Instrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

UNIVERSITY OF LA VERNE
La Verne, California
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE JOB SATISFACTION

IN POLICE OFFICERS RELATIVE TO FREDERICK HERZBERG’S
MOTIVATION/HYGIENE THEORY
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirement for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Obed Magny
College of Education and Organizational Leadership
Organizational Leadership Department
September 2012
UMI Number: 3535797
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ABSTRACT
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors That Influence Job Satisfaction in Police Officers
Relative to Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation/Hygiene Theory
By Obed Magny, EdD
Problem. Keeping high morale within a police department remains a challenge today for
police officers and police managers alike. With the negative economic situation facing
the United States, many agencies are forced to impose layoffs of police personnel and
reduce police services in order to make budget. With increased pressure on police
departments to do more with less, it is important for agencies to foster an environment
that promotes autonomy and a culture that values those who put their lives on the line
every day for the communities they serve. Therefore, it is important for leaders in
policing to understand what motivates their employees.
Purpose. The purpose of this study was to determine the perceptions of police officers
and managers as to the degree of importance of Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation factors. A secondary purpose was to determine if there was a significant
difference in their perceptions of the degree of importance of Herzberg’s intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation factors based on experience, gender, education, or officer versus
manager.
Methodology. Police departments were identified using basic criteria. An online survey
was given to police officers and managers. The results of the online survey were reported
out using descriptive and ex post facto statistics. Then differences were examined
between the intrinsic and extrinsic factors of Herzberg’s theory.
Findings. The number one statement police officers and managers agreed with was
related to relationships (96%). The factors least likely to be agreed with were
achievement and recognition (M = 3.38 and 3.42, respectively), with agreement ratings of
just over half of respondents (52% and 54%, respectively). Gender also played a major
role in motivation factors. Female police officers were least likely to agree with
statements related to the work itself, responsibility, and status.
Conclusions. Police officers want to be treated by their superiors as competent

employees and left alone to do their jobs without being micromanaged. Additionally,
police officers value their relationships with other police officers to a great extent.
Recommendations. Leaders in policing, city officials, and city council members wishing
to see a more harmonious relationship between police officers and police unions need to
know what motivates police officers.
iv
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iv
FIGURES ................................................................................................................... xii
TABLES ................................................................................................................... xiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... xv
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... xvii
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE ................................................. 1
Background of the Study........................................................................... 1
Problem Statement .................................................................................... 6
Hierarchy of Needs ............................................................................ 6
Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory ............................................. 7
McClelland’s Need Theory ................................................................ 7
Equity Theory .................................................................................... 8
Hawthorne Study ............................................................................... 8
Work Redesign................................................................................... 9
3-D Theory ......................................................................................... 10
High Involvement Organizations ....................................................... 10
Sociotechnical Systems Theory ......................................................... 11
Managerial Motivation....................................................................... 11
Drucker’s Theories............................................................................. 12
Job Characteristics Model .................................................................. 13
Achievement/Power Theory .............................................................. 13
v
Reinforcement Theory ....................................................................... 14
Expectancy Theory ............................................................................ 14
Goal-Setting Theory........................................................................... 15
Theories X, Y, and Z.......................................................................... 15
The Effects of Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation................................ 16
How Stress Affects Motivation in Police Officers ............................ 16
Herzberg’s Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators................................... 17
The Importance to Police Organizations............................................ 19
Purpose Statement ..................................................................................... 20
Research Questions ................................................................................... 20
Significance of the Research Problem ...................................................... 21
Definitions of Terms ................................................................................. 23
Delimitations of the Study ........................................................................ 26
Chapter I Summary ................................................................................... 27
Organization of the Study ......................................................................... 28
II. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 29
Synthesis of Employee Motivation Theories ............................................ 29
Need Theories of Motivation ............................................................. 31
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ........................................................... 31
McClelland’s Theory of Needs .......................................................... 35
Equity Theory .................................................................................... 36
Solving the Issue of Inequity ............................................................. 39
Hawthorne Study ............................................................................... 39
vi
Work Redesign................................................................................... 40
3-D Theory ......................................................................................... 40
High Involvement Organizations ....................................................... 43
Sociotechnical Systems Theory ......................................................... 49
Managerial Motivation....................................................................... 49
Drucker’s Theories............................................................................. 54
Existence Relatedness Growth Theory .............................................. 55
Job Characteristics Model .................................................................. 55
Achievement/Power Theory .............................................................. 58
Reinforcement Theory ....................................................................... 60
Expectancy Theory ............................................................................ 61
Goal-Setting Theory........................................................................... 67
Theory X, Y, and Z ............................................................................ 71
The Effects of Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation................................ 79
Stress in Policing ....................................................................................... 79
The History of Police Bureaucracy as a Source for Lack of

Motivation .............................................................................. 82
Factors That Lead to Lack of Motivation for Police Officers ........... 84
First Responders Feeling Lack of Motivation ................................... 86
Race.................................................................................................... 87
Education ........................................................................................... 88
Gender ................................................................................................ 91
Years of service.................................................................................. 93
vii
Herzberg’s Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators .......................................... 94
Intrinsic factors .................................................................................. 97
Extrinsic factors ................................................................................. 100
Job Satisfaction ......................................................................................... 104
Summary ................................................................................................... 106
III. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 108
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................. 108
Research Design ........................................................................................ 109
Population and Sample.............................................................................. 111
Instrument Used ........................................................................................ 113
Expert Validity and Field-Test .................................................................. 115
Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................... 118
Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 119
Study Limitations ...................................................................................... 120
Summary of Methodology ........................................................................ 121
IV. DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 122
Purpose Statement ..................................................................................... 122
Factors ....................................................................................................... 123
Population and Description of the Sample ................................................ 125
Type of Data Collected ............................................................................. 127
Analysis of Data ........................................................................................ 127
viii
Demographic Data ............................................................................. 127
Survey Responses .............................................................................. 130
Research Question 1 .......................................................................... 132
Comparisons by Rank ........................................................................ 143
Summary of Findings………….…………………………………… ....... 146
V. FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE

ACTION………………………………………………............................ 152
Summary of the Study............................................................................... 152
Purpose Statement .............................................................................. 152
Research Questions ............................................................................ 153
Methodology Summary ..................................................................... 153
Summary of Findings ......................................................................... 154
Major Findings .......................................................................................... 158
Police Officers Need to Work Around the Colleagues They Enjoy

the Most ................................................................................. 158
More Opportunities for Promotion and Advancement Need to be

