Alternative Fuels 4.

4
ALTERNATIVE FUELS

4.1 ALTERNATIVE FUEL

Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional and advanced fuels , are any materials
or substances that can be used as fuels , other than conventional fuels like fossil
fuels ( petroleum (oil), coal , and natural gas ), as well as nuclear materials such
as uranium and thorium, as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made.
Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional or advanced fuels, are any materials or
substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels. Conventional
fuels include: fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), as well as
nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium, as well as artificial radioisotope
fuels that are made in nuclear reactors.

4.1.1 TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS

Some of the alternative fuels are listed below

 Alcohols
 Vegetable oils
 Bio-diesel
 Bio-gas
 Natural Gas
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas
 Hydrogen
4.1.2 NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS
Alternative fuels which are renewable and eco friendly reduce the dependency
on fossil fuels and they help to preserve the atmosphere by reducing the emission
4.2 Alternative Fuels

levels. The burning of fossil fuels creates higher levels of CO2 and other gases in
atmosphere affecting the green house effect. The scarcity of conventional fossil
fuels, growing emissions of combustion causing pollutants and their increasing costs
will make biomass sources more attractive.

Epidemiological studies have concluded that the long term exposure to diesel
exhaust may cause lung cancer and other respiratory diseases. The diesel emission
has been classified as human carcinogen. The different kinds of fuels that have been
considered as alternative fuels for petroleum based fuel are classified as solid, liquid
and gas. The solid fuels are pulverized coal, slurry and charcoal which are not used
in IC engines due to their physical properties, handling and storage problems. The
liquid fuels are alcohols (ethanol, methanol) and vegetable oils (edib le and non
edible). The gaseous fuels are LPG, CNG, H2, biomass and producer gas. Liquid
fuels are easy to handle, transport, store and have reasonable calorific values and
they are preferred for IC engines.

4.1.3 .ALCOHOLS
Alcohol is made from renewable resources like biomass from locally grown crops
and even waste products such as waste paper, grass and tree trimmings etc. Alcohol
is an alternative transportation fuel since it has properties, which would allow its use
in existing engines with minor hardware modifications. Alcohols have higher octane
number than Gasoline. A fuel with a higher octane number can endure higher
compression ratios before engine starts knocking, thus giving engine an ability to
deliver more power efficiently and economically. Alcohol burns cleaner than regular
Gasoline and produces lesser carbon monoxide, hydro carbons and oxides of
nitrogen . Alcohol has higher heat of vaporization, therefore it reduces the peak
temperature inside the combustion chamber leading to lower NOx em issions and
increased engine power. However, the aldehyde emissions go up significantly.
Aldehydes play an important role in formation of photochemical smog.

Methanol (CH3OH) is a simple compound. It does not contain sulfur or

complex organic compounds. The organic emissions (ozone precursors) from
methanol combustion will have lower reactivity than Gasoline fuels hence lower
ozone forming potential. If pure methanol is used then the emission of benzene and
PAH’s are very low . Methanol gives higher engine efficiency and is less flammable
than Gasoline but the range of the methanol-fuelled vehicle is as much as half less
because of lower density and calorific value, so larger fuel tank is required. It has
invisible flames and it is explosive in enclosed tanks. The cost of methanol is higher
than Gasoline. Methanol is toxic, and has corrosive characteristics, emits ozone
creative formaldehyde. Methanol poses an environmental hazard in case of spill, as
it is totally soluble with water. Ethanol is similar to methanol, but it is considerably
cleaner, less toxic and less corrosive. It gives greater engine efficiency. Ethanol is a
grain alcohol, and can be produced from agricultural crops e.g. sugar cane, corn etc.
Ethanol is more expensive to produce, has lower range, having cold starting
problems and requires large harvest of these crops. Higher energy input is required
in ethanol production compared to other energy crops and it leads to environmental
degradation problems such as soil degradation.
 Alternative Fuels 4.3

Various methods by which alcohol may be converted as IC engine fuel are given
below

 Alcohol / diesel fuel solutions

 Alcohol / diesel fuel emulsions
 Alcohol fumigation
 Dual injection
 Spark ignition of alcohols
 Ignition improving additives

ADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL MOTOR FUELS COMPARED TO

GASOLINE AND DIESEL.

