetes that impact peripheral arterial diseases (PAD), hypertriglyceridemia,
on the patient, their social environment, overall health, and on nursing practice. hypertension, neuropathy, infection, neuroischemic foot,
Nursing scholars have integrated theories on practice to overcome these and with a history of smoking, are recognised as being at a
problems, but a lack of agreement in the available literature acts as a barrier to high risk of DFUs and lower extremity amputation (Boyko
implementing these in practice. For that reason, using a nursing metaparadigm et al, 2018).
as a theoretical framework would assist nurses A theory-based approach, taking into account the
in managing care purposefully and proactively, thus possibly improving multidimensional aspects of the nursing metaparadigm,
outcomes. There has been little discussion about the nursing metaparadigm in may improve the outcome for individuals living with
relation to DFU care. This article aims to identify why Fawcett’s theory DFUs. The nursing metaparadigm is a framework that
of the nursing metaparadigm is important as a fundamental part of DFU looks at problems through a framework consisting of the
care. Understanding this will help to elucidate the phenomenon of DFUs. human being, the environment, health, and nursing.
Moreover, identifying the elements of the DFU care framework is essential A thorough understanding of the concept of the nursing
to improve reflective practice and intervention. This article discusses the metaparadigm would help nurses to facilitate successful DFU
concept of the nursing metaparadigm and its implications for practice in the care. In contrast, poor theoretical understanding may lead to
care of patients with DFUs. the impeding of knowledge development and slow the
translation of research into clinical practice (Fawcett, 1999).
Key words: Diabetic foot ulcers ■ Nursing metaparadigm ■ Nursing practice
Each aspect of the nursing metaparadigm contributes an

D
important part to the nursing process (Fawcett, 1999; 2005).
Implementing the nursing metaparadigm in greater detail will
iabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are a serious consequence demonstrate its significance to generate further nursing
of diabetes, affecting patients’ health outcomes and interventions (Branch et al, 2015; Rosa
may lead to lower extremity amputation (Parekh et
al, 2011). In recent years, et al, 2017). Ultimately, it is essential that nurses integrate this
the incidence of lower extremity amputation because of metaparadigm into DFU care in order to provide
ulceration has increased; and robust epidemiological reports comprehensive nursing care and manage the complexities
have found excess mortality in patients with diabetic foot arising, such as fear of amputation, impact on employment,
syndrome (Chammas et al, 2016; Narres et al, 2017). The infection, compliance with casts and shoes, foot deformity,
International Diabetes Federation stated that 9.1 to 26.1 million blindness, neuropathy, peripheral arterial disease, impotence,
people with diabetes will suffer from DFUs each year and gastrointestinal problems. In doing so, clinical nurses have
(Armstrong and Boulton, 2017). DFUs are the most significant an opportunity to influence individual outcomes by
and devastating problem that patients with diabetes face encouraging maintenance of healthy feet, recognising current
(Priyadarshika and Sudharshani, 2018). Numerous studies have problems, and providing evidence-based care as well as
documented that DFUs commonly lead to such health issues as multidisciplinary interventions (Delmas, 2006).
decreased patient quality of life, problems in the social However, to date, no articles have attempted to offer any
environment, impacts on overall health, and an increased discussion concerning the nursing metaparadigm perspective
nursing workload (Aalaa et al, 2012; Fejfarová et relating to DFU care. Even though the domains of person,
environment, health, and nursing have been agreed upon by
Sumarno Adi Subrata, PhD Candidate, Doctor of Philosophy theorists (Fawcett, 1983), it is difficult to use these abstract
Program in Nursing, International and Collaborative with models in terms of application in clinical practice. Therefore, a
Foreign University Program, Mahidol University, Thailand; and newly synthesised operational definition was required to
Nursing Lecturer, Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health further explain each domain of the nursing metaparadigm. For
Sciences, Universitas Muhammadiyah Magelang, Indonesia,
that reason, the objective of this article is to identify why the
adisubrata@ummgl.ac.id
theory of a nursing metaparadigm originated by Fawcett
Rutja Phuphaibul, Professor of Nursing, Ramathibodi School
of Nursing, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital,
should be a fundamental part of DFU care. In this article, the
Mahidol University, Thailand authors explore the relevant evidence that could present a
Accepted for publication: October 2018 concise direction and role for a nursing metaparadigm in DFU
care. A description of the attributes of each domain

S46 -1 British Journal of Nursing 2019, Vol 28, No 6: TISSUE VIABILITY SUPPLEMENT
understandable in some cultures (Figure 2) (Fawcett, 2005).
■ Reciprocal interaction worldview ■ Engagement on wound Fawcett also identified three specific relationships among
■ Simultaneous action worldview care training the domains: person-health, person-health-environment, and
■ Recipients of nursing care ■ Caring process (continuity of person-health-nursing (Fawcett, 1984). Fawcett emphasised
■ Belief care, disease experience, and that the concepts of patients and health must be related
■ Physiological and disease management)
to the enhancement of the optimal functioning of human
psychological aspects ■ Nursing process (assessment,
■ Partnership with society labelling, planning, beings. A person will interact with their environment and
■ Self- and family management intervention, and evaluation) nursing theory allows nurses to understand patients’
■ Carative factors behaviour in normal and critical situations. In addition, the
■ Diabetic foot ulcer health promotion association between nursing and health emphasises that
■ Multidisciplinary approaches
nursing interventions are able to change a patient’s health
status (Fawcett, 1996). This metaparadigm allows nurses to
see the patient holistically. Fawcett’s ideas provide
Human being Nursing Nursing a conceptual framework that underlies nursing practice
metaparadigm (McEwen and Wills, 2007). Incorporating the nursing
perspectives metaparadigm into nursing practice will encourage
of diabetic foot comprehensive nursing care that will accelerate patients’
Environment Health
ulcer care
healing (Bender and Feldman, 2015; Bender, 2018).
This historical overview explores the evolution of the
■■ Gene/environmental interaction ■■ Person’s wellbeing
nursing metaparadigm and describes the major drivers shaping
■■ Lifestyle ■■ Access to healthcare services the role boundaries of each domain of metaparadigm in nursing
■■ Context of daily practice ■■ Foot care behaviour practice. The patient with a DFU encounters problems as a
■■ Ethical perspective ■■ Multidimensional approach human being, with their overall health
■■ Life principle ■■ Quality of life
and their environment and nursing aims to overcome
■■ Ideologies influencing the ■■ Five dimensions of health (effects,
patient’s life attitudes, activities, aspirations, these problems. A detailed description of those aspects
■■ Five system variables and accomplishments) is given below.
(physiological, psychological,
sociocultural, developmental, and Human being
spiritual)
Fawcett defined a human being as an open system that is
■ Optimal healing environment
unique, dynamic and multidimensional with self-
responsibility. As the theory was developed, Fawcett
specified that the ‘human being’ may have a ‘reciprocal
Figure 1. Nursing metaparadigm perspective of diabetes foot ulcer care interaction worldview’ or a ‘simultaneous action
worldview’ (Fawcett, 2006).
A ‘reciprocal interaction worldview’ signifies that the
in the nursing metaparadigm as it is related to DFU care is human being consists of bio-psycho-social elements (Lai and
explored (Figure 1). This article provides a fresh perspective Hsieh, 2003). Studies have found that individuals with DFUs
on DFU care, which may improve interventions and health frequently display several psychological and social issues,
outcomes. Additionally, the findings of this article could be including increased tensions between patients and their
tools for designing and conducting DFU research. caregivers (spouses or partners), a reduction in the pursuance
of social activities, limited employment, and financial
A brief history of the nursing metaparadigm difficulty (Goodridge et al, 2005; Fejfarová et al, 2014).
and its conjunction with DFU care A prolonged time living with a DFU may lead to
A metaparadigm can be described as ‘a set of concepts and depression. Occurrence is three times higher in type 1 diabetes
propositions that sets forth the phenomena with which a patients and two times higher in type 2 diabetes patients than
discipline is concerned’ (Miller et al, 2003). Historically, in those without diabetes (Roy and Lloyd, 2012; Winkley et
three domains of the nursing metaparadigm (man, health, and al, 2012). Nurses must support individuals’ mental as well as
nursing) were identified by Florence Nightingale, several physical health needs. Thus, a comprehensive mental
nursing scientists, and clinicians in the 19th and 20th assessment may provide important information to improve the
centuries. The ‘environment’ domain was discussed by care and delivery of nursing services (de Jesus Pereira et al,
Donaldson and Crowley (1978). In the meantime, Fawcett 2014). The nurse’s role is also one of educator—imparting
conceptualised Nightingale’s concept into ‘man, society, knowledge in order to enhance the individual’s ability to deal
health, and nursing’ (Fawcett, 1978; 1984;1992). Several with mental health problems. Some patients with depression
amendments have been made during the development of the may need to be referred to a mental health nurse, who can
nursing metaparadigm. ‘Man’ was changed to ‘person’ to support them throughout the assessment, diagnosis and
create a gender-neutral expression. ‘Society’ was also management phases (Maydick and Acee, 2016).To be
switched to ‘environment’ for a wider perception of nursing effective, an inter-professional approach incorporating the
practice. The latest change was ‘person’ into ‘human being’, individual with DFU, their family or caregiver, and their
as a response to the evaluation that ‘person’ was not significant others, should be used during

S48-2 British Journal of Nursing 2019, Vol 28, No 6: TISSUE VIABILITY SUPPLEMENT
DIABETIC FOOT