Offered to Women ................................................................. 159
The More Time an Officer Has on the Job, the Less He/She Needs
to be Managed ........................................................................ 160
More Incentives Need to be Offered to Those Who Wish to

Continue Their Education ...................................................... 160
Police Officers Do Not Like Being Micromanaged by Supervisors

and Managers ......................................................................... 161
ix
Relationships and Work Itself Are Highly Valued, but There Is a
Lack of Agreement for Feeling Valued for Achievement
and Recognition ..................................................................... 161
Conclusions ............................................................................................... 165
Implications for Action ............................................................................. 166
Theme 1 ............................................................................................. 166
Theme 2 ............................................................................................. 167
Theme 3 ............................................................................................. 167
Theme 4 ............................................................................................. 168
Theme 5 ............................................................................................. 168
Theme 6 ............................................................................................. 169
What Does All This Mean? ....................................................................... 170
Recommendations for Further Research ................................................... 173
Relationships ...................................................................................... 173
Morale ................................................................................................ 173
Trust ................................................................................................... 174
Replication of the Study..................................................................... 174
Education ........................................................................................... 174
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 175
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 191
A. JOB SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................. 192
B. CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE FORM ........................................................ 197
x
C. PERMISSION FROM CHIEFS/SHERIFFS TO ACCESS THEIR
SWORN EMPLOYEES ............................................................................ 200
D. IRB APPROVAL LETTER ........................................................................... 204
xi
FIGURES
Figure Page
1. The Motivation Process ........................................................................................ 30
2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs .............................................................................. 32
3. Employee Perception of Equity ............................................................................ 38
4. Strategies for Implementing Job Redesign and Their Relationships to Job

