Basic psychological process:

Learning & Remembering

Learning Objectives:
•Learning as a deliberate effort in acquiring
knowledge
•Classical conditioning approach
•Operating learning: Cognitive & Social learning
•Types of learning curves
•Principle of reinforcement in learning process
•Various schedules of reinforcement
•Limitations in learning and behavioural
modification.
Introduction
• Learning is “ any relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as a result of experience”
• Learning can’t be observed or seen, it can only be seen
in the change in behaviour
Now learning can be :-

Behaviour potential
Permanent (Drugs)
(word processing)
Natural
(Child)
Direct
(Typing course) Indirect
(out of other’s
experience)
Theories of learning

Operant Cognitive
conditioning learning

Classical Social
conditioning Learning
A) Classical Conditioning
• It’s a ‘Cause n Effect’ relationship between ‘one stimulus and one response’.
• The most well known experiment were conducted by I.P. Pavlov with dogs
and he established stimulus-response (S-R) connection or habbit.

Unconditioned Unconditioned
Food stimulus response

Bell Conditioned
stimulus

Response

Food Unconditioned
stimulus
Conditional
Bell Conditioned
response
stimulus
• Under certain situations, classical conditioning does
explain human behaviour.
• For ex: if someone is always reprimanded by his boss
when asked ‘to step in the boss’s office’, he may become
nervous whenever asked to come to the office of his
boss, because of this association.
• Since classical conditioning relates to involuntary
responses, it does not explain situations where people
rationally and objectively choose a course of action.
• Also, managers are more interested in voluntary and free
responses from their workers rather than involuntary and
reflex responses.
 B) Operant Conditioning
• An alternate approach to classical conditioning was proposed by
B.F Skinner, known as Operant Conditioning in order to explain
more complex behaviour of humans.
• It includes voluntary change in the behaviour and learning occurs
as consequence of such change.

It is a relationship between It is also known as

consequence-behaviour. Reinforcement theory.

Behaviour is a function of its Behaviour or job performance is not

consequences (results a function of inner thoughts, feelings,
or outcomes) emotions or perceptions

but
Is keyed to the nature of the outcome of that behaviour.
If it is positive, employee feel motivated and vice-versa.
For ex: working hard and getting the promotion will probably
cause the person to keep working hard in the future.
C) Cognitive Learning
• Cognition is the act of knowing an item of information
and this knowledge affects the behaviour of the person
so that information provides cognitive cues towards the
expected goal.
• Based on the experience of Tolman.
• Using rats in his laboratory shows that they learned to
run through a complicated maze towards their goal of
food.
• It was observed that rats developed expectations at
every choice point in the maze.
• They learned that this cognitive cues will ultimately lead
to food.
• In organisational setting, Tolman’s ideas , some training
programs were designed to strengthen the relationship
between cognitive cues such as supervision, job
procedures and worker expectations such as monetary
and other rewards.
• It was believed that worker would learn to be more
productive by building a relationship between following
directions and procedures and expectancy of monetary
rewards for these efforts.
D) Social Learning
• It integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to
learning.
• It recognizes that Learning does not take place only
because of environmental stimuli (classical or operant)
or individual determinism (cognitive) but is a blend of
both.
• It also emphasize that people acquire learning the
behaviors by observing or imitating others in a social
setting.
• In addition, learning can also be gained by discipline and
self-control.
• Inner desire to acquire knowledge irrespective of
external rewards or consequences.
Implications for performance/learning

Importance for a manager:

A) Ability: to get the able fit for the job there are various
steps to get :
• Effective selection process.
• Promotion and transfer decisions affecting individuals
already in the organisation’s.
• It can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match
an incumbent’s abilities.
B) Biographical characteristics
C) Learning
Motivation
Motivation
• Motivation is derived from motive that is defined as an active form of
desire, craving or need that must be satisfied.
• All motives are directed towards goals.