interventions.
A ‘simultaneous action worldview’ refers to human beings An open system that is unique, A circumstance where the nursing
interacting with their environment in a way that may be dynamic, multidimensional, and care is continuously being given
organised, disorganised and subject to change but is ultimately has self- responsibility and with which a patient interacts
organised and orderly (Fawcett, 2006; Chung et al, 2007). One
study documented that individuals living with chronic wounds
(such as DFUs) presented with more mental health problems Human being Environment
than those without wounds; accordingly, they reported various Nursing
negative feelings such as isolation, stress, depression and metaparadigm
worry (Upton et al, 2014). All nursing interventions must be
focused on both physical and mental dimensions. Self- Health Nursing
management programmes (ie . foot self-care and behavioural
therapy) are also necessary to prevent complications, improve
patients’ understanding of risk factors, and to increase their A person’s wellbeing ranges Actions given in tandem by nurses
ability to manage the disease (Bonner et al, 2016; Olson et al, from a high level of wellness to as follows: assessment, labelling,
terminal illness as experienced by planning, intervention, and
2009; Van Netten et al,
the clients evaluation
2016). Coordination between different specialties is
required to manage the physical, psychological and
psychosocial aspects of DFUs. Counselling of both
Figure 2. The four nursing metaparadigm concepts defined by Fawcett, 1996;
individuals and their families in their own language is 2006; Fawcett and DeSanto-Madeya, 2013
imperative, particularly for those admitted to the intensive
care unit (ICU) with diabetic complications. Health
professionals should be clearly informed about the harmful with other health professionals, must be able to identify
effects of DFUs and their complexities, so that they can such problems in order to carefully plan and implement a
communicate these to the individuals and their families in comprehensive treatment process (Papaspurou et al, 2015).
an appropriate manner (Neeru et al, 2015). Nurses, as the largest group of health professionals, are
The concept of a ‘human being’ is associated with the mandated to examine risk status concerning recurrence,
recipient of nursing care encompassing individuals, families or assessing new or deteriorating foot ulcers and providing
caregivers, and their surrounding communities (Fawcett, 2000). basic foot-care health promotion. They may work as the
It is important that a person at risk of DFUs has a good key diabetes educator in the diabetes care teams
partnership with their family or caregivers so that they are all (Registered Nurses’ Association of Ontario, 2004).
aware of the signs and symptoms of DFUs, such as the loss of Human beings have a unique set of beliefs that nurses must
the protective sensation, and know the importance of daily foot take into account (Branch et al, 2015). These beliefs can lead
care (Mayfield et al, 2003). Having a DFU may cause a loss of to the adaptation of self-care that can decrease the risk of
productivity if the person cannot work, and a subsequent loss DFUs and influence daily foot-care behaviours positively
of status, and extra family expenses (Keskek et al, 2014; (Vedhara et al, 2016). Conversely, other beliefs about diabetes
Raghav et al, 2018). The complexities of DFUs means the may increase the risk factors associated with experiencing
illness impacts on social contexts. Therefore, nurses need to a recurrence of ulceration (Hjelm and Beebwa, 2013).
consider how individuals interact with their families and Changing and challenging patients’ problematic beliefs,
communities when planning DFU care. Addressing the family behaviours and lifestyles is considered the first-line
and social environment for individuals with DFUs is important approach in providing successful DFU care (Searle et al,
since this is the context in which the majority of disease 2005). It is important for nurses to assess the effect of
management occurs. Through their communication and existing beliefs on a patient’s diabetes management
attitude, nurses can provide many forms of support, such as (Macaden and Clarke, 2010). Nurses should not make an
providing insulin injections, changing wound dressings, and assumption based on an individual’s cultural beliefs; rather,
giving emotional support. Involving family members and nurses who know that culture is subjective and dynamic,
communities in DFU interventions may improve diabetes self- can generate individualised care plans based on each
management (Baig et al, 2015). patient’s cultural needs (Fleming and Gillibrand, 2009).
Recognising the complexity of the human experience is an When offering treatment to individuals living with DFUs,
essential element of nursing care (McEwen and Wills, 2007). nurses must keep in mind the human being as a whole, thus
Individuals with DFUs commonly experience several health taking into account the diverse elements of their life and their
issues such as hypertension, nephropathy, retinopathy, a past influences on their condition. Understanding the consequences
history of DFUs, and long-term diabetes—both type 1 and of DFU and implementing evidence-based care is vital if the
type 2—neuropathy, sleep disturbance, increased pain nurse is to deliver successful treatment and to reduce the risk of
perception, limited mobility, social isolation, a restricted life, lower extremity amputations (Cárdenas et al, 2015; Goie and
and fears concerning the future (Ribu and Wahl, 2004; Yekta Naidoo, 2016). The interventions also ought to consider how
et al, 2011). Nevertheless, some patients may not recognise the complexities linked with diabetes may impact on patients’
these issues or even ignore them, thus potentially leading to beliefs as well as their emotional and behavioural reactions to
complex conditions. Accordingly, clinical nurses, along DFU. Putting into practice

British Journal of Nursing 2019, Vol 28, No 6: TISSUE VIABILITY SUPPLEMENT  


S49-3
health promotion programmes according to the health belief ■ Physiological
model is advantageous in terms of predicting and altering ■ Psychological
self-care behaviours of individuals living with DFU (Farsi ■ Sociocultural
et al, 2009). In addition, a holistic treatment method that ■ Developmental
places emphasis on the body, mind, and soul should be ■ Spiritual.
taken into account. For example, meditation-based
therapies may offer immediate positive benefits in such Physiological variable
individuals because of their ability to improve self-care The physiological variable refers to what an individual thinks
behaviour, self-reliance, and self-control (Priya and Kalra, about their body, home, and neighbourhood. An individual
2018). With respect to diabetes, the health belief model, with DFU often wishes that their ulcer will either heal
social cognitive theory, and the transtheoretical model can or improve (Hjelm and Beebwa, 2013). When arranging
all be integrated into interventions as they address the diabetes treatments, nurses, patients and their families are
complexities of behavioural change as well as the advised to discuss self-management, functional limitations
improvement of clinical outcomes (Burke et al, 2014). and caregiver support (Morrow et al, 2008). Patients ought to
be given enough knowledge to make decisions regarding
Environment treatment. ‘Knowledge’ refers to meal planning, physical
Fawcett mentioned ‘environment’ as a place where activities, weight control, routine blood glucose monitoring,
nursing care is delivered (Fawcett and DeSanto-Madeya, medication, and foot care (Baghbanian and Tol, 2012).
2013) Environment undoubtedly influences the state of
the human being; while the human being also influences Psychological variables
their environment (Fawcett, 2000). Several The psychological variable reflects an individual’s
environmental factors increase the incidence of DFU, perceptions related to their current disease. Patients with
including poverty, urbanisation, HIV infection, DFUs experience a ‘self-perception dilemma’—for
unhygienic conditions, poor financial support, cultural example, balancing the choice of wearing footwear to look
practices, and a barefoot lifestyle (Desalu et al, 2011). and feel normal and choosing footwear to protect their feet
Diabetes and its complexities are linked with a strong from foot ulceration (Paton et al, 2014). This issue implies
gene-environmental interaction, which is influenced by that foot self-care-focused psycho-educational interventions
modernisation and lifestyle changes such as the intake of may be significant, and should target both patients’
unhealthy food, a lack of physical activities, and a high level misunderstanding in relation to DFU risks, along with their
of mental stress (Ramachandran et al, 2010; Shah and emotional distress (Vileikyte and Gonzalez, 2014).
Kanaya, 2014). Additionally, studies have acknowledged
the complex interaction between genes and the environment Sociocultural variable
that alter genetic expression as this is vital in contributing The sociocultural variable examines the meaning patients
pathogenic diabetes mechanisms and their consequences (ie ascribe to the social and cultural aspects of their daily lives
DFU) (Jirtle and Skinner, 2007). However, the mechanism (Verberk, 2016). DFUs often lead to social isolation resulting
concerned with how environmental factors lead to DFUs in low self-esteem with the condition worsened by
still remains underexplored in the literature. Health sociocultural factors such as the habit of walking barefoot
promotion programmes are an important part of the care of (Neeru et al, 2015). Psychosocial assessment is an important
patients with diabetes, because of the severity of the diabetic part of routine nursing care in individuals with DFUs.
foot problems that can occur (Tamir, 2007). Nurses should Involving family members in a coping-mechanism approach
aim to create a therapeutic environment based on the may be helpful; this may involve using acceptance techniques,
patient’s needs and ethical perspectives in order to prevent cognitive reappraisal, problem-focused coping, and pursuing
or reduce the impact of those internal and external factors social support. A wide spectrum of approaches can be
that could complicate the illness (Lopes, 2008). employed, including motivational interviewing, cognitive
The ‘environment’ domain also concentrates on the life behavioural therapy (CBT), and empowerment-based
principles that influence patients’ lives. For example, some programmes. These interventions can help deal with patients’
individuals with a DFU may present with feelings of fears about diet and weight issues, hypoglycaemia, and the risk
hopelessness and helplessness. They have lost their self- of long-term diabetes complications (Harvey, 2015).
esteem, fear being poor because they cannot work, feel
isolated and are afraid of being dependent on others (Hjelm Developmental variable
and Beebwa, 2013). Psychosocial interventions are highly The developmental variable focuses on the individual’s
effective in addressing emotional issues along with response to the changes needed to adopt a healthy lifestyle and
improving glycaemic control in patients with diabetes (Xie how they respond to the side effects of treatments (Raz, 2013).
and Deng, 2017). Cognitive behavioural therapy-based Understanding how a patient responds may affect treatment
techniques focusing on psychological factors and self- decisions and will improve therapy selection and individual
management might therefore be the most effective health outcomes (Cantrell et al, 2010).
interventions (Vileikyte and Gonzalez, 2014).
Neuman and Fawcett (2011) pointed out that the Spiritual variable
‘environment’ consists of five client system variables: The spiritual variable is concerned with how a person’s

S50 -4 British Journal of Nursing 2019, Vol 28, No 6: TISSUE VIABILITY SUPPLEMENT
DIABETIC FOOT

spiritual beliefs affect how they view their condition (Neuman Four barriers to healthcare access need to be identified by
and Fawcett, 2011). For example, some Muslim DFU patients clinical nurses: lack of knowledge regarding healthcare
may feel their illness has brought them closer to God, may services, unique sociocultural and religious beliefs,
believe the disease erases sins, may fear God’s punishment or previous experiences with healthcare providers, and the
their DFU may cause them to return to religious practice. They influence
3 of significant other(s) (Alzubaidi et al, 2015).
may believe in God’s miracles and mercy, and also that the Pender (1989) stated that the ‘health’ domain of
healing process is a gift from God or a reward (Salehi, et al, the nursing metaparadigm had five dimensions:
2012). In contrast, some patients do not feel that their condition ■ Effects
has brought them closer to God. One study found that patients ■ Attitudes
with diabetes varied considerably in their views on the impact ■ Activities
of spirituality in their illness, from minimal to profound (Gupta ■ Aspirations
and Anandarajah, 2014). Therefore, in some patients diabetes ■ Accomplishments.
self-management interventions may be enhanced by including a
spiritual dimension (Baig et al, 2014). One study found that Effects
greater religiosity in a diabetic population rendered ‘Effects’ refer to the psychological aspects of health. For
significantly better glycaemic control (How et al, 2011). In line example, certain emotions and feelings may moderate the
with immune function (Kiecolt-Glaser and Glaser, 1987).
this reasoning, Koenig argues that religion builds a positive Psychological stress impacts DFU healing (Gouin and
attitude towards all situations and encourages the person to Kiecolt-Glaser, 2011; Woo, 2012). In addition, a higher level
be motivated and to be able to deal with unfortunate of anxiety and depression is associated with prolonged
experiences in life, including disease (Koenig, 2004). wound healing (Cole-King and Harding, 2001). Depression
Nurses can use their understanding of the ‘environment’ can affect the immune system, resulting in prolonged
domain to improve patients’ health status, drawing on infection and delayed wound healing (Kiecolt-Glaser and
evidence-based treatment recommendations. The optimal Glaser, 2002). Integrating mental health nurses into the
healing environment framework can also be used in multidisciplinary team treating individuals with DFU, and
nursing interventions as it aims to improve healing and early diagnosis and management may help improve healing
health creation, which is a critical aspect of disease rates and reduce healthcare expenditure (Steel et al, 2016).
management (Huisman et al, 2012). In addition, strategies
for diabetes prevention should aim at fostering a ‘diabetes-
protective lifestyle’ while concurrently enhancing the
resistance of the human organism to pro-diabetic
environmental and lifestyle aspects (Kolb and Martin,
2017). These strategies potentially accelerate the healing
process and improve patients’ health outcomes.

Health
Fawcett described ‘health’ as a person’s wellbeing— ranging
from a high level of wellness to terminal illness as experienced
by individuals (Fawcett, 1996). Complications of diabetes
affecting the limbs are common, multifaceted, and costly.
Diabetic foot ulceration is a severe public health issue that is
more likely to develop in older people who have had diabetes
for many years, with hypertension, a history
of smoking, and diabetic retinopathy (Zhang et al, 2017).
Moreover, an individual with a DFU has a greater than
twofold increased mortality compared with non-ulcerated
diabetic individuals (Chammas et al, 2016). This critical issue
may encourage and assist nurses in being proactive rather than
reactive when promoting health among DFU patients. Early
interventions to prevent DFU and limb amputations, along
with an entire assessment for decreasing the incidence of
micro- and macrovascular complexities should be considered
(Al-Rubeaan et al, 2017).
Patients must have the ability to perceive, seek, reach,
engage with and in many countries pay for healthcare
services, otherwise, their disease will become more
complicated (Levesque et al, 2013). Poor access to
healthcare services has been shown to be related to the
greater frequency of foot ulceration (Prompers et al, 2007).