Characteristics ................................................................................................ 45
5. Productivity Changes Between QC and non-QC Groups ..................................... 48
6. Simplified Expectancy Model............................................................................... 62
7. An Example of Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Model ...................................... 64
8. A Design of Expectancy-Driven Behavior ........................................................... 65
9. Effort-Performance and Performance-Outcome Expectations ............................. 66
xii
TABLES
Table Page
1. Possible Solutions to Employee Needs ................................................................. 34
2. Law Enforcement Agencies Involved in the Study .............................................. 126
3. Ranks of All of the Participants ............................................................................ 126
4. Gender Distribution of Participants ...................................................................... 128
5. Participants’ Years of Experience on the Job ....................................................... 129
6. Education Level Completed by Participants ......................................................... 129
7. Marital Status of the Participants .......................................................................... 130
8. Survey Question Findings ..................................................................................... 131
9. Survey Questions Classified as Intrinsic or Extrinsic ........................................... 133
10. Factor Ratings ..................................................................................................... 134
11. Overall Assessments of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Statements ................................ 135
12. Gender Comparisons ........................................................................................... 136
13. Years of Experience Comparisons ...................................................................... 137
14. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors: Years of Experience Comparisons ................... 139
15. Education Comparisons ...................................................................................... 141
16. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors: Education Comparison ..................................... 144
17. Comparisons by Rank ......................................................................................... 145
xiii
18. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors: Rank Comparisons............................................ 146
19. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors: Disagreement and Agreement by Rank ............ 164
xiv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There is no way I could have gotten through this doctoral program if not for
several people in my life.
First and foremost, I would like to thank my chairperson, Dr. Devore, for his
mentoring and leadership. Going through this dissertation process has been difficult, and
if not for your guidance, sir, I would not have finished this document.
Second, Dr. Goold for his knowledge and mentorship. Dr. Goold, you are a
walking wealth of knowledge and experience in the law enforcement arena. Most
importantly though, you are a practical thinker and a great leader.
Third, Dr. Delong for your comprehensive insight. As an expert in the area of
Human Resources, you have helped me see different perspectives related to motivation
theory I had never considered, and its impact on the world.
Of course I cannot forget my colleagues at the University of La Verne. In
particular, Linda Williams, Nick Richtor, Paul Figueroa, Jasmine Ruys, Esmirna
Valencia, and Robin Farmer. If not for you guys, I would not have made it through this
program. You guys are awesome, and I look forward to working with all of you in the
future.
I want to thank my brother, Jeff Magny, and my sister, Jennifer Magny, for their
love and support.
xv
I also want to thank Ken Bernard for pushing me to get my master’s degree in the
first place, which of course subsequently led to me getting a doctoral degree. It’s fair to
say neither one of us saw this coming.
I want to thank Deborah Robinson and Rhonda Mitchell for inspiring me to
pursue this doctoral degree. You two believed in me when I did not believe in myself.
It’s people like you who inspire others to be great even when they do not see it in
themselves.
I would like to thank the men and women of the Roseville Police Department,
Sacramento County Sheriff’s Department, and the Sacramento Police Department who
participated in this study. Without your participation, this study would not have been
possible. Thank You!
I want to thank Chief Daniel Hahn of the Roseville Police Department, Sheriff
Scott Jones of the Sacramento County Sheriff’s Department, and Chief Rick Brazil of the
Sacramento Police Department for allowing me to have the opportunity to work with
their respective agencies. I am forever in your debt!
I also want to acknowledge and thank all the law enforcement personnel across
this great nation. Without your service, our society would fall into anarchy. Every day
you put your lives on the line to keep the citizens and communities you serve safe.
Thank you for your service!
xvi
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this piece to my parents, Marie Mona Magny and Pierre Gilbert
Magny. I know I caused you guys a lot of grief and anguish growing up, but you guys
never gave up on me. Because of your love (and many moments of “discipline”) and
dedication, I am the success you see before you. Your hard work was not in vain, and so
this is my payment to you.
xvii
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
Background of the Study
The life expectancy for adults in the United States of America is approximately
78 years (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). However, it is suggested the statistical life
expectancy for a police officer is less than that of civilian adults (Violanti, Vena, &
Marshall, 1986). Police officers tend to get sick and die more often and at a younger age
than the civilians whose lives they protect and save (Violanti et al., 1986). Violanti et al.
(1986) concluded in their study that coronary and cardiovascular disease increases when
police officers engage in the performance of their duties. This type of stress for police
officers increases the probability of sudden coronary death (Quire & Blount, 1990). The
probability of police officers suffering cardiac-related deaths after 19 years of service is
300% greater than it is for civilian control groups (Violanti et al., 1986). Police officers
undoubtedly go through a great deal of stress during their careers. The work stress
officers face causes more deaths than do bullets from a felon (Blum, 2000).
Blum (2000) stated that when officers are studied through research and clinical
studies, numerous examples have shown trends that negatively affect police officers.
Blum outlined them as the following: increases in the likelihood of physical diseases
caused by or worsened by work stress, increases in the likelihood of taking greater
amounts of medicine to control problems with the gastrointestinal system, increases in
1
2
the likelihood of physical diseases caused by or worsened by work stress, and increases
in the likelihood of self-defeating and self-destructive behaviors that compromise officer
wellness and well-being. The potential lethal action to police officers affects them in two
ways: in their health, and through causal factors such as tactical planning (e.g.,
formulating a plan for a raid, serving a search warrant on a drug house) and the use of
tactics (Blum, 2000). Research suggests the stress that affects police officers is not from
the events they experience in the “streets,” but from the politics and administration from
their chain of command (Toch, 2002).
In 2007, the U.S. economy started to decline, marking the beginning of what
would subsequently be the biggest economic recession since the Great Depression of the
1930s. Many state and local governments went from having surpluses to major deficits
(Follette & Lutz, 2010). Businesses were losing money, and large numbers of people
were being laid off. As a result, many governments had to make radical changes. These
changes included cuts in social programs, spending cuts, and other cuts in services to
people they serve. However, this recession hit the American people much harder than
many had originally anticipated. The impact of this recession was not just limited to the
United States but was felt globally (Spence, 2008). As the impact of the recession grew
deeper and deeper, it affected the government at all levels; employees were forced to take
pay cuts in order for government agencies to balance budgets. Unions across the country
realized that in order to save their respective members, they needed to make concessions
in order to keep some stability among their workforces, as well as assist their employers.
Many banks and other major corporations such as General Motors needed “bailouts” in
3
order to keep the U.S. economy from going into a recession or further into a depression
(Welch & Trudell, 2010).
The professions of police officer and firefighter were considered recession proof
(Zupek, 2009). Unfortunately, police officers and firefighters are being laid off across
the country in order for local municipalities to stay afloat financially. Many cities and
states across the country have contractual obligations to their employees that were
achieved through collective bargaining. States such as Wisconsin, Ohio, and Indiana
realized some of the concessions they were receiving were not enough. These same
entities asked for more concessions that were perceived by some labor unions to be unfair
in sharing the burden (Ariosto, 2011). This issue came to light in the city of Vallejo,
California. In a desperate attempt to balance its budget, the city of Vallejo filed for
bankruptcy in order to void its contract with the police officers (Vallejo Police Officers
Association, 2010). The city of Vallejo figured that by using this approach, it could
legally renege on the obligations it willfully agreed to with the police union through
binding arbitration. The city of Vallejo and the Vallejo Police Officers Association
eventually agreed to a contract that helped the city meet its financial obligations. This
trend of cities considering filing for bankruptcy illustrates how dire the economic
situation is in this country.
At times, the tension between the police labor unions and their respective city
governments has reached the point where communication between both parties has been
perceived as adversarial. For example, the city of Stockton, California, found itself at an
impasse during contract negotiations with the police and firefighters unions regarding
4
their respective contracts. In an attempt to force both groups to open their contracts, the
city of Stockton declared a fiscal emergency (Stockton City Council, 2012). The
Stockton Police Officers Association, frustrated with what it perceived as the city not
acting in good faith, put up several billboards around the city voicing its frustration with
city leaders. One of the billboards read, “Stockton police can no longer guarantee your
safety”; another read, “Welcome to the 2nd most dangerous city in California,” and
another, “Stop Laying Off Cops!” (“Stockton Police Billboards,” 2010, para. 2, 4). In the
city of Oakland, California, 80 police officers were laid off. Additionally, the Oakland
Police Department no longer responds to crimes that include fraud, burglary, and theft
(Johnson, 2010). In Ashtabula County, Ohio, the sheriff’s department has been slashed
from 112 to 49 deputies (Feather, 2010). In Newark, New Jersey, 167 police officers
were laid off after negotiations broke down between the city and the police union (Porter,
2010).
There are many factors that influence the morale of police officers. These factors
include the economy, media, and a changing social landscape (Wasilewski, 2010).
Because of the economic impact affecting many in policing, there is a greater threat to the
morale of police officers. Even after some municipalities have rehired many laid-off
police officers, city leaders and many politicians continue to attack pensions and benefits
(Ariosto, 2011; Wasilewski, 2010). In the city of Ferndale, Michigan, some officers have
said they would look for positions as police officers in other cities if they continue to be
the target of government officials looking to cut their pay and benefits (Poupard, 2010).
This sentiment is not just limited to the Ferndale Police Department. The union
5
representing the police officers in Annapolis, Maryland, reported morale in the
department being low because the officers are overworked, and they have a difficult time
keeping up with response times due to limited resources. In addition, stalled negotiations
with the city have only fueled the decline of morale (Wasilewski, 2010).
Police officers throughout the nation are reporting low morale and a lack of
motivation to do their jobs. The effects of low morale on police officers trickle down to
the public they serve. In 2011, the Sacramento Grand Jury released a report highlighting
how public safety in the Sacramento region had been compromised because of budget-
related issues. Much of the report looked at law enforcement and social services, and
concluded, “Public safety has been compromised and the safety net is in tatters”
(Sacramento Grand Jury, 2011, p. 1). The following are some of the highlights from the
study:
x The Probation Department had lost almost 40% of its staff since 2008, leaving fewer
people to supervise adult probationers and juvenile offenders.
x Staff cutbacks at Child Protective Services have meant the agency responds to fewer
cases, ignoring “borderline” cases where an obvious risk is not present.
x Cuts at the main county jail “have had a severe impact,” with almost 140 positions
eliminated in 2 years (Sacramento Grand Jury, 2011, p. 3).
If research shows that police officers have a higher mortality rate than the average
citizen and that external pressures to do more with less are becoming the norm, how is
that going to affect officers? What is still keeping police officers motivated at work?
6
Problem Statement
There are many theorists who have postulated on what motivates employees to be
productive at work. The following section provides a brief synopsis of employee
motivation theories and explains the implications of employee motivation theories on
development and practices. The following motivational theories describe several ideas
related to the factors that motivate employees.
Hierarchy of Needs
When employees are moving toward a level of self-actualization, they are looking
for a level of satisfaction that gives them purpose in life (Hackman & Oldham, 1980;
Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Maslow, 1943; Pink, 2009). One of the
world’s most famous psychologists, Abraham Maslow (1943), described motivation as
stages of growth in humans that eventually lead to self-actualization. Maslow illustrated
this growth by using a pyramid showing the natural progression of being motivated at one
level, with the goal to progressively move to the next level. Maslow described that the
first-level needs for humans involve physiological needs, such as food, water, air, sex,
and excretion. Once those needs have been satisfied, the individual is motivated and
moves on to the second level. This second level involves safety and security needs. In
the business world, this can be interpreted as job security, pensions, insurance, and health
benefits. The third level of the pyramid is loving/belonging. This level is where an
individual needs to belong to a team and be accepted by his/her peers. The fourth level of
the pyramid is esteem. This is where the individual feels good about himself or herself
and gains more confidence about his/her work. The final level is self-actualization. At
7
this level, the individual feels that he/she has reached his/her full potential (Maslow,
1943).
Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory
In 1969, Clayton Alderfer introduced the ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972). ERG
stands for existence, relatedness, and growth. The premise of the ERG theory is similar
to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in that an individual is moving forward toward self-
actualization. In the ERG theory, there are three basic need categories. These categories
are existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs (Alderfer, 1972). Existence
needs are similar to Maslow’s physiological and security needs. The relatedness needs
contain needs of an interpersonal nature, security needs for interpersonal matters, and
love and belonging needs. Growth needs center on the idea that personal esteem and self-
actualization must be reassured. Much like Maslow’s theory, the needs that are not
satisfied will dictate an individual’s behavior toward negative action. Once a need is met,
the individual will seek a higher order need (Maslow, 1943).
McClelland’s Need Theory
Some people who have a powerful determination to succeed are striving for
personal achievement rather than the rewards of success. These people have the desire to
do something better or more effectively than it has been done before (Robbins, 1993). In
1961, McClelland published his book, The Achieving Society. In it he described the
theory of needs focusing on three particular needs: achievement, power, and affiliation.
According to McClelland (1961), the need for achievement is associated with a need to
8
accomplish goals, excel, and strive continually to do things better; the need for power is
the need to influence and lead others and to be in control of one’s environment; and the
need for affiliation is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
Equity Theory
Individuals want their tasks and accomplishments to be judged fairly compared to
others. According to equity theory, individuals are motivated to maintain a relationship
they deem fair with others and seek to correct an unfair relationship by making it fair
(Baron, 1983). There are three key factors that influence equity theory:
1. Inputs: what a person brings to the job. This includes tangibles and intangibles such
as age, experience, skill, and seniority, and other contributions to the organization or
group.
2. Outcomes: this is what an individual observes to be obtained as a result of his or her
work.
3. Referents: this is when the employee compares himself/herself to another individual or
groups (Adams, as cited in Tosi et al., 1994).
Hawthorne Study
In the early 1920s, Harvard Business School professor Elton Mayo conducted one
of the earliest studies that looked at motivational factors in employees. Mayo (1949) was
part of a research team that conducted an experiment at the Western Electric Plant in
Hawthorne, Illinois. The original premise of the research assumed that better lighting
would result in higher worker productivity. Mayo manipulated variables, and the data
9
concluded that no matter what factor was manipulated, worker production increased. The
employees at Western Electric Company only performed at a higher level because the
researchers conducting the experiments were watching them. Mayo noted that the extra
attention from researchers and management changed how the workers viewed themselves
and their role in the company. The workers no longer felt like isolated individuals; they
saw themselves as participating members of the greater group, which elicited feelings of
affiliation, competence, and achievement (Mayo, 1949). The term that was birthed from
this phenomenon was the Hawthorne effect.
Work Redesign
Hackman and Oldham (1980) explored in great detail the degree to which
motivating factors motivate an employee’s growth needs. They found that if the
employee’s need for growth and self-actualization is low, the motivating potential of the
motivating factors will be low; however, if an employee’s need for growth and self-
actualization is high, increasing the motivating factors will motivate the employee to
greater performance (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Hackman (1975) believed work
redesign should endure based on the following:
1. Changing jobs changes the basic relationship between a person and his/her
work. It’s a powerful point of leverage to make changes in organizations. It
can help build internal motivation.
2. Work redesign changes behavior, and does so directly. And behavior changes
can change attitudes.
3. When behavior is changed through the redesign of work, it tends to stay
changed. Once on-site stimuli are changed, they are likely to stay that way.
4. Work redesign offers—even forces—numerous opportunities for initiating
other organizational changes.
5. Work redesign can result in organizations that humanize rather than
dehumanize the people who work in them. (pp. 4-9)
10
3-D Theory
One of the ways employees can reach their full potential or level of satisfaction is
to have managers and supervisors recognize their employees’ success by paying attention
to them. Successful managers recognize the importance of helping employees reach their
full potential (Reddin, 1970). Reddin (1970) said the best test of a manager is the
effectiveness of his/her subordinates. According to Reddin, a successful way of making
subordinates more effective is by giving them challenging responsibilities early in their
careers. The more challenging the responsibilities, the more effective a subordinate is
likely to become. Reddin described the 3-D theory as this: 1-D theories insinuate that
one specific leadership style is better than another; 2-D theories propose that a variety of
leadership styles may be suitable; and the 3-D theory presents in what way and when
each style is successful.
High Involvement Organizations
The high involvement organization (HIO) is a model that cultivates the type of
environment promoting the type of behavior that fosters efficiency and motivation (Tosi,
Rizzo, & Carroll, 1994). The HIO is an increasingly used approach to creating an
organization that promotes the motivation of employees in the workplace and improves
the effectiveness of the organization (Tosi et al., 1994). Through the HIO, job
satisfaction is achieved by increasing skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback so that workers will have more jobs that are meaningful, with a
greater sense of responsibility and more feedback.