Unsatisfied need
MEANING OF MOTIVATION :
Motivation is derived from the Latin word
Tension or
‘movere’ which means ‘to move’ or
disequilibrium
‘to energize’ or ‘to activate’.
A need is
and internalAction, movement
NATURE OF MOTIVATION: state that or behaviour
Based on motives makes
Affected by motivating certain
outcomes Goal
Goal directed behavior
attractive.
Related to satisfaction
Person is motivated in totality Feedback, possible
Complex process modification of
unsatisfied need
Sources/Concepts of motivation
1. Positive motivation:
• Praise and credit for work done.
• Sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates.
• Delegation of authority and responsibility to
subordinates.
• Participation of subordinates in the decision making
process.
2. Negative motivation
• Use of force, power, fear and threats.
• Punishments.
3. Extrinsic (external) motivation
• Primarily are of financial nature
• It includes higher pay, fringe benefits such as retirement
plans, stock options, profit sharing schemes, paid
vacations, health and medical insurance.
4. Intrinsic motivation
• It stems from feelings of achievement and
accomplishment and is concerned with the state of self-
actualization.
• The satisfaction of accomplishing something motivates
he employee further so that this motivation is self-
generated and is independent of financial rewards.
 Classification of Motives:

 Primary Motives
 General Motive
 Secondary Motives
 Primary Motives:
 A motive is termed as a primary motive when
it satisfies both the criteria : it is learned as
well as it is physiologically based. It is not
earned, and it is physiological based.
 all human beings have same primary motives
 Example: Hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of
pain
 General Motives:
 A motive is considered to be a general motive if it
is not learned, but is also not based on
physiological need. general motives stimulate
tension within the individual. They are also called
“stimulus motives”

 The motives of curiosity, manipulation and motive

to remain active

 The affection motive

 Secondary Motives:
 It is a motive that has been learned or
acquired over time
 The power motive
 The achievement motive
 The affiliation motive
 The security motive
 The status motive
 The Power Motive

 The person’ drives to gain power and

prove himself superior to others.
 Achievement Motive
 The achievement motive is a person’ desire to
perform excellently or to handle complex or
competitive situations successfully.
David C. McClelland
 Profile of High achievers:
 Moderate degree of risk
 Need for precise feedback
 Satisfaction with accomplishment
 Total dedication towards task
 Affiliation Motive
 Employees especially those at the lower
levels of the organizational hierarchy,
have a strong desire to belong to and be
accepted by other employees or the
whole group
 Security Motive

 Security motive is based largely on fear

and is avoidance-oriented i.e., people try
to avoid insecurity rather than attempt to
achieve security
 Status Motive

 Status is defined as the rank a person holds

relative to others within a group. The
status motive is extremely important
Theories of Motivation:-
Categories of motivation theories are:-

AAgroup
groupof
oftheories
theoriesthat
that
places
placesemphasis
emphasison onneeds
needs
that
thatmotivate
motivatepeople
people

AAcategory
categoryofoftheories
theories
that
thatexplain
explainhow
how
employees
employeesselect
select
behaviours
behaviourstotomeet
meettheir
their
needs
needs
Content Theories of Work Motivation

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

• McGregor’s X Theory & Y theory.
• Herzberg’s Two-factor theory
• McClelland’s Acquire needs theory
• Alderfer’s ERG theory
Maslow’s Motivation Theory
Maslow theory – the explanation
• Lower-end needs are the priority needs, which must
be satisfied before higher-order need are activated.
• Needs are satisfied in sequence.
• When a need is satisfied, it declines in importance
and the next need becomes dominant.
• To motivate an individual one must know where that
person is in the hierarchy and focus on satisfying at
or above that level.
Implications of Maslow’s theory in the
workplace
• Not everyone is motivated in the same way.
• Motivation and need satisfaction are
anticipatory in nature.
• Managers must seek to guide and direct
employee behaviour to meet the
organizational needs and individual needs
simultaneously.
McGregor’s X & Y theory
• Theory X :
This theory assumes that most people prefer to be directed, are not
interested in assuming responsibility & want safety above all.