PROPERTY / COMPARED TO
PERFORMANCE GASOLINE AND ADVANTAGES
PARAMETER DIESEL FUELS
A higher engine
compression ratio in SI
Octane number Higher engines can be used
resulting in higher
thermal efficiency

Lower intake
temperature may be
Latent heat of
Higher used to increase charge
vaporization
density and higher
volumetric efficiency

Adiabatic flame Potentially lower NOx

Lower emissions and lower
temperature heat losses

Lower heat losses from

Flame luminosity Lower
combustion

Due to clean burning

characteristics PM
PM emissions Lower emissions are even
lower than the

Gasoline engines

Lower benzene and 1,3

Toxic emissions -
butadiene Emissions

Sources more
Renewable esp. of widespread around the
Nature of sources world, hence better
ethanol energy security. Lower
net CO2 emissions
4.4 Alternative Fuels

DISADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL MOTOR FUELS COMPARED TO

GASOLINE AND DIESEL.

PROPERTY/ COMPARED
PERFORMANCE TO GASOLINE AND DISADVANTAGES
PARAMETER DIESEL FUELS
Volumetric energy Much lower Higher volumetric fuel
content consumption hence larger fuel
storage space and
Weight
Cetane number Much lower Cannot be directly used in
compression ignition engines.
Needs a source of
Ignition increase complexity of
engine/fuel system
Vapour pressure Lower Poor cold starting and warm up
performance, higher unburned
fuel emissions during
starting/warm up phase
CO and NOx Similar No definite trend is observed,
Emissions So, no advantage over
Petroleum fuels have been
noted
Aldehydes emission Higher Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde
emission
are higher
Material Higher Methanol and a lesser degree
corrosion/adverse ethanol are more corrosive to
effects metals, elastomers and
plastic components. Needs
selection of suitable materials
for the fuel system.
Engine wear Higher Washes away lubricants film
during cold starting, resulting in
higher cylinder and
piston ring wear
Flame Luminosity Almost invisible Neat alcohols present fire safety
hazards. Addition of Gasoline or
other material
required to increase flame
luminosity

4.1.4 METHANOL
Methanol fuel has been proposed as a future bio-fuel, often as an alternative to the
hydrogen economy. Methanol has a long history as a racing fuel. Early Grand Prix
Racing used blended mixtures as well as pure methanol. The use of the fuel was
primarily used in North America after the war.[clarification needed] However,
 Alternative Fuels 4.5

methanol for racing purposes has largely been based on methanol produced from
syngas derived from natural gas and therefore this methanol would not be
considered a bio-fuel. Methanol is a possible bio-fuel, however when the syngas is
derived from biomass. In theory, methanol can also be produced from carbon
dioxide and hydrogen using nuclear power or any renewable energy source, although
this is not likely to be economically viable on an industrial scale (see methanol
economy). Compared to bio-ethanol, the primary advantage of methanol bio-fuel is
its much greater well-to-wheel efficiency. This is particularly relevant in temperate
climates where fertilizers are needed to grow sugar or starch crops to make ethanol,
whereas methanol can be produced from lignocelluloses (woody) biomass.

Methanol combustion:

2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O + heat

4.1.5 ETHANOL

Ethanol is already being used extensively as a fuel additive and the use of ethanol
fuel alone or as part of a mix with gasoline is increasing. Compared to methanol its
primary advantage is that it is less corrosive and additionally the fuel is non -toxic,
although the fuel will produce some toxic exhaust emissions.

Ethanol combustion :

C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat

4.1.6 HYDROGEN FUEL

Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel which uses electrochemical cells or

combustion in internal engines, to power vehicles and electric devices. It is also
used in the propulsion of spacecraft and can potentially be mass -produced and
commercialized for passenger vehicles and aircraft.

Hydrogen is one of two natural elements that combine to make water.