11
Sociotechnical Systems Theory
Teamwork is one way for employees to achieve job satisfaction (Levi, 2007).
One of the core notions of effective teamwork is motivation of the team. Another theory
that identifies the way people work and the best way of organizing them is called the
sociotechnical systems theory (SST; Appelbaum & Batt, 1994). According to SST,
teams should be used when jobs are technically uncertain rather than routine, when jobs
are interdependent and require coordination to perform, and when the environment is
turbulent and requires flexibility (Levi, 2007).
Managerial Motivation
Yukl’s research. Some managers and supervisors face difficulties performing
their job duties, especially toward their subordinates (Yukl, 1989). Yukl (1989)
described that the motivation to work for supervisors comes from the need for power,
achievement, and affiliation. In order for institutions to create an environment that
promotes motivation for their employees, there has to be a change from the control-and-
command system of leading.
McClelland’s research. McClelland (1965a, 1965b, 1985) conducted extensive
research on managerial motivation. In most of McClelland’s research, the need strength
was calculated with a projective technique called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
The test comprises a series of pictures of people in ambiguous situations, and someone
taking that test is asked to make up a story about the pictures. These stories reveal the
individual’s daydreams, fantasies, and aspirations. These variables are coded by the
12
experimenter to obtain a measure of three essential needs: power, achievement, and
affiliation.
Drucker’s Theories
One of the most noted business philosophers, Peter Drucker (2001), recognized
the need for change in the business world. He spoke on the positive potential of a
motivated workforce, and how the worker, the organization, and the customer all benefit
(Drucker, 2001). Drucker stated that if a business/institution wants to be successful, the
leaders must change their mindset by looking at the business from the outside in. Simply
put, only the customer decides whether the company is successful or not. Drucker stated,
“For this reason alone, any serious attempt to state ‘what our business is’ must start with
the customer’s realities, his situation, his behavior, his expectations, and his values”
(p. 24). Drucker’s point was that employees, as well as managers, cannot reach their full
potential for success simply by dictating their beliefs and ideas.
Intelligence, imagination, and knowledge are essential resources, but by
themselves they are ineffective (Drucker, 2001). Drucker (2001) emphasized the point
that effectiveness is what turns those qualities into results. Employees with these
essential resources are effective, and they are motivated to the point where collectively
they are extremely efficient (Drucker, 2001). Drucker believed that knowledge workers
cannot be micromanaged; leaders can only help them. He said that effectiveness is when
the knowledge workers direct themselves toward performance and contribution to their
organization.
13
Job Characteristics Model
The job characteristics model looks at the job design approach in motivation. The
premise of the model is that employees will experience high job satisfaction when
specific job characteristics are present. If the employees do well, the motivation will
provide an intrinsic reward and they will continuously be motivated to perform at a
higher level (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The four general groups of variables related to
the job characteristics model are personal and work outcomes, critical psychological
states, core job dimensions, and growth and need strength.
Achievement/Power Theory
The achievement motive is described as “an internal drive state of the individual
that reflects the extent to which success is important and valued by a person” (Tosi et al.,
1994, p. 222). If an employee has a rewarding experience related to achievement, he/she
will have high achievement motivation. However, if the individual does not have a
rewarding experience related to achievement, another motive could have a more
dominant place in the motive cluster (Tosi et al., 1994). The individuals with high
motivation, as it relates to achievement, prefer certain types of circumstances in order to
trigger the achievement need. These are as follows:
1. Success must be attained by the person’s “own efforts, not from those of others or
from luck.”
2. “The situation must . . . be challenging, but not impossible.”
3. There must be “concrete feedback about success” for the person (McClelland, as cited
in Tosi & Pilati, 2011, p. 91).