British Journal of Nursing 2019, Vol 28, No 6: TISSUE VIABILITY SUPPLEMENT S51-5
Mb nana
Attitudes (Hill et al, 2013; Hu et al, 2015). The social network-based
‘Attitudes’ are the beliefs a persons has about their life intervention Powerful Together with Diabetes in the
situations that influence health (Pender, 1989). Incorrect Netherlands aimed at improving diabetes self-management
beliefs about the diabetic foot potentially increase the and helped to diminish social problems in socially
likelihood of DFU (Hjelm and Beebwa, 2013). Individuals deprived neighbourhoods (Vissenberg et al, 2017). A
with diabetes have been found to have a mixture of correct and strong relationship between patients with DFU and their
incorrect information and beliefs about foot care health providers and family will promote compliance with
(Sayampanathan et al, 2017). Healthcare providers should diabetic self-care activities.
endeavour to provide foot care education with the intention of
reducing the burden of DFU complexities. This involves Accomplishments
preventing and managing trauma and foot infection, managing ‘Accomplishments’ refer to ‘transcendence, creativity, and
abnormal pressure points, managing associated cardiovascular enjoyment’ as attributes of the health state (Pender, 1989).
diseases, managing pre-existing vascular damage and This refers to personal achievements in coping with diabetes
peripheral neuropathy, improving poor glycaemic control, and preventing or healing DFUs. In type 1 diabetes linked
dealing with foot deformities, and improving awareness and with complex insulin therapies, the objective is to help
self-care (Seyyedrasooli et al, 2015). individuals attain better control of blood glucose levels by
adjusting insulin doses. In type 2 diabetes, improvement
Activities in blood glucose levels is commonly based on behavioural
‘Activities’ can be interpreted as patterns of energy changes including reduced calorie intake and increased
distribution and the person’s ability to take part in play, physical activity (Franc et al, 2011). Thus, establishing and
meaningful work, and positive life patterns (Pender, executing appropriate diabetes guidelines for individuals with
1989). Patients with DFUs may expend greater energy on diabetes is of critical importance. Nurses should determine the
supporting wound healing than those without DFUs (Sheahan related factors that contribute to the failure of current
et al, 2017). An individual with a DFU is advised to wear their interventions with the intention of developing the most
off-loading devices at all times ie when walking, exercising advantageous strategies for the enhancement of therapies.
and during other activities until the ulcer heals (Armstrong et
al, 2003). Employing an off-loading device Achieving an optimum health condition
is an effective treatment for healing plantar foot ulcers and The health domain and disease are the main aspects of patient-
preventing their recurrence (Bus, 2016). These will be centered care that require multidimensional approaches. In
prescribed by the podiatrist who will focus on the interplay order to achieve an optimum health condition, clinical nurses,
between the frequency (weight-bearing activity), quality in collaboration with other health professionals, must be
(dynamic foot function) and magnitude (pressure) involved. engaged in accelerating wound-healing and diminishing risk
Likewise, foot-specific exercise programmes at an appropriate factors for limb amputation (Komelyagina et al, 2016; Buggy
stage in the neuropathic process should be considered and Moore, 2017). Likewise, DFUs require specific and
(Cerrahoglu et al, 2016). A progressive and well-observed comprehensive treatment which cannot be carried out by one
weight-bearing physical activity, including balancing exercises healthcare provider alone, but must involve a multidisciplinary
and leg strengthening, can be influential for patients’ health team (Bentley and Foster, 2007). Hence, to be effective, it is
outcomes (DiLiberto et al, 2016). Foot assessment as a part of necessary for each of these elements to be combined to attain
routine foot-screening and the evaluation of findings ought to optimum health among individuals with or at risk of DFUs. In
guide clinical decisions, which may improve dynamic foot addition, nurses are advised to implement comprehensive care
function among other appropriate interventions plans that are focused not only on treating the physical illness
such as wearing the appropriate footwear (Formosa et al, but also on improving patients’ mental health status.
2016; Mishra et al, 2017). Specialist centres offering the
opportunity to participate in exercise training should work
in tandem to alter patients’ lifestyles by encouraging Nursing
appropriate daily physical activities (Francia et al, 2014; Fawcett (1996) described ‘nursing’ as actions given by nurses
Matos et al, 2018). in a systematic and organised process, encompassing
assessment, labelling, planning, intervention, and evaluation.
Aspirations Florence Nightingale noted that nurses have a responsibility to
‘Aspirations’ refer to self-actualisation and the extent to promote health and prevent disease complications (Winkelstein
which a patient actively engages in social interactions and Warren, 2009). In the care of patients with DFUs, nurses
(Pender, 1989). Support from individual social networks and are actively involved in preventing limb amputations by
the community is linked with better diabetes self- providing early detection of any changes in foot sensation,
management and health-related outcomes (Koetsenruijter et promoting foot care, using advanced wound dressings and
al, 2015). Social support, particularly from the individual’s applying advanced technologies such as utilising growth factor
family, has a pivotal role in controlling blood glucose and therapy (Seaman, 2005; Aalaa et al, 2012). To maintain a
HbA1c levels (Rad et al, 2013; Shao et al, 2017). Health proper balance between theory and practice, a nurse must be up
professionals and policymakers are encouraged to provide to date with current knowledge and practice in the field (Ajani
community support groups for patients with diabetes and Moez, 2011). Wound care

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DIABETIC FOOT

training, continuous professional development, evidence‐ Table 1. Diabetic foot risk stratification and triage developed by Scottish
based practice implementation and wound-care research Intercollegiate Guideline Network
should be fostered (Kumarasinghe et al, 2018).
Categories Definition Action
The nursing domain also encompasses clinical nurses, their
attributes and how they use their knowledge and skills when Active Presence of active Rapid referral and management by
providing care (Branch et al, 2015). The American Diabetes ulceration a member of a multidisciplinary foot
Spreading infection team
Association (ADA) states that daily and proper care is
Critical ischemia Agreed and tailored management or
relevant in preventing DFU complications (ADA, 2013).
treatment plan according to patient
Clinical nurses are required to be experts in performing DFU Gangrene or unexplained
needs
management to attain improved patient outcomes. Patient hot and red
Provide written and verbal education
assessment should identify the risk factors for limb Swollen foot with or without
with emergency contact numbers
amputation, as well as other related complications. These are the presence of pain
Referral for specialist intervention
focused on vascular adequacy, neurological or sensory when required
condition, suitability of footwear, presentation of foot
High Previous ulceration or Annual assessment by a specialist
malformation, wound size, the severity of tissue damage, and amputation or more than podiatrist
environmental factors (Roberts and Newton, 2011). one risk factor present eg Agreed and tailored management or
The ‘nursing’ domain includes a caring process consisting loss of sensation or signs treatment plan by specialist podiatrist
of five conceptualisations of caring: caring as an intervention, of peripheral vascular according to patient needs
caring as a moral imperative, caring as a human trait, caring as disease with callus or
Provide written and verbal education
deformity
an interpersonal interaction, and caring as an effect (Morse et with emergency contact numbers
al, 1991). In the case of the patient with a DFU, the caring Referral for specialist intervention if
process involves three areas: continuity of care, disease or when required
experience, and disease management (Aliasgharpour and Moderate One risk factor present eg Annual assessment by a podiatrist
Nayeri, 2012). As a result, nurses must ‘understand how they loss of sensation or signs Agreed and tailored management or
affect patients’ because every therapeutic interaction among of peripheral vascular treatment plan by podiatrist according
nurses and patients should have an impact on patient wellbeing disease without callus or to patient needs
(LeVasseur, 1999). From a nursing perspective, the approach deformity
Provide written and verbal education
given by nurses includes initial assessments and goal-setting with emergency contact numbers
(Eggleton and Kenealy, 2009).
Low No risk factors present eg Annual screening by a suitably trained
There are four major goals in nursing: patients care, no loss of sensation, no Health Care Professional.Agreed self-
health promotion, achieving patient compliance with signs of peripheral vascular management plan
treatment and prevention of disease. To achieve these goals, disease and no other risk Provide written and verbal education
nurses can play different roles such as healthcare provider, factors. with emergency contact numbers.
leader, researcher, educator, care connector, and supporter Appropriate access to podiatrist if or
of the rights of patients (Black et al, 1997). Prevention of when required
DFUs is divided into two parts: Source: Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network, 2017
■ Patient education (annual foot screening, self-inspection,
self-care practice, wearing appropriate footwear)
■ Making the necessary alterations for a healthy protect DFU patients from the negative consequences of
lifestyle (performing regular exercise, avoiding chronic diabetes. Furthermore, improved personal
smoking, and ensuring glycaemic, blood pressure resources, for instance, greater resilience, would promote
and blood lipid control) (Dangol, 2011). better cognitive functioning, stronger willpower and lead
Providing these intervention, requires ‘carative’ factors to an improved quality of life.
rather than solely curative factors. Showing care for the patient
as a whole person, involving the mind, body, and soul, will Implications for research and nursing practice
encourage a healing process (Pajnkihar et al, 2017). DFU and This article focuses on the shared goals and wider
lower extremity amputation not only precedes morbidity, perspectives concerning the all-important nursing
disability, and mortality, but also renders immense negative metaparadigm of DFU care. The nursing metaparadigm is a
impacts in respect of psychological stress, dependency, social key element of nursing theory and has been rapidly
isolation, and trauma (Dangol, 2011). developed and integrated into nursing practice (Schim et al,
DFU interventions cannot be undertaken solely by nurses 2007). The nursing metaparadigm is relevant to current
and must involve a multidisciplinary team including the GP, nursing practice due to its ability to identify the scope of
diabetes educator, podiatrists and hospital consultants. knowledge as a practical guideline in providing DFU care.
Diabetes nurse specialists are an essential part of this team Mutual interactions amid domains of this metaparadigm
(Amirmohseni and Nasiri, 2014).Nurses act as a key link to (human being, environment, health, and nursing) will
the multidisciplinary team. The ADA recommends a enhance patient outcomes and the quality of nursing care.
multidisciplinary team approach to DFU care (ADA, 2013). This nursing metaparadigm creates the potential
Nurses should provide positive physical and psychological for improvements in DFU care by:
support that may sustain long-term coping strategies and ■ Providing the fundamental standpoint of nursing practice

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Mb fika
in DFU care metaparadigm-based approach offers promising strategies
■ Helping nurses to understand their purpose and role in for an enhanced understanding of the interventions
the healthcare setting concerning DFU complexities available to address DFU complexities. In addition, the
■ Supporting nurses to make appropriate decisions healthcare team needs to understand the underlying
about interventions on DFU physiological and psychological aspects of the patient that
■ Allowing nurses to plan and implement care can delay wound healing. DFUs are multifaceted conditions
systematically so as to obtain enhanced outcomes that deserve the most current evidence-based interventions
■ Improving the communication with others due to the fact to achieve the best outcomes. Clinical nurses must actively
that DFU interventions require collaboration with other engage in managing diabetes and its complications as well
health professionals as preventing the severity of those illnesses.
■ Enriching the professional status among nurses in
daily clinical practice Conclusion
■ Helping to describe, explain, and predict phenomena It is hoped that this article will encourage collaborative
in DFU care practice between nurses and other healthcare providers
■ Serving to guide assessment, management, and working in DFU care and more generally in the care of people
evaluation of nursing care with diabetes. It is also noted that any nursing metaparadigm-
■ Bridging the gap between theory, research and the driven approach in daily practice is not without its challenges
realities of everyday practice in DFU care due to the complexities of implementation. Nonetheless, a
■ Providing a framework to strengthen the practice theory-driven approach is well worth the effort in overcoming
of research in DFU care. problems in practice, particularly in the care of people with
■ Offering the opportunity to specify the contextual DFUs. Further research is needed to understand outcomes
conditions influencing DFU intervention effectiveness. In linked with each domain of the metaparadigm. Broadening of
the wake of these issues, this article indicates that there the theoretical description should also be explored, aimed at
is a growing body of literature directly supporting positive thoroughly identifying and explaining each domain of the
contributions in association with the nursing metaparadigm nursing metaparadigm. This will ultimately lead to a standard
as well as DFU care. Hence, the comprehensive of care that prevents severe side effects of diabetes.
management of DFU should be addressed in those aspects
(human being, environment, health, and nursing) (Seaman, Furthermore, this article aimed to expand the knowledge
2005). Conducting an appropriate assessment must be taken base of nurses working in DFU care. Finally, by integrating
into consideration in the course of providing DFU care. To the nursing metaparadigm into DFU care, nurses are able to
be effective, the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines recognise the unique contribution of a theory that helps to
Network (SIGN) (2017) guideline on management of generate effective care linked to daily nursing practice. BJN
diabetes may be incorporated into the assessment because it
clearly identifies the risk factors of limb amputations as Declaration of interest: none
well as other related complications (Table 1).
Historically, the management of DFU was established PhD funding: the work for this article was supported by the
based on the three important basic treatments: sharp Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) through
debridement therapy, using the off-loading device, and a doctoral scholarship to the Doctor of Philosophy
diabetic foot health education (Naves, 2016). However, Program in Nursing, International and Collaborative with
these treatments have been developed and expanded into Foreign University Program, Mahidol University, Thailand
the following:
■ Use of dressings promoting a moist wound environment Acknowledgment: the authors would like to extend gratitude to
■ Surgical debridement nursing colleagues at the Faculty of Health Sciences, Universitas
■ Use of a wound off-loading device Muhammadiyah Magelang, Indonesia. A special thank to the
■ Performing vascular assessment author’s co-advisor, Dr Margaret Grey, Professor of Nursing,
■ Managing wound infection School of Nursing,Yale University, USA. The article on which she is
■ Controlling glycaemic index lead author, entitled ‘A revised self- and family management
■ Collaborating with the multidisciplinary DFU care framework’ (2015), inspired the lead author in writing this article
team, which is currently becoming a pillar of current
treatment (Everett and Mathioudakis, 2018). Aalaa M, Malazy OT, Sanjari M, Peimani M, Mohajeri- Tehrani M. Nurses’ role
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CPD reflective questions