Hydrogen is not an energy source, but an energy carrier because it takes a great deal
of energy to extract it from water. It is useful as a compact energy source in fuel
cells and batteries.

Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It can be
produced from a number of feedstock’s in a variety of ways. The production method
thought to be most environmentally benign is the electrolysis of water, but probably
the most common source of hydrogen is the steam reforming of natural gas. Once
produced, hydrogen can be stored as a gas, liquid, or solid and distributed as
required. Liquid storage is currently the preferred method, but i t is very costly.
Hydrogen-powered vehicles can use internal combustion engines or fuel cells. They
can also be hybrid vehicles of various combinations. When hydrogen is used as a
gaseous fuel in an internal combustion engine, its very low energy density c ompared
to liquid fuels is a major drawback requiring greater storage space for the vehicle to
travel a similar distance to gasoline
4.6 Alternative Fuels

Figure 4.1 hydrogen fuel cell

Advantages of Hydrogen cell:

 Emits only water vapour, assuming there is no leakage of hydrogen gas.

 It can store up to 3x as much energy as conventional natural gas.

Disadvantages of Hydrogen cell:

 Leakage of H gas will have detrimental impacts on the stratosphere

 Production of hydrogen gas currently relies on natural gas and electrolysis
and to replace all the vehicles would require 10x as much as currently is used.
 Storage is really tough because hydrogen is such a low density gas
 Distribution and infrastructure needs to be refurbished to cope with hydrogen,
 which can metals by making them brittle.
 Use in fuel cells requires catalysts, which usually require a component metal
Platinum is extremely rare, expensive and environmentally unsound to
produce.

4.1.7 Compressed natural gas (CNG)

CNG (methane stored at high pressure) is a fuel which can be used in place
of gasoline (petrol), Diesel fuel and propane/LPG. CNG combustion produces fewer
undesirable gases than the fuels mentioned above. It is safer than other fuels in the
event of a spill, because natural gas is lighter than air and disperses quickly when
released. CNG may be found above oil deposits, or may be collected from landfills
or wastewater treatment plants where it is known as biogas. CNG is made by
compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of methane, CH4), to less than
1 percent of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored
and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 20–25 MPa (2,900–3,600 psi),
usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes. CNG is used in traditional
gasoline/internal combustion engine automobiles that have been modified or in
vehicles which were manufactured for CNG use, either alone ('dedicated'), with a
segregated gasoline system to extend range (dual fuel) or in conjunction with
another fuel such as diesel (bi-fuel). CNG is starting to be used also in tuk-
tuks and pickup trucks, transit and school buses, and trains. CNG's
volumetric energy density is estimated to be 42 percent that of liquefied natural
gas (because it is not liquefied), and 25 percent that of diesel fuel.
 Alternative Fuels 4.7

Raw materials for CNG

Raw natural gas is composed of several gases. The main component is

methane. Other components include ethane, propane, butane, and many other
combustible hydrocarbons. Raw natural gas may also contain water vapor, hydrogen
sulfide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen.

During processing, many of these components may be removed. Some such as

ethane, propane, butane, hydrogen sulfide, and helium may be partially or
completely removed to be processed and sold as separate commodities. Other
components such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen may be removed to
improve the quality of the natural gas or to make it easier to move the gas over great
distances through pipelines.

The resulting processed natural gas contains mostly methane and ethane,
although there is no such thing as a "typical" natural gas. Certain other components
may be added to the processed gas to give it special qualities. For example, a
chemical known as mercaptan is added to give the gas a distinctive odor that warns
people of a leak.

Manufacturing Process of CNG

The methods used to extract, process, transport, store, and distribute natural
gas depend on the location and composition of the raw gas and the location and
application of the gas by the end users. Here is a typical sequence of operations used
to produce natural gas for home heating and cooking use.