14
The power motive is the person’s “need to have an impact on others, to establish,
maintain or restore [his or her] prestige or power” (McClelland, as cited in Tosi & Pilati,
2011, p. 92). This motive can be established in three ways. A person can take strong
actions, such as assault and aggression, giving help or assistance, controlling others,
influencing or persuading others, or trying to impress someone. Second, a person may
“act in a way that results in strong emotions in others,” regardless of whether or not the
act itself seems to be strong (Tosi & Pilati, 2011, p. 92). Third, this motive is often
“reflected by a concern for [one’s] reputation and, perhaps, doing things that would
enhance or preserve it” (Tosi & Pilati, 2011, p. 92).
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory is an approach that shows contingent rewards are necessary
to motivate individuals. The idea is that extrinsic rewards will have a positive effect on
intrinsic motivation. Research has shown this may be effective when conditions are
highly controlled by researchers, but it is not ideal in the workforce where there are too
many factors “that get in the way of tying consequences to behavior” (Tosi et al., 1994,
p. 227).
Expectancy Theory
Victor Vroom (1964) investigated what motivates individuals to put energy into
those things that will lead to the outcomes they want. Vroom concluded that people will
make a calculation of the costs and benefits of the different options they have and then
choose the one with the best payoff.

15
Goal-Setting Theory
This theory shows performance is caused by a person’s intention to perform
(Locke & Latham, 1990). The concept of this theory is simple: An individual with higher
goals will do better than someone with lower ones. If someone knows exactly (or
specifically) what he/she wants to do, that person is going to outperform those whose
goals or objectives are vague. The following are some of the ideas that highlight this
theory:
1. There is a general positive relationship between goal difficulty and

performance.
2. Specific goals lead to higher performance than general goals.
3. Participation is related to performance through goal acceptance and
commitment.
4. Feedback about performance with respect to goals is necessary. (Tosi et al.,
1994, pp. 234-236)
Theories X, Y, and Z
Theories X and Y are two of the most well-known theories regarding motivation
(McGregor, 1960). McGregor (1960) developed theories X and Y to describe his
assumption on what motivates people. In 1981, William Ouchi developed a new theory,
theory Z. Theory Z is based on McGregor’s X and Y theories. Theory X says,
x Evil is man’s inherent nature.

x Biology drives man.
x Force motivates man.
x Competition is man’s basic mode of interaction.
x Individual is man’s social unit of importance.
x Pessimistic best describes man’s view of man. (McGregor, as cited in Reddin,
1970, p. 189)
Theory Y says,
16
x Man is a self-actualizing being.

x Good is man’s inherent nature.
x Humanism drives man.
x Voluntary cooperation motivates man.
x Cooperation is man’s basic mode of interaction.
x Group is man’s social unit of importance.
x Optimistic best describes man’s view of man. (McGregor, as cited in Reddin,
1970, p. 189)
Theory Z says,
x Man has a will.

x He is open to good and evil.
x Situation drives man.
x Reason motivates him.
x Interdependence is man’s basic mode of interaction.
x Interaction is man’s social unit of importance.
x Objective best describes man’s view of man. (Ouchi, as cited in Reddin, 1970,
p. 190)
The Effects of Rewards on

Intrinsic Motivation
Cameron and Pierce (2002) examined the issue of rewards and how they affect
intrinsic motivation. Based on historical, narrative, and meta-analytic reviews, Cameron
and Pierce showed that rewards do not have extensive negative effects. Cameron and
Pierce stated that careful arrangement of rewards enhances motivation, performance, and
interest.
How Stress Affects Motivation

in Police Officers
When it comes to motivating employees, some possible solutions include giving
them autonomy, valuing their work, giving them a sense of purpose, offering the
opportunity for challenging work, and other types of intrinsic/extrinsic rewards.