■ After reading this article, what other facts or issues on diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) need to be considered when
caring for this group of patients?
■ How will you know if you are successful in providing DFU care to your patients? Consider the factors that may
delay healing of these wounds
■ What implications does this paper have for your clinical nursing practice in caring for patients with DFUs?

British Journal of Nursing 2019, Vol 28, No 6: TISSUE VIABILITY SUPPLEM


Hal 1 bu tut
Perspektif metaparadigma keperawatan dari perawatan ulkus kaki diabetik

ABSTRAK

Ulkus kaki diabetik (DFU) adalah komplikasi serius dari diabetes yang berdampak pada pasien,
lingkungan sosial mereka, kesehatan keseluruhan, dan praktik keperawatan. Sarjana keperawatan
memiliki teori terintegrasi dalam praktik untuk mengatasi masalah ini, tetapi kurangnya
kesepakatan dalam literatur yang tersedia bertindak sebagai penghalang untuk menerapkannya
dalam praktik. Untuk alasan itu, menggunakan paradigma keperawatan sebagai kerangka teori akan
membantu perawat

dalam mengelola perawatan dengan sengaja dan proaktif, sehingga dapat meningkatkan hasil. Ada
sedikit diskusi tentang paradigma keperawatan dalam kaitannya dengan perawatan DFU. Artikel
ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi teori mengapa Fawcett

metaparadigma keperawatan penting sebagai bagian mendasar dari perawatan DFU. Memahami hal ini
akan membantu menjelaskan fenomena DFU. Selain itu, mengidentifikasi elemen-elemen kerangka
kerja perawatan DFU sangat penting untuk meningkatkan praktik reflektif dan intervensi.
Artikel ini membahas konsep paradigma keperawatan dan implikasinya untuk praktik dalam
perawatan pasien dengan DFU.

Kata kunci: Ulkus kaki diabetik ■ Metaparadigma keperawatan ■ Praktik keperawatan

Sumarno Adi Subrata, Kandidat PhD, Program Doktor Filsafat dalam Keperawatan, Internasional
dan Kolaboratif dengan Program Universitas Asing, Universitas Mahidol, Thailand; dan Dosen
Perawat, Departemen Keperawatan, Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan, Universitas Muhammadiyah Magelang,
Indonesia, adisubrata@ummgl.ac.id

Rutja Phuphaibul, Profesor Keperawatan, Sekolah Perawat Ramathibodi, Fakultas Kedokteran,


Rumah Sakit Ramathibodi, Universitas Mahidol, Thailand

Diterima untuk publikasi: Oktober 2018

Ulkus kaki diabetik (DFU) adalah konsekuensi serius dari diabetes, memengaruhi hasil kesehatan
pasien dan dapat menyebabkan amputasi ekstremitas bawah (Parekh et al, 2011). Dalam beberapa
tahun terakhir,

kejadian amputasi ekstremitas bawah karena ulserasi telah meningkat; dan laporan epidemiologis
yang kuat telah menemukan mortalitas berlebih pada pasien dengan sindrom kaki diabetik
(Chammas et al, 2016; Narres et al, 2017). Federasi Diabetes Internasional menyatakan bahwa
9,1 hingga 26,1 juta orang dengan diabetes akan menderita DFU setiap tahun (Armstrong dan
Boulton, 2017). DFU adalah masalah paling signifikan dan menghancurkan yang dihadapi pasien
dengan diabetes (Priyadarshika dan Sudharshani, 2018). Sejumlah penelitian telah
mendokumentasikan bahwa DFU umumnya mengarah pada masalah kesehatan seperti penurunan kualitas
hidup pasien, masalah di lingkungan sosial, dampak pada kesehatan secara keseluruhan, dan
peningkatan beban kerja keperawatan (Aalaa et al, 2012; Fejfarová et
al, 2014; Macioch et al, 2017; Sekhar et al, 2015). Pasien yang menunjukkan kadar glukosa
darah HbA1c ≥8 mmol / mol, penyakit arteri perifer (PAD), hipertrigliseridemia, hipertensi,
neuropati, infeksi, kaki neuroischemik, dan dengan riwayat merokok, diakui berisiko tinggi
terhadap DFU dan lebih rendah. amputasi ekstremitas (Boyko et al, 2018).

Pendekatan berbasis teori, dengan mempertimbangkan aspek multidimensi dari paradigma


keperawatan, dapat meningkatkan hasil untuk individu yang hidup dengan DFU. Metaparadigma
keperawatan adalah kerangka kerja yang melihat masalah melalui kerangka kerja yang terdiri
dari manusia, lingkungan, kesehatan, dan keperawatan.

Pemahaman yang menyeluruh tentang konsep paradigma keperawatan akan membantu perawat untuk
memfasilitasi perawatan DFU yang sukses. Sebaliknya, pemahaman teoritis yang buruk dapat
menyebabkan menghambat perkembangan pengetahuan dan memperlambat terjemahan penelitian ke
dalam praktik klinis (Fawcett, 1999). Setiap aspek dari paradigma paradigma keperawatan
berkontribusi penting bagi proses keperawatan (Fawcett, 1999; 2005). Menerapkan metaparadigma
keperawatan secara lebih rinci akan menunjukkan signifikansinya untuk menghasilkan intervensi
keperawatan lebih lanjut (Branch et al, 2015; Rosa

et al, 2017). Pada akhirnya, adalah penting bahwa perawat mengintegrasikan metaparadigma ini
ke dalam perawatan DFU untuk memberikan perawatan keperawatan yang komprehensif dan mengelola
kompleksitas yang timbul, seperti ketakutan akan amputasi, dampak pada pekerjaan, infeksi,
kepatuhan terhadap gips dan sepatu, kelainan bentuk kaki, kebutaan, neuropati , penyakit
arteri perifer, impotensi, dan masalah pencernaan. Dalam melakukannya, perawat klinis memiliki
kesempatan untuk mempengaruhi hasil individu dengan mendorong pemeliharaan kaki yang sehat,
mengenali masalah saat ini, dan memberikan perawatan berbasis bukti serta intervensi
multidisiplin (Delmas, 2006).

Namun, hingga saat ini, belum ada artikel yang mencoba menawarkan diskusi mengenai perspektif
metaparadigma keperawatan yang berkaitan dengan perawatan DFU. Meskipun domain orang,
lingkungan, kesehatan, dan keperawatan telah disetujui oleh ahli teori (Fawcett, 1983), sulit
untuk menggunakan model abstrak ini dalam hal aplikasi dalam praktik klinis. Oleh karena itu,
definisi operasional yang baru disintesis diperlukan untuk lebih menjelaskan setiap domain
dari paradigma keperawatan. Untuk alasan itu, tujuan artikel ini adalah untuk mengidentifikasi
mengapa teori paradigma keperawatan yang berasal dari Fawcett harus menjadi bagian mendasar
dari perawatan DFU. Dalam artikel ini, penulis mengeksplorasi bukti yang relevan yang dapat
menyajikan arahan dan peran ringkas untuk metaparadigma keperawatan dalam perawatan DFU.

Hal 2 bu tut
Tabel figure 1 Gambar 1. Perspektif metaparadigma keperawatan perawatan ulkus diabetes

Pandangan dunia interaksi timbal balik

■■ Pandangan dunia aksi simultan

■■ Penerima asuhan keperawatan

■■ Keyakinan

■■ Aspek fisiologis dan psikologis

■■ Kemitraan dengan masyarakat

■■ Manajemen diri dan keluarga


Manusia

Lingkungan Hidup

■■ Interaksi gen / lingkungan


■■ Gaya hidup
■■ Konteks latihan sehari-hari
■■ Perspektif etis
■■ Prinsip hidup
■■ Ideologi mempengaruhi
hidup pasien
■■ Lima variabel sistem
(fisiologis, psikologis,
sosiokultural, perkembangan, dan

rohani)

■■ Lingkungan penyembuhan yang optimal

Kanan atas
Keterlibatan dalam pelatihan perawatan luka

■■ Proses perawatan (kesinambungan perawatan, pengalaman penyakit, dan manajemen penyakit)

■■ Proses keperawatan (penilaian, pelabelan, perencanaan, intervensi, dan evaluasi)

■■ Faktor karatif

■■ Promosi kesehatan ulkus kaki diabetik


Pendekatan multidisiplin
Perawatan
Kesehatan
Kanan bawah
Kesejahteraan seseorang
■■ Akses ke layanan kesehatan
■■ Perilaku perawatan kaki
■■ Pendekatan multidimensi
■■ Kualitas hidup
■■ Lima dimensi kesehatan (efek,
sikap, kegiatan, aspirasi,
dan prestasi)

Deskripsi atribut masing-masing domain


dalam metaparadigma keperawatan karena terkait dengan perawatan DFU dieksplorasi (Gambar 1).
Artikel ini memberikan perspektif baru tentang perawatan DFU, yang dapat meningkatkan
intervensi dan hasil kesehatan. Selain itu, temuan artikel ini dapat menjadi alat untuk
merancang dan melakukan penelitian DFU.

Riwayat singkat paradigma keperawatan dan hubungannya dengan perawatan DFU

Metaparadigma dapat digambarkan sebagai set seperangkat konsep dan proposisi yang menguraikan
fenomena yang terkait dengan disiplin '(Miller et al, 2003). Secara historis, tiga domain dari
paradigma keperawatan (pria, kesehatan, dan keperawatan) diidentifikasi oleh Florence
Nightingale, beberapa ilmuwan keperawatan, dan dokter di abad ke-19 dan ke-20. Domain
'lingkungan' dibahas oleh Donaldson dan Crowley (1978). Sementara itu, Fawcett mengonsep
konsep Nightingale menjadi 'manusia, masyarakat, kesehatan, dan keperawatan' (Fawcett, 1978;
1984; 1992). Beberapa amandemen telah dibuat selama pengembangan paradigma keperawatan.
‘Manusia’ diubah menjadi ‘orang’ untuk membuat ekspresi netral gender. ‘Masyarakat’ juga
beralih ke for lingkungan ’untuk persepsi praktik keperawatan yang lebih luas. Perubahan
terbaru adalah ‘orang’ menjadi ‘manusia’, sebagai tanggapan terhadap evaluasi bahwa ‘orang’
tidak

dapat dipahami dalam beberapa budaya (Gambar 2) (Fawcett, 2005).