Accompanying this philosophy is the belief that work is inherently

distasteful to most people & people are motivated by money &
the threat of punishment.
Managers who accept Theory X assumptions, attempt to structure,
control & closely supervise their subordinates.
• Theory Y:
This theory assumes that people are not by nature lazy
& unreliable. Man can be self-directed & creative at
work, if properly motivated.
Managers who accept this theory, attempt to help their
employees mature, by exposing them to
progressively less control, allowing them to assume
more self-control.

Employees are able to achieve the satisfaction of social

esteem & self-actualization needs with this kind of
environment.
Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory

Hygiene
Hygiene Factors
Factors
Motivators
Motivators
••Working
Workingconditions
conditions ••Achievement
Achievement
••Pay
Payand
andsecurity
security ••Recognition
Recognition
••Company
Companypolicies
policies ••Responsibility
Responsibility
••Supervisors
Supervisors ••Work
Workitself
itself
••Interpersonal
Interpersonal ••Personal
Personalgrowth
growth
relationships
relationships

Satisfaction No satisfaction

Motivation
Motivationfactors
factors

Hygiene
Hygienefactors
factors
No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
Herzberg’s theory - explanation
• Hygiene factors involve the presence or absence of job
dissatisfiers. When the hygiene factors are present, the
individual is not dissatisfied; however when they are absent
the individual is dissatisfied. In any case hygiene factors to
not motivate.
• Motivators are factors that influence satisfaction and
consequently motivate the person from within as he or she
achieve the higher-level needs of achievement,
recognition, and personal growth.
Implication of Herzberg’s theory
• Providing the hygiene factors will eliminate employee
dissatisfaction bur will not motivate workers to high levels of
achievement. Recognition, responsibility, and the opportunity
to achieve personal growth will promote satisfaction and
employee performance.
• The benefit of this theory has implication for the effect of
company systems and job design (how work is arranged and
how much employees control their work) on employee
satisfaction and performance.
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory:
 Clayton Alderfer : proposed a continuum of
needs rather than a hierarchy
 Existence needs – These are associated
with the survival and physiological
wellbeing of an individual.
 Relatedness needs – These needs
emphasize the significance of social and
interpersonal relationship.
 Growth needs – These needs are related to
a person’s inner desire for personal growth
and development.
• Acc. To Alderfer : a person’s background or
cultural environment may cause the
relatedness needs to predominate over
unfulfilled existence needs.
• It is also possible that intensity of growth
needs will increase in the degree to which
they are satisfied.
• Limitations of content theories :
• They do not explain the complexities involved
in the process of motivation.
The Relationship between Maslow,s
Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two-
Factor Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Needs

Motivation
Work itself Achievement
Self-actualization Possibility of growth Growth

factors
and fulfillment Responsibility

Advancement
Recognition
Esteem and status
Status
Relatedness
Relations with supervisors
Peer relations
Belongings and
Relations with subordinates
social needs Quality of supervisions

Safety and Company policy

Hygiene

security and administration

factors

Job security
Existence
Physiological Working conditions
needs Pay
The Porter-Lawler Model
 Porter and Lawler tried to explore the
complex relationship between
motivation, satisfaction and
performance, and pointed out that efforts
put in by an employee did not directly result
in performance.
 it gives a comprehensive explanation of
work motivation.
• Acc to porter Lawler model performance is
dependent on three factors :
– An employee should have the desire to perform
i.e. he must feel motivated
– Motivation alone cannot ensure successful
performance of a a task: he should have the
necessary skills and abilities.
– The employee should also have the clear
perception of his role in the org. and accurate
knowledge of the job requirement.
 8. Perceived
Equitable
Rewards

4. Abilities &
1. Value of Traits
Reward
7.a Intrinsic
Rewards

6. Performance
3. Effort

9. Satisfaction

2. Perceived Effort
Reward Probability 5. Role
Perception

7. Extrinsic
Rewards
• Effort: the amount of energy expended by an
individual to perform a specific task. Effort depends
upon the attractiveness of the reward and the
probability that his efforts will lead to the reward.