1. Extracting

a. Some underground natural gas reservoirs are under enough internal pressure that
the gas can flow up the well and reach Earth's surface without additional help.
However, most wells require a pump to bring the gas (and oil, if it is present) to the
surface. The most common pump has a long rod attached to a piston deep in the
well. The rod is alternately pulled upward and plunged back into the well by a beam
that slowly rocks up and down on top of a vertical support. This configuration is
often called a horse head pump because the shape of the pulling mechanism on the
end of the rocking beam resembles a horse's head.

b. When the raw natural gas reaches the surface, it is separated from any oil that
might be present and is piped to a central gas processing plant nearby. Several
hundred wells may all feed into the same plant.

2. Processing

c. About 75% of the raw natural gas in the United States comes from underground
reservoirs where little or no oil is present. This gas is easier to process than gas from
oil wells. Regardless of the source, most raw natural gas contains dirt, sand, and
water vapor, which must be removed before further processing to prevent
contamination and corrosion of the equipment and pipelines. The dirt and sand are
removed with filters or traps near the well. The water vapor is usually removed by
passing the gas through a tower filled with granules of a solid desiccant, such as
4.8 Alternative Fuels

alumina or silica gel, or through a liquid desiccant, such as a glycol. After it has
been cleaned and dried, the raw gas may be processed further or it may be sent
directly to a compressor station and pumped into a main transportation pipeline.

d. If the raw natural gas contains a large amount of heavier hydrocarbon gases, such
as propane and butane, these materials are removed to be sold separately. The most
common method is to bubble the raw gas up through a tall, closed tower containing
a cold absorption oil, similar to kerosene. As the gas comes in contact with t he cold
oil, the heavier hydrocarbon gases condense into liquids and are trapped in the oil.
The lighter hydrocarbon gases, such as methane and ethane, do not condense into
liquid and flow out the top of the tower. About 85% of the propane and almost all o f
the butane and heavier hydrocarbons are trapped this way. The absorption oil is then
distilled to remove the trapped hydrocarbons, which are separated into individual
components in a fractionation tower.

e. At this point, the natural gas contains methane, ethane, and a small amount of
propane that wasn't trapped. It may also contain varying amounts of carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, and other materials. A portion of the ethane is
sometimes removed to be used as a raw material in various chemic al processes. To
accomplish this, the water vapor in the gas is further reduced using one of several
methods, and the gas is then subjected to repeated compression and expansion cycles
to cool the ethane and capture it as a liquid.

f. Some natural gas contains a high percentage of carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide. These chemicals can react with the remaining water vapor in the gas to form
an acid, which can cause corrosion. They are removed by flowing the gas up through
a tower while a spray of water mixed with a solvent, such as mono ethanolamine, is
injected at the top. The solvent reacts with the chemicals, and the solution is drained
off the bottom of the tower for further processing.

g. Some natural gas also contains a high percentage of nitrogen. B ecause nitrogen
does not burn, it reduces the heating value of the natural gas. After the carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide have been removed, the gas goes through a low -
temperature distillation process to liquefy and separate the nitrogen. Together, the
processes in steps f and g are sometimes called "upgrading" the gas because the
natural gas is now cleaner and will burn hotter.

h. If helium gas is to be captured, it is done after the nitrogen is removed. This

involves a complex distillation and purification process to isolate the helium from
other gases. Natural gas is the primary source of industrial helium in the United
States.

Transporting

Mercaptan is injected into the processed natural gas to give it a distinctive warning
odor, and the gas is piped to a compressor station where the pressure is increased to
about 200-1,500 psi (1,380-10,350 kPa). The gas is then transported across country
through one of several major pipelines installed underground. These pipelines range
from 20 to 42 in (51 to 107 cm) in diameter. About every 100 mi (160 km), another
 Alternative Fuels 4.9

compressor boosts the gas pressure to make up for small pressure losses caused by
friction between the gas and the pipe walls. This keeps the gas flowing.

When the pressurized natural gas reaches the vicinity of its final destination, it is
sometimes injected back into the ground for storage. Depleted underground gas and
oil reservoirs, porous rock layers known as aquifers, or subterranean salt caverns
may be used to store the gas. This ensures a ready supply during the colder winter
months.