Fawcett juga mengidentifikasi tiga hubungan khusus di antara


domain: orang-kesehatan, orang-kesehatan-lingkungan, dan orang-kesehatan-keperawatan (Fawcett,
1984). Fawcett menekankan bahwa konsep pasien dan kesehatan harus terkait

untuk peningkatan fungsi optimal manusia. Seseorang akan berinteraksi dengan lingkungannya dan
teori keperawatan memungkinkan perawat untuk memahami perilaku pasien dalam situasi normal dan
kritis. Selain itu, hubungan antara keperawatan dan kesehatan menekankan bahwa intervensi
keperawatan dapat mengubah status kesehatan pasien (Fawcett, 1996). Metaparadigma ini
memungkinkan perawat untuk melihat pasien secara holistik. Gagasan Fawcett memberikan
kerangka kerja konseptual yang mendasari praktik keperawatan (McEwen dan Wills, 2007).
Memasukkan metaparadigma keperawatan ke dalam praktik keperawatan akan mendorong perawatan
keperawatan komprehensif yang akan mempercepat penyembuhan pasien (Bender dan Feldman, 2015;
Bender, 2018).

Tinjauan historis ini mengeksplorasi evolusi metaparadigma keperawatan dan menjelaskan


pendorong utama yang membentuk batas peran setiap domain metaparadigma dalam praktik
keperawatan. Pasien dengan DFU menemui masalah sebagai manusia, dengan kesehatan
keseluruhannya

dan lingkungan serta keperawatan mereka bertujuan untuk mengatasi masalah ini. Penjelasan
rinci tentang aspek-aspek tersebut diberikan di bawah ini.

Manusia

Fawcett mendefinisikan manusia sebagai sistem terbuka yang unik, dinamis dan multidimensi
dengan tanggung jawab diri. Ketika teori ini dikembangkan, Fawcett menetapkan bahwa 'manusia'
mungkin memiliki 'pandangan dunia interaksi timbal balik' atau 'pandangan dunia tindakan
simultan' (Fawcett, 2006).

'Pandangan dunia interaksi timbal balik' menandakan bahwa manusia terdiri dari unsur-unsur
bio-psiko-sosial (Lai dan Hsieh, 2003). Studi telah menemukan bahwa individu dengan DFU sering
menampilkan beberapa masalah psikologis dan sosial, termasuk meningkatnya ketegangan antara
pasien dan pengasuh mereka (pasangan atau pasangan), pengurangan dalam mengejar kegiatan
sosial, pekerjaan terbatas, dan kesulitan keuangan (Goodridge et al, 2005 ; Fejfarová et al,
2014).

Waktu yang lama untuk hidup dengan DFU dapat menyebabkan depresi. Kejadian adalah tiga kali
lebih tinggi pada pasien diabetes tipe 1 dan dua kali lebih tinggi pada pasien diabetes tipe 2
daripada pada mereka yang tidak diabetes (Roy dan Lloyd, 2012; Winkley et al, 2012). Perawat
harus mendukung kebutuhan kesehatan fisik dan mental individu. Dengan demikian, penilaian
mental yang komprehensif dapat memberikan informasi penting untuk meningkatkan perawatan dan
pemberian layanan keperawatan (de Jesus Pereira et al, 2014). Peran perawat juga merupakan
salah satu pendidik — memberikan pengetahuan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan individu dalam
menangani masalah kesehatan mental. Beberapa pasien dengan depresi mungkin perlu dirujuk ke
perawat kesehatan mental, yang dapat mendukung mereka selama fase penilaian, diagnosis dan
manajemen (Maydick dan Acee, 2016). Agar efektif, pendekatan antar-profesional menggabungkan
individu dengan DFU, keluarga atau pengasuh mereka, dan orang penting mereka, harus digunakan
selama intervensi

Hal 3 ani

TABEL Sistem terbuka yang unik,


dinamis, multidimensi, dan
memiliki tanggung jawab diri
Manusia

metaparadigma
Kesehatan
Kisaran kesejahteraan seseorang
dari tingkat kesehatan yang tinggi hingga
penyakit terminal seperti yang dialami oleh
klien
Keadaan di mana
perawatan terus diberikan
dan dengan mana pasien berinteraksi
Lingkungan Hidup
Perawatan
metaparadigma
Perawatan
Tindakan yang diberikan secara bersamaan oleh perawat
sebagai berikut: penilaian, pelabelan,
perencanaan, intervensi, dan
evaluasi

Pandangan dunia tindakan simultan' mengacu pada manusia yang berinteraksi dengan lingkungannya
dengan cara yang dapat diorganisir, tidak teratur, dan dapat berubah tetapi pada akhirnya
diatur dan tertib (Fawcett, 2006; Chung et al, 2007). Satu studi mendokumentasikan bahwa orang
yang hidup dengan luka kronis (seperti DFU) mengalami lebih banyak masalah kesehatan mental
daripada mereka yang tidak memiliki luka; karenanya, mereka melaporkan berbagai perasaan
negatif seperti isolasi, stres, depresi, dan kekhawatiran (Upton et al, 2014). Semua
intervensi keperawatan harus difokuskan pada dimensi fisik dan mental. Program manajemen diri
(mis. Perawatan diri kaki dan terapi perilaku) juga diperlukan untuk mencegah komplikasi,
meningkatkan pemahaman pasien tentang faktor-faktor risiko, dan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan
mereka untuk mengelola penyakit (Bonner et al, 2016; Olson et al, 2009; Van Netten et al,

2016). Diperlukan koordinasi antara berbagai spesialisasi untuk mengelola aspek fisik,
psikologis, dan psikososial DFU. Konseling baik individu dan keluarga mereka dalam bahasa
mereka sendiri sangat penting, terutama bagi mereka yang dirawat di unit perawatan intensif
(ICU) dengan komplikasi diabetes. Profesional kesehatan harus diberi informasi yang jelas
tentang efek berbahaya dari DFU dan kompleksitasnya, sehingga mereka dapat
mengkomunikasikannya kepada individu dan keluarga mereka dengan cara yang sesuai (Neeru et al,
2015).

Konsep 'manusia' dikaitkan dengan penerima asuhan keperawatan yang mencakup individu, keluarga
atau pengasuh, dan komunitas di sekitarnya (Fawcett, 2000). Adalah penting bahwa seseorang
yang berisiko terhadap DFU memiliki kemitraan yang baik dengan keluarga atau pengasuh mereka
sehingga mereka semua menyadari tanda-tanda dan gejala-gejala DFU, seperti hilangnya sensasi
perlindungan, dan mengetahui pentingnya perawatan kaki setiap hari. (Mayfield et al, 2003).
Memiliki DFU dapat menyebabkan hilangnya produktivitas jika orang tersebut tidak dapat
bekerja, dan kehilangan status berikutnya, dan biaya keluarga tambahan (Keskek et al, 2014;
Raghav et al, 2018). Kompleksitas DFU berarti dampak penyakit pada konteks sosial. Oleh karena
itu, perawat perlu mempertimbangkan bagaimana individu berinteraksi dengan keluarga dan
komunitas mereka ketika merencanakan perawatan DFU. Mengatasi lingkungan keluarga dan sosial
untuk individu dengan DFU adalah penting karena ini adalah konteks di mana sebagian besar
manajemen penyakit terjadi. Melalui komunikasi dan sikap mereka, perawat dapat memberikan
berbagai bentuk dukungan, seperti memberikan suntikan insulin, mengganti pembalut luka, dan
memberikan dukungan emosional. Melibatkan anggota keluarga dan masyarakat dalam intervensi DFU
dapat meningkatkan manajemen diri diabetes (Baig et al, 2015).

Mengenali kompleksitas pengalaman manusia adalah elemen penting dari asuhan keperawatan
(McEwen dan Wills, 2007). Individu dengan DFU biasanya mengalami beberapa masalah kesehatan
seperti hipertensi, nefropati, retinopati, riwayat DFU, dan diabetes jangka panjang — baik
tipe 1 dan tipe 2 — neuropati, gangguan tidur, peningkatan persepsi nyeri, mobilitas terbatas,
isolasi sosial, kehidupan yang terbatas, dan kekhawatiran tentang masa depan (Ribu dan Wahl,
2004; Yekta et al, 2011). Namun demikian, beberapa pasien mungkin tidak mengenali masalah ini
atau bahkan mengabaikannya, sehingga berpotensi menyebabkan kondisi yang kompleks. Dengan
demikian, perawat klinis, bersama

dengan profesional kesehatan lainnya, harus mampu mengidentifikasi masalah tersebut untuk
merencanakan dan mengimplementasikan proses perawatan yang komprehensif (Papaspurou et al,
2015). Perawat, sebagai kelompok profesional kesehatan terbesar, diberi mandat untuk memeriksa
status risiko tentang kekambuhan, menilai borok kaki yang baru atau memburuk dan menyediakan
promosi kesehatan dasar perawatan kaki. Mereka dapat bekerja sebagai pendidik diabetes utama
dalam tim perawatan diabetes (Registered Nurses 'Association of Ontario, 2004).

Manusia memiliki seperangkat keyakinan unik yang harus diperhitungkan oleh perawat (Branch et
al, 2015). Keyakinan ini dapat mengarah pada adaptasi perawatan diri yang dapat mengurangi
risiko DFU dan memengaruhi perilaku perawatan kaki harian secara positif (Vedhara et al,
2016). Sebaliknya, kepercayaan lain tentang diabetes dapat meningkatkan faktor risiko yang
terkait dengan pengalaman

kambuhnya ulserasi (Hjelm dan Beebwa, 2013). Mengubah dan menantang keyakinan, perilaku, dan
gaya hidup pasien yang bermasalah dianggap sebagai pendekatan lini pertama dalam memberikan
perawatan DFU yang berhasil (Searle et al, 2005). Penting bagi perawat untuk menilai efek
keyakinan yang ada pada manajemen diabetes pasien (Macaden dan Clarke, 2010). Perawat tidak
boleh membuat asumsi berdasarkan keyakinan budaya individu; sebaliknya, perawat yang tahu
bahwa budaya bersifat subjektif dan dinamis, dapat menghasilkan rencana perawatan individual
berdasarkan kebutuhan budaya masing-masing pasien (Fleming dan Gillibrand, 2009).

Ketika menawarkan perawatan kepada individu yang hidup dengan DFU, perawat harus mengingat
manusia secara keseluruhan, sehingga memperhitungkan beragam elemen kehidupan mereka dan
pengaruhnya terhadap kondisi mereka. Memahami konsekuensi DFU dan menerapkan perawatan
berbasis bukti sangat penting jika perawat ingin memberikan pengobatan yang berhasil dan untuk
mengurangi risiko amputasi ekstremitas bawah (Cárdenas et al, 2015; Goie dan Naidoo, 2016).
Intervensi juga harus mempertimbangkan bagaimana kompleksitas yang terkait dengan diabetes
dapat berdampak pada kepercayaan pasien serta reaksi emosional dan perilaku mereka terhadap
DFU. Mempraktikkan

HAL 4 ANI

program promosi kesehatan sesuai dengan model kepercayaan kesehatan menguntungkan dalam hal
memprediksi dan mengubah perilaku perawatan diri individu yang hidup dengan DFU (Farsi et al,
2009). Selain itu, metode perawatan holistik yang menekankan tubuh, pikiran, dan jiwa harus
diperhitungkan. Sebagai contoh, terapi berbasis meditasi dapat menawarkan manfaat positif
langsung pada individu tersebut karena kemampuan mereka untuk meningkatkan perilaku perawatan
diri, kemandirian, dan pengendalian diri (Priya dan Kalra, 2018). Sehubungan dengan diabetes,
model kepercayaan kesehatan, teori kognitif sosial, dan model transtheoretical semua dapat
diintegrasikan ke dalam intervensi karena mereka mengatasi kompleksitas perubahan perilaku
serta peningkatan hasil klinis (Burke et al, 2014).