17
However, there seems to be a question of whether or not leaders in policing know what
motivation actually is. The primary source of stress in policing is police administrators
(Toch, 2002). Toch (2002) conducted a study on what motivates police officers and
provides them job satisfaction. His study concluded that police officers were satisfied at
work when they were in an environment (a) that was “redolent with professionalism and
efficiency,” (b) where fairness and equity were promoted, and (c) where they were
fortunate to have responsive and supportive leadership (Toch, 2002, p. 2-1). The least
desirable attributes related to low levels of job satisfaction “involved political
interference, nepotism and inequity, lack of professionalism or blatant incompetence,
conflict, and insensitive leadership” (Toch, 2002, p. 2-1).
Herzberg’s Intrinsic and

Extrinsic Motivators
Frederick Herzberg was one of the original psychologists who researched the
factors that motivated employees at work (Chapman, 2010). Chapman (2010) explained,
Herzberg’s research used a pioneering approach, based on open questioning and

very few assumptions, to gather and analyse [sic] details of “critical incidents” as
recalled by survey respondents. He first used this methodology during his
doctoral studies at the University of Pittsburg with John Flanagan . . . , who
developed the Critical Incident method in the selection of Army Air Corps
personnel during the Second World War. Herzberg’s [effective] open
interviewing method gleaned far more meaningful results than the conventional
practice of asking closed (basically yes/no) or multiple-choice or extent-based
questions, which assume or prompt a particular type of response, and which
incidentally remain the most popular and convenient style of surveying even
today—especially among those having a particular agenda or publicity aim.
(para. 3)
From their research, Herzberg et al. (1959) developed the motivation-hygiene
theory. The “two-factor theory states there are certain factors in the workplace that cause
18
job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction” (Syed & Özbilgin,
2010, p. 80). Herzberg et al. theorized that “job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act
independently of each other” (Syed & Özbilgin, 2010, p. 80). According to Herzberg et
al. (1959), the motivating factors that cause dissatisfaction are related to extrinsic job
characteristics. Herzberg et al. described these external factors as pay and benefits,
company policy and administration, relationships with coworkers, supervision, status, job
security, working conditions, and personal life. Herzberg (as cited in Santa Ana College,
n.d.) described the following as extrinsic factors:
Company Policies & Administration

The feelings about the adequacy or inadequacy of company organization and
management. This includes poor communications, lack of delegated authority,
policies, procedures, and rules.
Supervision
The competency or technical ability of the supervisor. This includes the
supervisors [sic] willingness to teach or delegate authority, fairness, and job
knowledge.
Interpersonal Relations
The relationships between the worker and his or her superiors,
subordinates, and peers. This includes both job related interactions and social
interactions within the work environment.
Status
Factors that involve some indication of status: private office, important
sounding title, secretary, company car, and other “perks.” Changes in status
would be considered under advancement.
Working Conditions
Factors that involve the physical environment of the job: amount of work,
facilities for performing work, light, tools, temperature, space, ventilation, and
general appearance of work place.
Job Security
The employee’s job tenure and/or the company’s stability or instability—
objective signs of the presence or absence of job security, not feelings of security.
Salary
This includes all forms of compensation and focuses on wage or salary
increases or unfulfilled expectation of increases. (p. 2)
19
Herzberg et al. (1959) discovered intrinsic motivators are the “true” motivational
factors leading to job satisfaction in employees. They described those intrinsic
motivational factors as achievement, growth, recognition, advancement, and the work
itself. Herzberg (as cited in Santa Ana College, n.d.) described the following as intrinsic
factors:
Achievement
This includes the personal satisfaction of completing a job, solving problems, and
seeing the results. . . .
Growth
This includes actual learning of new skills, with greater possibility of
advancement within the current occupational specialty as well as personal growth.
...
Recognition
This is the recognition by others for a job well done or personal
accomplishment. . . .
Advancement
The actual change in upward status in the company. Increased opportunity
changes with no increase in status are considered under responsibility. . . .
Work itself
The actual content of the job and its positive or negative effect upon the
employee whether the job is characterized as interesting or boring, varied or
routine, creative or stultifying, excessively easy or excessively difficult,
challenging or non-demanding. (Santa Ana College, n.d., p. 2)
The Importance to Police Organizations
Police organizations are ignoring the concepts of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
(Blum, 2000). Agencies are taking away resources from officers with the expectation
that the officers will still perform with the same efficiency. This could be seen as an
unrealistic expectation, and it creates a paradox of dissonance. For example, there are
government agencies throughout the nation expecting their officers to provide great
20
customer service, but in order to stay within budget, they deny the same officers overtime
they need to finish their reports (Eiserer, 2009; Koch, 2009).
If the theorists identified agree that individuals are motivated when given intrinsic
rewards such as autonomy and responsibility, why aren’t more leaders providing these
rewards? If managers in policing know they can motivate officers by doing these things,
why aren’t they practicing the theories? If police managers and government leaders
knew what kept officers motivated on the job, especially during these challenging
economic times, the benefits would be positive. Public safety would not be
compromised, recruiting and retention would not suffer, and more officers would not be
stressed out on the job.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study was to determine the perceptions of police officers and
managers as to the degree of importance of Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
factors. A secondary purpose was to determine if there was a significant difference in
their perceptions of the degree of importance of Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation factors based on experience, gender, education, or officer versus manager.
Research Questions
1. To what degree are Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory intrinsic and extrinsic
factors perceived by police managers and police officers to be important for
motivation?
21
2. Is there a significant difference in perceptions of the importance of Herzberg’s
motivation-hygiene theory intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors based on the
gender of police officers and police managers?
years of experience of police officers and police managers?
education of police officers and police managers?
Significance of the Research Problem
This topic is important to investigate because the business of policing is changing
dramatically, and these changes may be putting the public at risk. When adequate
funding for police departments is present and resources are not taken away, crime and
calls for emergency services are not likely to increase (U.S. Department of Justice [DOJ],
2003). Recently, there has been a growing trend in many cities throughout the state of
California to reform pension benefits of police officers and other public-sector employees
to help balance large budget deficits (Dearen, 2011). Cities such as Oakland, Vallejo,
Stockton, and Sacramento have laid off police officers as part of a solution to balance
their respective budgets. As a result, in cities such as Oakland, many calls for police
response to burglaries and other property crimes go unanswered (Brown, 2010). In
several cases around the country, district attorneys are now considering not prosecuting
some crimes because of large caseloads (McKinley, 2009). The California Department of
22
Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR, 2010) recently began issuing nonrevocable parole
for some parolees, which means unless they are charged with a new crime, they cannot be
returned to prison for refusing to follow the terms of their parole.
Recently, Congress passed the 9/11 Bill (Miga, 2010). The 9/11 Bill was
introduced by Congress to help cover the medical costs for the first responders and other
workers at ground zero following the 2001 attack on the World Trade Center. The costs
covered those workers who became ill from the dust, smoke, and toxic fumes. The bill
stalled in the Senate because Republicans questioned the price tag associated with the
bill. Politically, it was perceived negatively by the public and first responders. Members
of Congress were seen as playing politics and ignoring the service many men and women
gave during the aftermath of the terrorist acts at the World Trade Center buildings.
Marvin Bethea, a former paramedic from the Fire Department of New York “who
suffered permanent lung damage after helping with the cleanup,” said, “If it ever happens
again, why would anyone do what we did? To be forced to beg for help for nine years?”
(as cited in Miga, 2010, para. 18-19). Bethea continued, “I’m proud of the fact that I
played a role that day, but I’m embarrassed by the way we’ve been treated” (as cited in
Miga, 2010, para. 19). Bethea highlighted a fact that Herzberg et al. (1959) already
established: Lack of appreciation (recognition) will lead to dissatisfaction.
The findings of this study are applicable to police organizations throughout the
United States looking to make and maintain changes in the way they motivate their
officers. A police organization with high morale among its officers is not only good for
the officers and the profession but for the community as well.
23
With all of the political attacks on police officers, how will this affect the psyche
of the officer? What are the consequences of the trends negatively affecting police
officers? What are the unintended impacts on public safety when something negatively
affects and erodes a profession that protects society from falling into anarchy?
Definitions of Terms
Police officers apprehend individuals who break the law and then issue citations
or give warnings. A large proportion of their time is spent writing reports and
maintaining records of incidents they encounter. Most police officers patrol their
jurisdictions and investigate any suspicious activity they notice. They also respond to
calls from individuals. Detectives, who often are called agents or special agents, perform
investigative duties such as gathering facts and collecting evidence (U.S. Department of
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011).
Police sergeants rank above officers and corporals. A sergeant represents the
first level of management within a police organization (Roberg, Kuykendall, & Novak,
2002).
Police managers formulate goals and design organizations to meet the
expectations and needs of employees, clients (i.e., members of the community), and
various other groups and individuals that may be affected by police activities, such as
private police, court and correctional agencies, business and industry, other governmental
agencies, and political leaders (Roberg et al., 2002).
Recognition is the act of notice, praise, or blame (Herzberg et al., 1959).

