Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Animal and Birds

Animals and birds have structures and functions not all that different from humans, but there are
some significant and important differences present in the various systems.

1. Digestive system:

Broadly similar to humans

The differences of digestive system are due to food habit. All living bodies including human
have one of the following foods habit. The habits are –
 Carnivorous (High proportion of animal tissues)
 Herbivorous (ingest plant materials)
 Omnivorous (mixed feeders)

In ruminants there is greatest difference are follows –

Ruminants are mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting
it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through microbial actions.

The process typically requires the fermented ingesta (known as cud) to be regurgitated and
chewed again. The process of rechewing the cud to further break down plant matter and
stimulate digestion is called rumination.

The roughly 150 species of ruminants include both domestic and wild species. Ruminating
mammals include cattle, goats, sheep, giraffes, yaks, deer, antelope, and some macropods.

The major difference between ruminants and human is in the stomach. Human stomach is single
compartmental, where ruminants’ stomach have four compartments. The compartments are –
 Reticulum
 Omasum
 Abomasum
 Rumen
The only compartment analogue to human is abomasums, which is similar with stomach.
 Stomach of Ruminants

Reticulum→ It is much smaller muscular to main function is regurgitated (rumination).The

main function of the reticulum is to collect smaller digesta particles and move them into the
omasum while the larger particles remain in the rumen for further digestion. The reticulum also
traps and collects heavy/dense objects consumed by the animal.

Omasum→ The omasum wall is highly folded, giving a large surface area which allows for the
efficient absorption of water and salts released from the partially digested food. It also acts as a
type of pump, moving the food from the reticulorumen to the true stomach, the abomasum,
where acid digestion takes place.

Rumen→It is a large fermentation vat containing microorganism to digest cellulose to produce

energy.The rumen is essentially a fermentation chamber where plant fiber is broken down into
smaller digestible components by bacteria and other microbes. The rumen cannot function
correctly without a healthy and active microbial population.

Abomasums→It is the fourth chamber in the ruminant. It functions similarly to the carnivore
stomach as it is glandular and digests food chemically, rather than mechanically or by
fermentation like the other 3 chambers of the ruminant stomach.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kK7IWjNYwxI
Another major difference is tooth structure.
 Absence of some teeth. Ruminants do not have upper incisor teeth. (Narrow edge of
tooth at front)
 Molar teeth also different that dentine and enamel are arranged to facilitate abrasive
wear.

The other major differences are –

 Presence of substantial amount of striated muscle in oesophagus
 Production of large amounts of saliva
 Division of the stomach into 4 compartments

Stomach of birds divided into 2 parts.

 Proventiculus → store or commence digestion of food

 Gizzard→ grinding mill

In addition with these some birds have another part, known as diverticulum of oesophagus.
This additional part is stored food. This is present in the grain eaters, like chicken.

Diagrammatic comparison of monogastric, ruminant and bird digestive tracts

2. Respiratory system:

Respiratory tract of animal is very similar to humans except horse

Main difference is the soft palate and epiglottis combine to occlude the opening into the mouth.
This occlude makes breathing is impossible through mouth.
Rapid narrowing and widening of glottis of ruminants will cause breathing in-out rapidly. This is
the reason that why animal can run faster and cover longer distance than human without
tiredness.

Birds can make different sounds due to syrinx, the lower larynx or voice organ in birds, situated
at or near the junction of the trachea and bronchi and well developed in songbirds.

3. Integument

In biology, integument is the natural covering of an organism or an organ, such as its skin, husk,
shell, or rind.
 Lots of differences in structure of skin and number of nature of glands present
between human and animals.
 Animals having variety of modified nails, horns and antlers (branched horns),
which are absence in human.

Hair is a keratinized skin appendage; consist of dense keratin and dermal pigments to give
variety of color.

Hairs are of three types –

Guard → Long coarse hairs forming a layer that covers and protects the soft under fur of
certain mammals. This lies on the skin to give smooth appearance. In human this hair shed
continuously but in animal it is seasonal.

Wool → The dense, soft, often curly hair forming the coat of sheep and certain other
mammals, such as the goat and alpaca, consisting of cylindrical strands of keratin covered by
minute overlapping scales and much valued as a textile fiber. These have no medulla.

Tactile →These are thicker and longer than guard. These are a hair or hairlike structure that is
highly sensitive to pressure or touch. Tactile hairs help organisms sense their environment.
They cover the bodies of most insects and are found in many mammals, especially as
whiskers (Whiskers of cat).

Feathers are not hair but modified scales. These are the flat appendages growing from a bird's
skin and forming its plumage, consisting of a partly hollow horny shaft fringed with vanes of
barbs. Mammals have no feathers except on legs and tails of rodents. Feathers have brown
yellow and red pigment.

Guard Wool Tactile

Feather

Footpads are cushions on to animal walk. These are made up of dense cornified epidermis and
thick subcutaneous layer.

All over the body of animals, there are a lots of sweat glands and sebaceous glands produced
sebum are sometimes important (deer). These glands also control the body temperature.

Claws, hoots and nails are all modified stratum corneum.

Horns and antlers are composed of keratin.

 Claw & nails Hoofs Horns Antlers

4. Sensory organs:

Animals having same sensory organs structure of human. But they are more qualitative than
quantitative, which is the only difference in comparison with human. Examples of some
significant differences –
 Night vision is better than human
 Ears of animals are mobile
 Hearing smells are acute in dog.

5. Cardiovascular system:

The major difference with human is in the composition of blood. In birds, RBC contain nucleus.
No lymph nodes in birds.
Species Pulse Rate Respiratory Rate Temperature (ºC)
(beats/minute) (breaths/minute) (rectal)
Horse 30-40 10-15 38
Cattle 60-80 30-50 38.5
Sheep 70-90 15-35 39
Goat 70-90 30-60 39
Hamsters 300-600