Lingkungan Hidup

Fawcett menyebut 'lingkungan' sebagai tempat di mana asuhan keperawatan diberikan (Fawcett dan
DeSanto-Madeya, 2013) Lingkungan tidak diragukan lagi mempengaruhi keadaan manusia; sedangkan
manusia juga mempengaruhi lingkungannya (Fawcett, 2000). Beberapa faktor lingkungan
meningkatkan kejadian DFU, termasuk kemiskinan, urbanisasi, infeksi HIV, kondisi tidak
higienis, dukungan keuangan yang buruk, praktik budaya, dan gaya hidup tanpa alas kaki (Desalu
et al, 2011).
Diabetes dan kompleksitasnya terkait dengan interaksi gen-lingkungan yang kuat, yang
dipengaruhi oleh modernisasi dan perubahan gaya hidup seperti asupan makanan yang tidak sehat,
kurangnya aktivitas fisik, dan tingkat tekanan mental yang tinggi (Ramachandran et al, 2010;
Shah dan Kanaya, 2014). Selain itu, penelitian telah mengakui interaksi kompleks antara gen
dan lingkungan yang mengubah ekspresi genetik karena ini sangat penting dalam berkontribusi
mekanisme diabetes patogen dan konsekuensinya (yaitu DFU) (Jirtle dan Skinner, 2007). Namun,
mekanisme yang berkaitan dengan bagaimana faktor-faktor lingkungan menyebabkan DFU masih belum
diselidiki dalam literatur. Program promosi kesehatan adalah bagian penting dari perawatan
pasien dengan diabetes, karena tingkat keparahan masalah kaki diabetik yang dapat terjadi
(Tamir, 2007). Perawat harus bertujuan untuk menciptakan lingkungan terapeutik berdasarkan
kebutuhan pasien dan perspektif etika untuk mencegah atau mengurangi dampak dari faktor-faktor
internal dan eksternal yang dapat mempersulit penyakit (Lopes, 2008).

Domain 'lingkungan' juga berkonsentrasi pada prinsip-prinsip kehidupan yang memengaruhi


kehidupan pasien. Sebagai contoh, beberapa individu dengan DFU dapat hadir dengan perasaan
putus asa dan tidak berdaya. Mereka telah kehilangan harga diri mereka, takut menjadi miskin
karena mereka tidak dapat bekerja, merasa terisolasi dan takut bergantung pada orang lain
(Hjelm dan Beebwa, 2013). Intervensi psikososial sangat efektif dalam mengatasi masalah
emosional bersama dengan meningkatkan kontrol glikemik pada pasien dengan diabetes (Xie dan
Deng, 2017). Teknik berbasis terapi kognitif yang berfokus pada faktor psikologis dan
manajemen diri mungkin menjadi intervensi yang paling efektif (Vileikyte dan Gonzalez, 2014).

Neuman dan Fawcett (2011) menunjukkan bahwa 'lingkungan' terdiri dari lima variabel sistem
klien

Fisiologis

■■ Psikologis

■■ Sosiokultural

■■ Perkembangan

■■ Spiritual.

Variabel psikologis

Variabel psikologis mencerminkan persepsi seseorang terkait dengan penyakit mereka saat ini.
Pasien dengan DFU mengalami 'dilema persepsi diri' - misalnya, menyeimbangkan pilihan memakai
alas kaki agar terlihat dan terasa normal dan memilih alas kaki untuk melindungi kaki mereka
dari ulserasi kaki (Paton et al, 2014). Masalah ini menyiratkan bahwa intervensi psiko-edukasi
yang berfokus pada perawatan kaki mungkin penting, dan harus menargetkan kesalahpahaman kedua
pasien sehubungan dengan risiko DFU, bersama dengan tekanan emosional mereka (Vileikyte dan
Gonzalez, 2014).

Variabel sosial budaya

Variabel sosiokultural meneliti makna pasien yang berhubungan dengan aspek sosial dan budaya
dari kehidupan sehari-hari mereka (Verberk, 2016). DFU sering menyebabkan isolasi sosial yang
mengakibatkan harga diri rendah dengan kondisi yang diperburuk oleh faktor sosial budaya
seperti kebiasaan berjalan tanpa alas kaki (Neeru et al, 2015). Penilaian psikososial
merupakan bagian penting dari asuhan keperawatan rutin pada individu dengan DFU. Melibatkan
anggota keluarga dalam pendekatan mekanisme koping mungkin bermanfaat; ini mungkin melibatkan
menggunakan teknik penerimaan, penilaian kognitif, koping yang berfokus pada masalah, dan
mengejar dukungan sosial. Spektrum pendekatan yang luas dapat digunakan, termasuk wawancara
motivasi, terapi perilaku kognitif (CBT), dan program berbasis pemberdayaan. Intervensi ini
dapat membantu mengatasi ketakutan pasien tentang masalah diet dan berat badan, hipoglikemia,
dan risiko komplikasi diabetes jangka panjang (Harvey, 2015).

Variabel perkembangan
Variabel perkembangan berfokus pada respons individu terhadap perubahan yang diperlukan untuk
mengadopsi gaya hidup sehat dan bagaimana mereka merespons efek samping perawatan (Raz, 2013).
Memahami bagaimana respons pasien dapat mempengaruhi keputusan pengobatan dan akan
meningkatkan pemilihan terapi dan hasil kesehatan individu (Cantrell et al, 2010).
Variabel spiritual

Variabel spiritual berkaitan dengan bagaimana seseorang

Halaman 5 Mb nana

keyakinan spiritual mempengaruhi bagaimana mereka melihat kondisi mereka (Neuman dan Fawcett,
2011). Sebagai contoh, beberapa pasien Muslim DFU mungkin merasa penyakit mereka telah membawa
mereka lebih dekat kepada Tuhan, mungkin percaya penyakit itu menghapus dosa, mungkin takut
akan hukuman Tuhan atau DFU mereka dapat menyebabkan mereka kembali ke praktik keagamaan.
Mereka mungkin percaya pada mukjizat dan belas kasihan Tuhan, dan juga bahwa proses
penyembuhan adalah hadiah dari Tuhan atau hadiah (Salehi, et al, 2012). Sebaliknya, beberapa
pasien tidak merasa bahwa kondisi mereka telah membawa mereka lebih dekat kepada Tuhan. Satu
studi menemukan bahwa pasien dengan diabetes sangat bervariasi dalam pandangan mereka tentang
dampak spiritualitas dalam penyakit mereka, dari minimal hingga mendalam (Gupta dan
Anandarajah, 2014). Oleh karena itu, pada beberapa pasien intervensi manajemen diri diabetes
dapat ditingkatkan dengan memasukkan dimensi spiritual (Baig et al, 2014). Satu studi
menemukan bahwa religiusitas yang lebih besar dalam populasi diabetes memberikan kontrol
glikemik yang lebih baik secara signifikan (How et al, 2011). Sejalan dengan

alasan ini, Koenig berpendapat bahwa agama membangun sikap positif terhadap semua situasi dan
mendorong orang untuk termotivasi dan untuk dapat berurusan dengan pengalaman malang dalam
hidup, termasuk penyakit (Koenig, 2004).

Perawat dapat menggunakan pemahaman mereka tentang domain 'lingkungan' untuk meningkatkan
status kesehatan pasien, menggunakan rekomendasi perawatan berbasis bukti. Kerangka kerja
lingkungan penyembuhan yang optimal juga dapat digunakan dalam intervensi keperawatan karena
bertujuan untuk meningkatkan penyembuhan dan penciptaan kesehatan, yang merupakan aspek
penting dari manajemen penyakit (Huisman et al, 2012). Selain itu, strategi untuk pencegahan
diabetes harus bertujuan untuk menumbuhkan 'gaya hidup perlindungan diabetes' sambil
meningkatkan resistensi organisme manusia terhadap aspek lingkungan dan gaya hidup pro-
diabetes (Kolb dan Martin, 2017). Strategi-strategi ini berpotensi mempercepat proses
penyembuhan dan meningkatkan hasil kesehatan pasien.

Kesehatan

Fawcett menggambarkan 'kesehatan' sebagai kesejahteraan seseorang — mulai dari tingkat


kesehatan yang tinggi hingga penyakit terminal seperti yang dialami oleh individu (Fawcett,
1996). Komplikasi diabetes yang menyerang tungkai sering terjadi, multifaset, dan mahal.
Ulserasi kaki diabetik adalah masalah kesehatan masyarakat yang parah yang lebih mungkin
berkembang pada orang tua yang menderita diabetes selama bertahun-tahun, dengan hipertensi,
sejarah.

merokok, dan retinopati diabetik (Zhang et al, 2017). Selain itu, seorang individu dengan DFU
memiliki peningkatan kematian lebih dari dua kali lipat dibandingkan dengan individu diabetes
non-ulserasi (Chammas et al, 2016). Masalah kritis ini dapat mendorong dan membantu perawat
menjadi proaktif daripada reaktif ketika mempromosikan kesehatan di antara pasien DFU.
Intervensi awal untuk mencegah amputasi DFU dan ekstremitas, bersama dengan seluruh penilaian
untuk mengurangi kejadian kompleksitas mikro dan makrovaskular harus dipertimbangkan (Al-
Rubeaan et al, 2017).

Pasien harus memiliki kemampuan untuk merasakan, mencari, menjangkau, terlibat dengan dan di
banyak negara membayar untuk layanan kesehatan, jika tidak, penyakit mereka akan menjadi lebih
rumit (Levesque et al, 2013). Buruknya akses ke layanan kesehatan telah terbukti terkait
dengan frekuensi ulserasi kaki yang lebih besar (Prompers et al, 2007).

Empat hambatan untuk akses perawatan kesehatan perlu diidentifikasi oleh perawat klinis:
kurangnya pengetahuan tentang layanan kesehatan, keyakinan sosiokultural dan agama yang unik,
pengalaman sebelumnya dengan penyedia layanan kesehatan, dan pengaruh yang signifikan lainnya
(Alzubaidi et al, 2015).

Perilaku pasien dapat dipandang sebagai aspek kesehatan. Perilaku perawatan kaki sendiri yang
salah dikaitkan dengan peningkatan risiko DFU, oleh karena itu, pasien dengan diabetes harus
dibimbing tentang cara melakukan perawatan kaki dengan benar untuk mencegah ulserasi atau
kambuhnya ulserasi dan komplikasi diabetes lainnya (Suico et al, 1998 ). Perawatan kaki
mengacu pada pemeriksaan kaki setiap hari, menghindari ekstrem panas dan dingin di bawah kaki,
dan penggunaan alas kaki yang tepat saat berjalan (Saurabh et al, 2014). Perawat harus
mempromosikan perawatan kaki rutin, memberikan perhatian khusus selama perawatan tindak lanjut
kepada mereka yang berasal dari daerah pedesaan di negara-negara dengan tradisi orang berjalan
tanpa alas kaki, menyediakan atau program penurunan berat badan plang, dan mengelola neuropati
secara komprehensif dengan tujuan mengurangi kejadian DFU (Mariam et al, 2017).