Distributing

When gas is needed, it is drawn out of underground storage and is transported

through pipelines at pressures up to 1,000 psi (6,900 kPa). These pipelines bring the
gas into the city or area where it is to be used.

The pressure is reduced to below 60 psi (410 kPa), and the gas is distributed in

underground pipes that run throughout the area. Before the gas is piped into each

house or business, the pressure is further reduced to about 0.25 psi (1.7 kPa).

Quality Control

Natural gas burns readily in air and can explode violently if a large quantity is
suddenly ignited. Entire buildings have been leveled by powerful blasts resulting
from natural gas leaks. In other cases, people have suffocated in closed rooms that
slowly filled with natural gas. Because natural gas is odorless, foul -smelling
mercaptan is added to the gas so that even a small leak will be immediately
noticeable. To protect high-pressure underground gas pipelines, a bright yellow
plastic tape is buried in the ground a few feet above the pipeline to warn people who
might be digging in the area. That way, they will uncover the tape before they
actually strike the pipeline below. Warning signs are also placed at ground level
along the entire length of the pipeline as an additional precaution.

Advantages of Compressed natural gas (CNG)

 Natural gas vehicle have lower maintenance costs than other hydrocarbon-
fuel-powered vehicles.
 CNG fuel systems are sealed, preventing fuel losses from spills or
evaporation.
 Increased life of lubricating oils, as CNG does not contaminate and dilute the
crankcase oil.
 Being a gaseous fuel, CNG mixes easily and evenly in air.
 CNG is less likely to ignite on hot surfaces, since it has a high auto -ignition
temperature (540 °C), and a narrow range (5–15 percent) of flammability.
 CNG-powered vehicles are considered to be safer than gasoline-powered
vehicles.
 Less pollution and more efficiency
4.10 Alternative Fuels

Disadvantages of Compressed natural gas (CNG)

 It requires a greater amount of space for fuel storage tank.

 Availability is not as widespread as regular gas stations. Within the city users
probably have a list of stations that fall in their route, but beyond that it is an
uncertainty. This is the reason why cars aren’t made to run exclusively on
CNG.
 Blocked injectors. Cars with CNG kits should always be started on petrol and
run for a few kilometers before being switched to the green fuel. This warms
up the engine better and gets the motor well lubricated. Petrol is expensive so
drivers often chose not to use it. This causes the injectors to crust and get
blocked. Not to mention the fuel laying in the tank ages and unlike wine, does
not get any better.
 Fuel range. Although CNG is a cheaper fuel, the actual range on just CNG is
lesser than petrol. Not to mention, running on a close to empty tank reduces
the pressure and increases the risk of the valves bursting. So, even if the car
does use CNG, it is always wise to keep a regular flow of petrol both in the
tank and in the engine usage.

4.1.8 Liquefied Petroleum Gas

LPG is commonly known as propane (C3H8), a combustible hydrocarbon

based fuel. It comes from the refining of crude oil and natural gas. There are
currently three grades of propane available, HD5 for ICEs, commercial propane and
commercial propane-butane mixture for other uses. The commercial grade of
propane for automotive use is known as HD5 and composition. The exact
composition of propane varies slightly between different parts of the country and
different refineries. Compared to Gasoline the energy content of LPG is 74%.

Figure 4.2 Composition of LPG

 Alternative Fuels 4.11

In the USA, LPG contains more than 85% propane while in Europe and Asia,
propane constitutes just about half of LPG, the balance being largely the butane. It
remains in gaseous state at normal ambient temperatures and pressures (the boiling
point of propane and butane at atmospheric pressure is about -45º C and -2º C,
respectively). The pressure inside storage tank keeps LPG liquid, and it becomes gas
when released from the tank. The liquid form has an energy density 270 times
greater than the gaseous form, making it efficient for storage and transportation. The
benefits of LPG as a clean burning motor fuel results in practice largely from its
ability to change between the liquid and gaseous phase much more readily compared
to natural gas.

In Europe, LPG motor fuel was first used in 1950s, especially in Italy and the
Netherlands who offered tax incentives making it economically more attractive. In
2003, worldwide population of LPG vehicles stood at 9.5 millions consuming
annually about 16.5 million tons of LPG. Population of LPG vehicles in some
countries in the year 2003 is listed below.