• Performance : it is not necessary that the effort will

result in performance. Performance in turn is
depended on the abilities and skills and the way the
individual perceives his role.
important variables in the model
• Reward : employee is rewarded acc. To
performance. Reward can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
– intrinsic rewards : are those a person grants to
himself for having performed a task well
– Extrinsic rewards : are the rewards given to the
employee by the organization
• Satisfaction: depends upon whether the actual
reward offered fall short of, match or exceed what the
individual perceives as an equitable level of reward.
The Process Theories of Work Motivation

 The process theories of motivation deal with “How” of

Motivation.
 It deal with the cognitive antecedents (preceding factor)
that go into motivation or effort, and more specifically,
with the way the cognitive antecedents of an individual
relate to one another.
 The theories are
 Vroom's’ Expectancy Theory of Motivation
 Equity Theory
 Goal-Setting Theory
The Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• A process theory simply states that people
are motivated to work when they believe that
they can achieve things they want from their
jobs.
• Such expectation depend on their ability to
perform the task, given their effort and the
attractiveness of the reward.
• Or,
• it is based on the belief that motivation is
determined by the nature of the reward
people expect to get as a result of their job
performance.
 Theories of Work Motivation
Instrumentalities
(performance-reward relationship )

Expectancy
(hard work) Second level
First level Outcomes
outcomes
Outcome 1 a
Outcome 1
Outcome 1 b
Motivational
Force F Outcome2a

Outcome2 Outcome2b

Outcome2c
 Equity Theory :
J. Stacy Adams
 This theory states that the degree of equity
or inequity perceived by an employee with
reference to his work situation plays a
major role in work performance and
satisfaction.
 Employees generally compares their output
– input ratio with that of others. If they
perceives the ratio of their outcomes and
inputs are equal to that of their peers and
others , it will result in equity
 Equity theory represented
schematically as:
Person’s Outcomes = Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs

 Inequity is represented as follows:

Person’s Outcomes < Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs

(or)
Person’s Outcomes > Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs
 Various referent comparison used by employees:
 Self-inside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a similar position in same org.
 Self-outside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a similar position in another org
 Other-inside- comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a a different position but belonging to the
same org.
 Other-outside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a different position in another org
 After comparing his position with that of his referent, if an
employee perceives an inequity, he will make certain choices.
The choices that an employee is likely to make are as described
below:
 Change in inputs: he may reduce the effort he puts in a
particular job
 Change in outcomes: the employee may act an in
a manner that brings about change in the outcome
or end result.
 Distort perceptions of self : the employee may distort
the perception he held about his own performance
 Distort perception of others : an employee may change
the way he perceives others jobs, positions and productivity.
 choose a different referent
 leave the field
Motivating Performance
Through Goal Setting:
• A goal can be defined as the desired consequence of an
action.
Performance enhancement through goal setting:
• Goals should be specific
• Goals should be difficult and challenging
• Goals must be owned and accepted
• Goals must have a specific time frame
• Goals should be measurable
Barriers to Effective Goal
Setting
 Lack of top management-support
 Lack of Communication
 Content of the goal
 Technical incompetence
 Application of Goal Setting to Organizational System
Performance

 The theory of goal setting is usually implemented

through a system called Management by
Objectives, popularly known as MBO.
 MBO refers to the process of setting goals and
objectives through the participation of the
management and the workers.
 The Process of MBO

 Consensus on key goals and

objectives
 Sketch a plan of action
 Control of behavior
 Periodic appraisal and reviews