Kualitas hidup juga terkait dengan domain 'kesehatan' dari paradigma keperawatan (Parse,
1990). DFU berdampak pada kualitas hidup terkait kesehatan pasien karena amputasi ekstremitas
bawah (Goodridge et al, 2005). Kehadiran ulserasi mempengaruhi fungsi dan mobilitas seseorang
dan menurunkan kualitas hidup (Winkley et al, 2009). Selain itu, kecemasan yang terkait dengan
ulserasi dan kambuhnya infeksi kaki juga menyebabkan kualitas hidup yang buruk (Price, 2004).
Stres akibat pengangguran, status ketergantungan pasien, nyeri kaki diabetik, dan masalah yang
timbul dari pembalut ulkus harian mungkin menjadi pemicu utama kualitas hidup yang lebih
rendah di antara individu dengan DFU. Menilai kaki pasien secara berkala, terutama jika mereka
berada pada tingkat risiko ulserasi yang tinggi, dan mendidik pasien dan keluarga mereka
dengan rujukan perawatan kaki akan mengurangi biaya perawatan seiring dengan peningkatan
kualitas hidup pasien (Sothornwit et al , 2018).

Pender (1989) menyatakan bahwa domain ‘kesehatan’ dari paradigma keperawatan memiliki lima
dimensi:

■■ Efek

■■ Sikap

■■ Kegiatan

■■ Aspirasi

■■ Prestasi.

Efek

'Efek' mengacu pada aspek psikologis kesehatan. Sebagai contoh, emosi dan perasaan tertentu
dapat memoderasi fungsi kekebalan tubuh (Kiecolt-Glaser dan Glaser, 1987). Stres psikologis
berdampak pada penyembuhan DFU (Gouin dan Kiecolt-Glaser, 2011; Woo, 2012). Selain itu,
tingkat kecemasan dan depresi yang lebih tinggi dikaitkan dengan penyembuhan luka yang
berkepanjangan (Cole-King and Harding, 2001). Depresi dapat mempengaruhi sistem kekebalan
tubuh, mengakibatkan infeksi yang berkepanjangan dan penyembuhan luka yang tertunda (Kiecolt-
Glaser dan Glaser, 2002). Mengintegrasikan perawat kesehatan mental ke dalam tim multidisiplin
yang merawat individu dengan DFU, dan diagnosis dan manajemen dini dapat membantu meningkatkan
tingkat penyembuhan dan mengurangi pengeluaran perawatan kesehatan (Steel et al, 2016).

Hal 6 mb NANA
Sikap

'Sikap' adalah keyakinan yang dimiliki seseorang tentang situasi kehidupan mereka yang
memengaruhi kesehatan (Pender, 1989). Keyakinan yang salah tentang kaki diabetes berpotensi
meningkatkan kemungkinan DFU (Hjelm dan Beebwa, 2013). Individu dengan diabetes telah
ditemukan memiliki campuran informasi dan keyakinan yang benar dan salah tentang perawatan
kaki (Sayampanathan et al, 2017). Penyedia layanan kesehatan harus berusaha menyediakan
pendidikan perawatan kaki dengan maksud untuk mengurangi beban kompleksitas DFU. Ini
melibatkan pencegahan dan penatalaksanaan trauma dan infeksi kaki, penatalaksanaan titik
tekanan abnormal, penatalaksanaan penyakit kardiovaskular terkait, penatalaksanaan kerusakan
vaskuler yang sudah ada dan neuropati perifer, peningkatan kontrol glikemik yang buruk,
penanganan deformitas kaki, dan peningkatan kesadaran dan perawatan diri (Seyyedrasooli et al,
2015).

Kegiatan

'Kegiatan' dapat diartikan sebagai pola distribusi energi dan kemampuan orang untuk mengambil
bagian dalam permainan, pekerjaan yang bermakna, dan pola hidup positif (Pender,

1989). Pasien dengan DFU dapat mengeluarkan energi yang lebih besar untuk mendukung
penyembuhan luka daripada mereka yang tanpa DFU (Sheahan et al, 2017). Seorang individu dengan
DFU disarankan untuk memakai perangkat off-loading mereka setiap saat yaitu ketika berjalan,
berolahraga dan selama kegiatan lain sampai borok sembuh (Armstrong et al, 2003). Menggunakan
perangkat yang tidak dimuat

adalah pengobatan yang efektif untuk menyembuhkan borok kaki plantar dan mencegah
kekambuhannya (Bus, 2016). Ini akan ditentukan oleh ahli penyakit kaki yang akan fokus pada
interaksi antara frekuensi (aktivitas menahan beban), kualitas (fungsi kaki dinamis) dan
besarnya (tekanan) yang terlibat. Demikian juga, program latihan khusus kaki pada tahap yang
tepat dalam proses neuropatik harus dipertimbangkan (Cerrahoglu et al, 2016). Aktivitas fisik
penunjang berat badan yang progresif dan teramati dengan baik, termasuk latihan keseimbangan
dan penguatan kaki, dapat berpengaruh terhadap hasil kesehatan pasien (DiLiberto et al, 2016).
Penilaian kaki sebagai bagian dari pemeriksaan kaki rutin dan evaluasi temuan harus memandu
keputusan klinis, yang dapat meningkatkan fungsi kaki yang dinamis di antara intervensi lain
yang sesuai.

seperti mengenakan alas kaki yang sesuai (Formosa et al, 2016; Mishra et al, 2017). Pusat
spesialis yang menawarkan kesempatan untuk berpartisipasi dalam pelatihan olahraga harus
bekerja bersama-sama untuk mengubah gaya hidup pasien dengan mendorong aktivitas fisik harian
yang sesuai (Francia et al, 2014; Matos et al, 2018).

Aspirasi

'Aspirasi' mengacu pada aktualisasi diri dan sejauh mana seorang pasien terlibat aktif dalam
interaksi sosial (Pender, 1989). Dukungan dari jejaring sosial individu dan masyarakat terkait
dengan manajemen diri diabetes yang lebih baik dan hasil terkait kesehatan (Koetsenruijter et
al, 2015). Dukungan sosial, terutama dari keluarga individu, memiliki peran penting dalam
mengendalikan kadar glukosa darah dan HbA1c (Rad et al, 2013; Shao et al, 2017). Para
profesional kesehatan dan pembuat kebijakan didorong untuk menyediakan kelompok pendukung
masyarakat bagi pasien diabetes

(Hill et al, 2013; Hu et al, 2015).

Intervensi berbasis jaringan sosial Kuat Bersama dengan Diabetes di Belanda bertujuan untuk
meningkatkan manajemen diri diabetes dan membantu mengurangi masalah sosial di lingkungan yang
kekurangan sosial (Vissenberg et al, 2017). Hubungan yang kuat antara pasien dengan DFU dan
penyedia layanan kesehatan dan keluarga mereka akan meningkatkan kepatuhan dengan kegiatan
perawatan diri diabetes.

Prestasi

‘Prestasi’ merujuk pada ‘transendensi, kreativitas, dan kenikmatan’ sebagai atribut dari
status kesehatan (Pender, 1989). Ini merujuk pada pencapaian pribadi dalam mengatasi diabetes
dan mencegah atau menyembuhkan DFU. Pada diabetes tipe 1 dikaitkan dengan terapi insulin
kompleks, tujuannya adalah untuk membantu individu mencapai kontrol yang lebih baik dari kadar
glukosa darah dengan menyesuaikan dosis insulin. Pada diabetes tipe 2, perbaikan

dalam kadar glukosa darah umumnya didasarkan pada perubahan perilaku termasuk pengurangan
asupan kalori dan peningkatan aktivitas fisik (Franc et al, 2011). Dengan demikian, menetapkan
dan melaksanakan pedoman diabetes yang sesuai untuk individu dengan diabetes adalah sangat
penting. Perawat harus menentukan faktor terkait yang berkontribusi terhadap kegagalan
intervensi saat ini dengan maksud mengembangkan strategi yang paling menguntungkan untuk
peningkatan terapi.

Mencapai kondisi kesehatan yang optimal

Domain kesehatan dan penyakit adalah aspek utama dari perawatan yang berpusat pada pasien yang
membutuhkan pendekatan multidimensi. Untuk mencapai kondisi kesehatan yang optimal, perawat
klinis, bekerja sama dengan profesional kesehatan lainnya, harus terlibat dalam mempercepat
penyembuhan luka dan mengurangi faktor risiko untuk amputasi anggota tubuh (Komelyagina et al,
2016; Buggy dan Moore, 2017). Demikian juga, DFU memerlukan perawatan spesifik dan
komprehensif yang tidak dapat dilakukan oleh satu penyedia layanan kesehatan saja, tetapi
harus melibatkan tim multidisiplin (Bentley dan Foster, 2007). Oleh karena itu, agar efektif,
masing-masing elemen ini perlu digabungkan untuk mendapatkan kesehatan optimal di antara
individu dengan atau berisiko terhadap DFU. Selain itu, perawat disarankan untuk menerapkan
rencana perawatan komprehensif yang difokuskan tidak hanya pada perawatan penyakit fisik
tetapi juga pada peningkatan status kesehatan mental pasien.

Perawatan
Fawcett (1996) menggambarkan ‘keperawatan’ sebagai tindakan yang diberikan oleh perawat dalam
proses yang sistematis dan terorganisir, meliputi penilaian, pelabelan, perencanaan,
intervensi, dan evaluasi. Florence Nightingale mencatat bahwa perawat memiliki tanggung jawab
untuk meningkatkan kesehatan dan mencegah komplikasi penyakit (Winkelstein dan Warren, 2009).
Dalam perawatan pasien dengan DFU, perawat terlibat aktif dalam mencegah amputasi tungkai
dengan memberikan deteksi dini setiap perubahan dalam sensasi kaki, mempromosikan perawatan
kaki, menggunakan pembalut luka canggih dan menerapkan teknologi canggih seperti memanfaatkan
terapi faktor pertumbuhan (Seaman, 2005; Aalaa et al, 2012). Untuk menjaga keseimbangan yang
tepat antara teori dan praktik, seorang perawat harus up to date dengan pengetahuan dan
praktik saat ini di lapangan (Ajani dan Moez, 2011).

Hal 7 mb FIKA

Pelatihan rawat luka,pengembangan profesional berkelanjutan, implementasi praktik berbasis


bukti dan penelitian perawatan luka harus dipupuk (Kumarasinghe et al, 2018).
Domain 'keperawatan' mencakup proses kepedulian yang terdiri dari lima konseptualisasi
kepedulian: kepedulian sebagai intervensi, kepedulian sebagai keharusan moral, kepedulian
sebagai sifat manusia, kepedulian sebagai interaksi interpersonal, dan kepedulian sebagai efek
(Morse et al, 1991 ). Dalam kasus pasien dengan DFU, proses perawatan melibatkan tiga bidang:
kesinambungan perawatan, pengalaman penyakit, dan manajemen penyakit (Aliasgharpour dan
Nayeri, 2012). Akibatnya, perawat harus 'memahami bagaimana mereka mempengaruhi pasien' karena
setiap interaksi terapeutik antara perawat dan pasien harus berdampak pada kesejahteraan
pasien (LeVasseur, 1999). Dari perspektif keperawatan, pendekatan yang diberikan oleh perawat
meliputi penilaian awal dan penetapan tujuan (Eggleton dan Kenealy, 2009).
Domain 'keperawatan' mencakup proses kepedulian yang terdiri dari lima konseptualisasi
kepedulian: kepedulian sebagai intervensi, kepedulian sebagai keharusan moral, kepedulian
sebagai sifat manusia, kepedulian sebagai interaksi interpersonal, dan kepedulian sebagai efek
(Morse et al, 1991 ). Dalam kasus pasien dengan DFU, proses perawatan melibatkan tiga bidang:
kesinambungan perawatan, pengalaman penyakit, dan manajemen penyakit (Aliasgharpour dan
Nayeri, 2012). Akibatnya, perawat harus 'memahami bagaimana mereka mempengaruhi pasien' karena
setiap interaksi terapeutik antara perawat dan pasien harus berdampak pada kesejahteraan
pasien (LeVasseur, 1999). Dari perspektif keperawatan, pendekatan yang diberikan oleh perawat
meliputi penilaian awal dan penetapan tujuan (Eggleton dan Kenealy, 2009).
Ada empat tujuan utama dalam keperawatan: perawatan pasien, promosi kesehatan, mencapai
kepatuhan pasien dengan pengobatan dan pencegahan penyakit. Untuk mencapai tujuan ini, perawat
dapat memainkan peran yang berbeda seperti penyedia layanan kesehatan, pemimpin, peneliti,
pendidik, konektor perawatan, dan pendukung hak-hak pasien (Black et al, 1997). Pencegahan DFU
dibagi menjadi dua bagian:

■■ Pendidikan pasien (skrining kaki tahunan, inspeksi diri, praktik perawatan diri, memakai
alas kaki yang sesuai)

■■ Membuat perubahan yang diperlukan untuk gaya hidup sehat (melakukan olahraga teratur,
menghindari merokok, dan memastikan glikemik, tekanan darah dan kontrol lipid darah) (Dangol,
2011).
Menyediakan intervensi ini, membutuhkan faktor 'carative'

daripada hanya faktor kuratif. Memperlihatkan kepedulian terhadap pasien sebagai pribadi
seutuhnya, yang melibatkan pikiran, tubuh, dan jiwa, akan mendorong proses penyembuhan
(Pajnkihar et al, 2017). DFU dan amputasi ekstremitas bawah tidak hanya mendahului morbiditas,
kecacatan, dan mortalitas, tetapi juga memberikan dampak negatif yang sangat besar sehubungan
dengan tekanan psikologis, ketergantungan, isolasi sosial, dan trauma (Dangol, 2011).