LPG Vehicle Fleet Worldwide in 2003

Most LPG vehicles employ bi-fuel systems for operation either on Gasoline or
LPG. It provides flexibility to vehicle operation, which is important as the number
of LPG filling stations is usually small. One drawback with a bi -fuel system is that
4.12 Alternative Fuels

neither fuel can achieve optimum performance. Optimization of engine for LPG
operation is possible only for the dedicated gas engines. However, variation in
propane/butane ratio in LPG possess a problem as the octane number of the two
main constituents, propane (RON is 112) and butane (RON is 94) is quite different.
When more stringent emission standards like Euro IV are to be met, the bi -fuel
vehicles may require a major technology upgradation. For bi-fuel vehicles like
conventional motor fuels, specific technological development will be necessary to
ensure compliance with the stringent emission standards.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LPG

The advantages and disadvantages of LPG as a motor fuel are similar to those for
natural gas. The main advantages and disadvantages of LPG compared to Gasoline
are given below:

 Good cold start and warm-up characteristics due to its gaseous state.
 Higher antiknock quality of LPG provides an opportunity for use of a higher
compression ratio and improvement of engine performance and thermal
efficiency
 Emissions are substantially lower compared to Gasoline vehicles. LPG has
disadvantage compared to natural gas in respect of non -methane hydro carbon
(NMHC) emissions as these consists of higher amounts of reactive olefin
hydrocarbons. The ozone forming potential of LPG with Gasoline, Diesel and
CNG is compared. LPG has significantly lower smog formation potential
compared to Gasoline and Diesel fuels.
 LPG operation results in negligible PM emissions compared to Diesel.
 LPG is relatively a low sulphur fuel.
 Lower energy content results in higher volumetric fuel consumption
 As the fuel on board is at a higher pressure, additional safety regulations are
to be implemented. As LPG is heavier than air, restrictions on vehicle parking
in confined space are also to be applied

Figure 4.3 Comparison of ozone forming potential of different fuels

 Alternative Fuels 4.13

4.2 BIODIESEL

Use of vegetable oils as diesel engine fuel is almost as old as the diesel
engine itself. In a 1912 speech, Rudolf Diesel said, “the use of vegetable oils for
engine fuels may seem insignificant today, but such oils may become, in the course
of time, as important as Petroleum and the coal – tar products of the present time” .
However, due to availability of cheaper Petroleum crude, interest in fuels derived
from vegetable oils diminished. The revival of biodiesel production started with
farm co-operatives in the 1980s in Austria and in 1991, the first industrial -scale
plant started biodiesel production with a capacity in excess of 10,000 m3 per year.
Through 1990s, plants were established in many European countries, including the
Czech Republic, France, Germany and Sweden. In 1998, the Austrian Biofuels
Institute identified 21 countries with commercial biodiesel projects. In the 1990s,
France launched the production of biodiesel obtained from rapeseed oil. The
European Directive 2003/30/EC proposed to promote the use of biofuels or other
renewable fuels for transport to reach 2% share of the total automotiv e fuel market
by December 31, 2005 and 5.75% by December 2010. Of this, biodiesel is expected
to constitute the major part.

Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that is produced from a variety of edible and non
edible vegetable oils and animal fats. The term “biodiesel” is commonly used for
methyl or ethyl esters of the fatty acids in natural oils and fats that meet the
specifications for their use in the CI engines. Straight vegetable oils are not
considered as biodiesel although attempts have been made to use these as well in the
CI engine. Biodiesel is typically produced by a reaction of vegetable oils or animal
fats with an alcohol such as methanol or ethanol in the presence of a catalyst to yield
mono-alkyl esters. Glycerin is obtained as a by-product, which is removed. The
straight mineral oils have very high viscosity that makes flow of fuel difficult even
at room temperatures and presence of glycerin in the vegetable oil causes formation
of heavy carbon deposits on the injector nozzle holes.