Intervensi DFU tidak dapat dilakukan sendiri oleh perawat dan harus melibatkan tim
multidisiplin termasuk dokter umum, pendidik diabetes, ahli penyakit kaki dan konsultan rumah
sakit. Spesialis perawat diabetes adalah bagian penting dari tim ini (Amirmohseni dan Nasiri,
2014). Perawat bertindak sebagai penghubung utama dengan tim multidisiplin. ADA
merekomendasikan pendekatan tim multidisiplin untuk perawatan DFU (ADA, 2013).
Tabel 1. Stratifikasi risiko kaki diabetes dan triase yang dikembangkan oleh Scottish
Intercollegiate Guideline Network

Kategori Aksi Definisi


Kehadiran aktif rujukan cepat aktif dan manajemen oleh
ulserasi anggota kaki multidisiplin
Menyebarkan tim infeksi

Iskemia kritis. Manajemen yang disesuaikan dan disesuaikan atau


rencana perawatan sesuai dengan pasien
Gangren atau tidak dapat dijelaskan
kebutuhan
panas dan merah
Memberikan pendidikan tertulis dan verbal
Kaki bengkak dengan atau tanpa
dengan nomor kontak darurat
adanya rasa sakit
Rujukan untuk intervensi spesialis

saat dibutuhkan
Ulserasi tinggi sebelumnya atau penilaian tahunan oleh spesialis
amputasi atau lebih dari ahli penyakit kaki
satu faktor risiko yang ada misalnya manajemen yang disepakati dan dirancang atau
hilangnya sensasi atau tanda
rencana perawatan oleh spesialis penyakit kaki
vaskular perifer
sesuai dengan kebutuhan pasien
penyakit dengan kalus atau
Memberikan pendidikan tertulis dan verbal
kelainan bentuk
dengan nomor kontak darurat

Rujukan untuk intervensi spesialis jika


atau saat dibutuhkan
Sedang Satu faktor risiko hadir misalnya penilaian tahunan oleh ahli penyakit kaki
kehilangan sensasi atau tanda - tanda Manajemen yang disetujui dan disesuaikan atau
vaskular perifer
rencana perawatan oleh podiatris sesuai
penyakit tanpa kalus atau
untuk kebutuhan pasien
kelainan bentuk
Memberikan pendidikan tertulis dan verbal

dengan nomor kontak darurat


Rendah Tidak ada faktor risiko seperti skrining tahunan oleh terlatih
tidak ada kehilangan sensasi, tidak ada Profesional Perawatan Kesehatan.
tanda-tanda rencana manajemen vaskular perifer
penyakit dan tidak ada risiko lain. Berikan pendidikan tertulis dan verbal
faktor.
dengan nomor kontak darurat.

Akses yang sesuai ke ahli penyakit kaki jika atau


saat dibutuhkan
Sumber: Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network, 2017
Perawat harus memberikan dukungan fisik dan psikologis positif yang dapat mempertahankan
strategi koping jangka panjang dan melindungi pasien DFU dari konsekuensi negatif diabetes
kronis. Selain itu, sumber daya pribadi yang lebih baik, misalnya, ketahanan yang lebih besar,
akan meningkatkan fungsi kognitif yang lebih baik, kemauan yang lebih kuat dan mengarah pada
peningkatan kualitas hidup.
Implikasi untuk penelitian dan praktik keperawatan

Artikel ini berfokus pada tujuan bersama dan perspektif yang lebih luas mengenai metaparadigma
keperawatan yang sangat penting dari perawatan DFU. Metaparadigma keperawatan adalah elemen
kunci dari teori keperawatan dan telah dengan cepat dikembangkan dan diintegrasikan ke dalam
praktik keperawatan (Schim et al, 2007). Metaparadigma keperawatan relevan dengan praktik
keperawatan saat ini karena kemampuannya untuk mengidentifikasi ruang lingkup pengetahuan
sebagai pedoman praktis dalam memberikan perawatan DFU. Interaksi timbal balik di tengah
domain paradigma ini (manusia, lingkungan, kesehatan, dan keperawatan) akan meningkatkan hasil
pasien dan kualitas perawatan.

Metaparadigma keperawatan ini menciptakan potensi untuk perbaikan dalam perawatan DFU dengan:

■■ Memberikan sudut pandang mendasar praktik keperawatan Perawatan DFU

Hal 8 ISLAMIYAH
Membantu perawat untuk memahami tujuan dan peran mereka dalam pengaturan layanan kesehatan
terkait dengan kompleksitas DFU
■■ Mendukung perawat untuk membuat keputusan yang tepat tentang intervensi pada DFU

■■ Memungkinkan perawat untuk merencanakan dan menerapkan perawatan secara sistematis untuk
memperoleh hasil yang ditingkatkan

■■ Meningkatkan komunikasi dengan orang lain karena fakta bahwa intervensi DFU memerlukan
kolaborasi dengan profesional kesehatan lainnya

■■ Memperkaya status profesional di kalangan perawat dalam praktik klinis harian

■■ Membantu menggambarkan, menjelaskan, dan memprediksi fenomena dalam perawatan DFU

■■ Berfungsi untuk memandu penilaian, manajemen, dan evaluasi asuhan keperawatan

■■ Menjembatani kesenjangan antara teori, penelitian, dan realitas praktik sehari-hari dalam
perawatan DFU

■■ Memberikan kerangka kerja untuk memperkuat praktik penelitian dalam perawatan DFU.
Menawarkan peluang untuk menentukan kondisi kontekstual yang memengaruhi efektivitas
intervensi DFU. Setelah masalah ini, artikel ini menunjukkan bahwa ada

adalah kumpulan literatur yang secara langsung mendukung kontribusi positif dalam hubungan
dengan paradigma keperawatan serta perawatan DFU
Oleh karena itu, manajemen DFU yang komprehensif harus ditangani dalam aspek-aspek tersebut
(manusia, lingkungan, kesehatan, dan keperawatan) (Seaman, 2005). Melakukan penilaian yang
tepat harus dipertimbangkan dalam rangka memberikan perawatan DFU. Agar efektif, pedoman
Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) (2017) tentang manajemen diabetes dapat
dimasukkan ke dalam penilaian karena ini dengan jelas mengidentifikasi faktor-faktor risiko
amputasi ekstremitas serta komplikasi terkait lainnya (Tabel 1).
■■ Penggunaan pembalut yang mempromosikan lingkungan luka lembab

■■ Bedah debridemen

■■ Penggunaan perangkat pemuatan luka

■■ Melakukan penilaian vaskular

■■ Mengelola infeksi luka

■■ Mengontrol indeks glikemik

■■ Berkolaborasi dengan tim perawatan multidisiplin multidisiplin, yang saat ini menjadi pilar
perawatan saat ini (Everett dan Mathioudakis, 2018).
Saat ini, perawat klinis dituntut untuk menjadi ahli di semua

elemen-elemen ini untuk mencapai peningkatan hasil terkait kesehatan. Sebagai kejadian
diabetes terus meningkat, sesuai

perawatan dapat membantu untuk mencegah operasi yang luas dan amputasi anggota badan. Oleh
karena itu, menyediakan modalitas perawatan komprehensif sangat penting untuk memaksimalkan
penyembuhan luka. Keberhasilan perawatan DFU juga membutuhkan kombinasi pendekatan holistik
dan sistemik — merawat seluruh pasien dan bukan hanya luka (Criscitelli, 2018). Khususnya,
pendekatan perawatan berbasis metaparadigma menawarkan strategi yang menjanjikan untuk
pemahaman yang lebih baik tentang intervensi yang tersedia untuk mengatasi kompleksitas DFU.
Selain itu, tim layanan kesehatan perlu memahami aspek fisiologis dan psikologis yang
mendasari pasien yang dapat menunda penyembuhan luka. DFU adalah kondisi beragam segi yang
layak mendapatkan intervensi berbasis bukti terbaru untuk mencapai hasil terbaik. Perawat
klinis harus secara aktif terlibat dalam mengelola diabetes dan komplikasinya serta mencegah
keparahan penyakit-penyakit tersebut.

Diharapkan artikel ini akan mendorong praktik kolaboratif antara perawat dan penyedia layanan
kesehatan lainnya yang bekerja dalam perawatan DFU dan lebih umum dalam perawatan penderita
diabetes. Juga dicatat bahwa pendekatan yang didorong oleh metaparadigma keperawatan dalam
praktik sehari-hari bukannya tanpa tantangan karena kompleksitas implementasi. Meskipun
demikian, pendekatan yang digerakkan oleh teori sepadan dengan upaya dalam mengatasi masalah
dalam praktik, khususnya dalam perawatan orang dengan DFU. Penelitian lebih lanjut diperlukan
untuk memahami hasil yang terkait dengan masing-masing domain dari paradigma. Perluasan
deskripsi teoritis juga harus dieksplorasi, yang bertujuan mengidentifikasi secara menyeluruh
dan menjelaskan setiap domain dari paradigma keperawatan. Ini pada akhirnya akan mengarah pada
standar perawatan yang mencegah efek samping diabetes yang parah.
Selanjutnya, artikel ini bertujuan untuk memperluas basis pengetahuan perawat yang bekerja di
perawatan DFU. Akhirnya, dengan mengintegrasikan metaparadigma keperawatan ke dalam perawatan
DFU, perawat dapat mengenali kontribusi unik dari sebuah teori yang membantu menghasilkan
perawatan efektif yang terkait dengan praktik keperawatan sehari-hari. BJN
Pernyataan minat: tidak ada

Pendanaan PhD: pekerjaan untuk artikel ini didukung oleh Dana Abadi Indonesia untuk Pendidikan
(LPDP) melalui beasiswa doktoral untuk Program Doktor Filsafat dalam Keperawatan,
Internasional dan Kolaborasi dengan Program Universitas Asing, Universitas Mahidol, Thailand

Pengakuan: penulis ingin menyampaikan terima kasih kepada rekan keperawatan di Fakultas Ilmu
Kesehatan, Universitas Muhammadiyah Magelang, Indonesia. Terima kasih khusus kepada co-
penasihat penulis, Dr Margaret Gray, Profesor Keperawatan, Sekolah Keperawatan, Universitas
Yale, AS. Artikel yang menjadi penulis utama, berjudul ‘Kerangka kerja manajemen diri dan
keluarga yang direvisi '(2015), mengilhami penulis utama dalam menulis artikel ini

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