A variety of vegetable oils such as those from soybean, rapeseed, sunflower,

Jatropha – carcass, palm, and cottonseed etc. have been widely investigated for
production of biodiesel. Rapeseed oil and some other vegetable oils when
transformed to their methyl esters have many characteristics such as density,
viscosity, energy content, and cetane number close to that of diesel. The more
widely used are Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME) in Europe and Soybean Methyl
Esters (SME) in the US. They are collectively known as Fatty Acid Methyl Esters
(FAME). Recently non-edible oil produced from Jatropha-curcass seeds has gained
interest as this plant can be easily grown on wastelands.

The vegetable oil esters are practically free of sulphur and have a high cetane
number generally in the range 46 to 60 depending upon the feedstock. The cetane
number of methyl esters tends to be slightly lower than of ethyl or higher esters.
Biodiesel from saturated feed stocks such as animal fat and recycled restaurant
cooking fats will generally have a higher cetane number than the esters of oils high
in poly-unsaturated such as soybean oil. Due to presence of oxygen, biodiesel have a
lower calorific value than the diesel fuels.
4.14 Alternative Fuels

The emission studies show that the use of biodiesel results in reduction of
CO,

HC and PM, but slight increase in NOx emissions. Reduction in CO emission could
probably be attributed to presence of oxygen in the fuel molecule. Decomposition of
biodiesel produces a variety of oxygenated hydrocarbons in addition to
hydrocarbons. Response of the standard HC measurement technique, the heated
flame ionization detector is different for the methyl esters than HC emission and this
could be partly responsible for the difference in HC emissions between the normal
diesel fuels and biodiesel. The methyl esters have a lower compressibility, whic h
results in advance of dynamic injection timing with biodiesel compared to diesel.
Change in injection timing and differences in cetane number and combustion
characteristics and particulate emissions are observed to be significantly lower with
biodiesel compare to diesel fuels

As biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils or animal fats, its use has been
promoted as a means for reducing greenhouse gas CO2 emissions that would
otherwise be produced from the combustion of Petroleum-based fuels. The total
impact that biodiesel could have on global warming would be a function not just of
its combustion products but also of the emissions associated with the full biodiesel
production and consumption lifecycle. On an average the carbon content on mass
basis of plant-based biodiesel is 77.8% and of animal fat based biodiesel is 76.1%
compared to 86.7% for the Petroleum based diesel.

Since biodiesel is free from sulfur hence less sulfate emissions and particulate
reduction is reported in the exhaust. Due to near abs ence of sulfur in biodiesel, it
helps reduce the problem of acid rain due to transportation fuels .Higher thermal
efficiency, lower BSFC and higher exhaust temperatures are reported for all blends
of biodiesel compared to mineral diesel .

Biodiesel is oxygenated fuel (hence more complete combustion) and causes

lesser particulate formation and emission. This is also due to oxygenated nature of
biodiesel where more oxygen is available for burning and reducing hydrocarbon
emissions in the exhaust The biodiesel have a slightly higher carbon content per unit
energy (2.068 kg/100MJ) than the conventional diesel (2.042 kg/100MJ) and thus
may be expected to give higher CO2 emissions on combustion. The measured data
however, suggest that the combustion generated CO2 from biodiesel and
conventional diesel are substantially similar.

The cost of producing methyl or ethyl esters from edible oils is currently
much more expensive than hydrocarbon based diesel fuel. Due to the relatively high
costs of vegetable oils (about 1.5 to 2 times the cost of diesel), methyl esters
produced from it cannot compete economically with hydrocarbon -based diesel fuels
unless granted protection from considerable tax levies applied to the latter. In
absence of tax relief, there is a need to explore alternate feedstock for production of
biodiesel.
 Alternative Fuels 4.15

Typical ASTM standards of diesel and biodiesel

Property ASTM D975 ASTM D6751

(diesel) (biodiesel, B100)

Flash point 325 K min 403 K

Water and sediment 0.05 max vol% 0.05 max vol%

Kinematic viscosity (at 1.3–4.1 mm2/s 1.9–6.0 mm2/s

313 K)

Sulfated ash — 0.02 max wt%

Ash 0.01 max wt% —

Sulfur 0.05 max wt% —

Sulfur — 0.05 max wt%

Copper strip corrosion No 3 max No 3 max

Cetane number 40 min 47 min

Aromaticity 35 max vol% —

Carbon residue — 0.05 max mass%

Carbon residue 0.35 max mass% —

Distillation temp. (90% 555 K min–611 K —

volume recycle) Max

Advantages of Biodiesel

 The use of biodiesel gives the following advantages

 It can be used in any conventional, unmodified diesel engines
 It can be used alone or mixed in any amount with diesel fuel
 It has more lubrication than diesel, so it increases the life of Engines
 It has higher cetane number and higher biodegradability
 It is non toxic and it has higher combustion efficiency
 It has high flash point and hence safe to transport and store
 It is an oxygenated fuel and hence clean burning.
 It is sulphur free and it reduces the dependency on imported petroleum
 It has low viscosity and hence improved injection and atomization
 Use of Biodiesel gives out reduced HC,CO and smoke emissions
 It has 90% reduction in cancer risk
 It provides domestic, renewable energy
4.16 Alternative Fuels

 It provides employment opportunities

 It is of domestic origin
 It is in soluble in water.
 It contains 11% oxygen in it

4.3 PERFORMANCE, COMBUSTION AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS

USING ALTERNATE FUELS

Comparison of performance characteristics

Hydrogen fuel has higher brake thermal efficiency and even can operate at lower
engine loads with better efficiency. It can be noticed that brake thermal efficiency is
improved to about 31 percentage with hydrogen fuelled engine compared to gasoline
fuelled engine. Comparison of brake thermal efficiency of the fuels is shown in Fig.
Here brake thermal efficiency of hydrogen is much better than the b rake thermal
efficiency of gasoline engine even at a low speed.

2. Comparison of emission characteristics

NOx levels of both engines. Significant decrease in NOx emission is observed with
hydrogen operation. Almost 10 times decrease in NOx can be noted, ea sily. The
cooling effect of the water sprayed plays important role in this reduction. Also
operating the engine with a lean mixture is kept NOx levels low.

(i). Emissions of CO

Some amount of CO is still present. This is due to the burning of lubricating o il film
inside the engine cylinder. As engine speed increases, CO emission tends to
decreases.

(ii). Emissions of HC

The temperature caused by combustion is very high inside the cylinder. As the
piston expends the heat evaporates some amount of oil. In add ition to this
evaporated oil, incompletely burned oil also contributes to HC emission.

3. Comparison of combustion characteristics

Short time of combustion produces lower exhaust gas temperature for hydrogen.
Hydrogen is a very good candidate as an engine fuel. Appropriate changes in the
combustion chamber together with better cooling mechanism would increase the
possibility of using hydrogen across a wider operating range.

4.4 ENGINE DESIGN MODIFICATION FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS

Spark plugs

Use cold rated spark plugs to avoid spark plug electrode temperatures exceeding the
auto-ignition limit and causing backfire. Cold rated spark plugs can be used since
there are hardly any spark plug deposits to burn off .
 Alternative Fuels 4.17

Ignition system

Avoid uncontrolled ignition due to residual ignition energy by properly grounding

the ignition system or changing the ignition cable’s electrical resistance.
Alternatively, the spark plug gap can be decreased to lower the ignition voltage.

Injection system

Provide a timed injection, either using port injection and programming the injection
timing such that an initial air cooling period is created in the initial phase of the
intake stroke and the end of injection is such that all fuel is inducted, leaving no fuel
in the manifold when the intake valve closes; or using direct injection during the
compression stroke.

Hot spots

Avoid hot spots in the combustion chamber that could initiate pre -ignition or
backfire.

Compression ratio

The choice of the optimal compression ratio is similar to that for any fuel, it should
be chosen as high as possible to increase engine effi ciency, with the limit given by
increased heat losses or appearance of abnormal combustion (in the case of fuel
primarily pre-ignition).