24
Achievement is the successful completion of a job, solutions to problems,
vindication, or seeing the results of one’s work (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Growth relates to the likelihood that the individual would not only be able to
move onward and upward within his/her organization, but also a situation in which he/she
is able to advance in his/her own skills and profession (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Advancement is actual change in the status or position of the person in the
company (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Responsibility leads to satisfaction from being given responsibility for one’s
work or for the work of others, or being given new responsibility (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Salary is a sequence of events in which compensation plays a role (Herzberg et
al., 1959).
Interpersonal relations are the relationships between the worker and his/her
superiors, subordinates, and peers (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Supervision relates to a supervisor’s willingness or unwillingness to delegate
responsibility or his/her willingness to teach. A supervisor may be perpetually nagging
or critical, or he/she may keep things humming smoothly and efficiently (Herzberg et al.,
1959).
Company policy and administration determines the adequacy or inadequacy of
company organization and management. There may be harmful or beneficial effects of
the company’s policies (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Working conditions are the physical conditions of work, the amount of work, or
the facilities available for doing the work. These include the adequacy or inadequacy of
25
ventilation, lighting, tools, space, and other such environmental characteristics (Herzberg
et al., 1959).
Work itself is the actual doing of the job or the tasks of the job as a source of
good or bad feelings about it (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Status is determined by factors that involve some indication of status, such as
being assigned a secretary in a new position, a company car, and so forth (Herzberg et al.,
1959).
Job security refers to tenure and company stability or instability. There are
objective signs of presence or absence of job security (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Autonomy is a person’s “default setting,” being autonomous and self-directed
(Pink, 2009).
Mastery is becoming better at something that matters (Pink, 2009).
Purpose refers to a cause greater and more enduring than oneself (Pink, 2009).
Job satisfaction is the attitude of a worker toward his/her job, often expressed as
a hedonic response of liking or disliking the work itself, the rewards (pay, promotions,
recognition), or the context (working conditions, colleagues; Vandenbos, 2007).
Motivational factor is a physiological or psychological factor that stimulates,
maintains, and directs behavior. Examples are basic physiological needs, interests, and
extrinsic rewards (Vandenbos, 2007).
Motivation is the impetus that gives purpose or direction to human or animal
behavior and operates at a conscious or unconscious level (Vandenbos, 2007).

26
Intrinsic motivation is an incentive to engage in a specific activity that derives
from the activity itself (e.g., a genuine interest in a subject studied), rather than because
of any external benefits that might be obtained (e.g., course credits; Vandenbos, 2007).
Intrinsic reward is a positively valued outcome that is implicit in an activity,
such as the pleasure or satisfaction gained from developing a special skill. Intrinsic
rewards originate directly from the task performance and do not originate from other
people (Vandenbos, 2007).
Extrinsic motivation is an external incentive to engage in a specific activity,
especially motivation arising from the expectation of punishment or reward. An example
of extrinsic motivation for studying is fear of failing an examination (Vandenbos, 2007).
Extrinsic reward is a reward for behavior that is not a natural consequence of
that behavior. For example, winning a trophy for finishing first in a race and receiving
praise or money in the work setting are extrinsic rewards (Vandenbos, 2007).
Hygiene factors are identified in the two-factor theory of work motivation
proposed by U.S. clinical psychologist Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000) as certain aspects
of the working situation that can produce discontent if they are poor or lacking but that
cannot by themselves motivate employees to improve their job performance. These
include pay, relationships with peers and supervisors, working conditions, and benefits
(Vandenbos, 2007).
Delimitations of the Study
This study was delimited by the following factors:

27
1. The police departments used in this study were identified as having at least 100 sworn
personnel.
2. The police departments were certified by the California Commission on Peace Officer
Standards and Training (POST).
3. The police departments’ rank and file officers were members of the Peace Officers
Research Association of California (PORAC), Sacramento County Deputy Sheriff’s
Association, Sacramento Police Officers Association, or Roseville Police Officers
Association.
4. The study was delimited to police officers in the state of California.
Chapter I Summary
Chapter I provided an introduction to the topic of this study, offered a problem
statement for the study, described the purpose of the study, reviewed research questions
studied, outlined the study’s significance, and defined the delimitations of this study.
Today’s police officers are still reporting managers’ micromanaging as the primary
source of stress they face regularly. Finding ways to engage and motivate officers drove
this study forward.
Studying the intrinsic and extrinsic factors with respect to motivating police
officers enables police organizations to find better ways to engage this workforce.
Specifically, police managers build the foundation for motivation by providing leadership
to police officers that promotes a culture of harmony. Gathering police officers’ and
police managers’ perceptions could be a critical step to enable workplaces, leaders, and
28
employees to find motivational influences that will drive and promote productivity and
success.
Therefore, this study identified the perceptions of police officers and police
managers on how Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect them. Leaders in
policing need to determine how to improve the morale in their workforce. How police
managers of high ranking influence and support the challenges of motivational drivers
remains an ever-present opportunity for organizational growth and sustainability.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized in five chapters. Chapter I provided an overview of the
problem statement and premise. The chapter presented the core background as an
overview to the challenges faced by leaders in motivating the employees in today’s
workplace. The problem statement invited leaders to step up to the challenge of leading
the workforce that reduces stress, using motivational factors (intrinsic and extrinsic
factors) to help resolve conflicts between police officers and the organizations they work
for. Chapter II provides a thorough review of the literature related to motivation and
leadership for the benefit of fully understanding the historical perspective and current
methodologies available on this subject. Chapter III contains the research methodology
used in this study. Chapter IV identifies the results of the data collected from survey
instruments. Chapter V analyzes the findings and ends with a conclusive summary
describing the themes for future action and recommendations for further research.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review provides a synthesis of employee motivation theories and
provides a rationalization of how employee motivation affects employee retention and
other behaviors within organizations. In addition to explaining why it is important to
retain vital employees, the researcher describes the related motivation theories and
explains the implications of employee motivation theories on developing and
implementing employee retention practices.
Synthesis of Employee Motivation Theories
According to Ramlall (2004), “The term motivation derived from the Latin word
movere, meaning to move (Kretiner, 1998). Motivation represents ‘those psychological
process that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal
oriented[’] (Mitchell, 1982, p. 81)” (p. 53). Robbins (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) defined
motivation as the “willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need” (p. 53). From this
perspective, it is an internal drive that makes an individual see an outcome as desirable.
When an individual feels that a particular necessity is not being met, it creates a strain
that motivates a drive within the individual. These urges produce an inquiry to seek these
objectives. If those objectives are met, it will reduce the urge of the tension. The thought
29
30
is that motivated workers are always straining, and in order to rectify the feeling, they use
exertion. The more strain, the more work the employee puts out (Ramlall, 2004). Figure
1 shows this relationship.
Figure 1. The motivation process. From “A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and Their
Implications for Employee Retention Within Organizations,” by S. Ramlall, 2004, Journal of
American Academy of Business, 5(1/2), p. 61.
Ramlall (2004) stated that many motivational theorists argue on where the genesis
of motivation comes from and on the precise desires that an individual is trying to
achieve. However, most of the theorists would come to a consensus in saying that
motivation entails a yearning to act, a capacity to act, and having a purpose. Kretiner (as
cited in Ramlall, 2004) said there are five approaches to explaining behavior: “needs,
reinforcement, cognition, job characteristics, and feelings/emotions” (p. 53). He said
these factors trigger the progression of modern theories of human drive (Ramlall, 2004).
The following section highlights some of the contemporary theories of motivation.

31
Need Theories of Motivation
Need theories try to identify the intangible dynamics that motivate the individual
behaviors. It is a lack of these intangibles, which can be biological or emotional
deficiencies, that stimulates performance. These internal factors can be sound or brittle
and are persuaded by outside influences. Therefore, it is important to note that human
needs across the board will differ over a period of time and location (Ramlall, 2004).
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
One of the world’s most famous psychologists, Abraham Maslow (1943),
described motivation as stages of growth in humans that eventually lead to self-
actualization. Maslow illustrated this growth by using a pyramid that shows the natural
progression to be motivated to move to the next level (see Figure 2). Thus, “Maslow’s
defining work was the development of the hierarchy of needs [pyramid]. According to
Stephens (2000), Maslow believed that human beings aspire to become self-actualizing
and viewed human potential as a vastly underestimated and unexplained territory”
(Ramlall, 2004, p. 54).
Ramlall (2004) noted, “Maslow believed that there are at least five sets of goals
which can be referred to as basic needs and are physiological, safety, love, esteem, and
self-actualization” (p. 54). Maslow (1943) said that the first-level needs for humans
involve physiological needs, such as food, water, air, sex, and excretion. Once those
needs are satisfied, the individual is motivated to move on to the second level. The
second level involves safety and security needs, which include security of body,
employment, resources, morality, family, health, and property. The third level of the
32
Figure 2. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. From “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,” n.d., retrieved
from http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Hierarchy_of_Needs.asp.
pyramid is loving/belonging. This level is where an individual needs to belong to a team
and be accepted by his/her peers. The fourth level of the pyramid is esteem. This is
where the individual feels good about himself or herself and has more confidence about
his/her work. The final stage is self-actualization. At this level, the individual feels
he/she has reached his/her full potential (Maslow, 1943).
According to Ramlall (2004), Maslow stated that employees are driven to
accomplish or sustain the many circumstances where their rudimentary gratifications may
be. This includes particular knowledgeable wishes (e.g., the first two stages are physical
needs, Stages 3-5 are the intrinsic needs). Ramlall added,
Humans are a perpetually wanting group. Ordinarily the satisfaction of these

wants is not altogether mutually exclusive, but only tends to be. The average
member of society is most often partially satisfied and partially unsatisfied in all
33
of one’s want (Maslow, 1943). The implications of this theory provided useful
insights for managers and other organization leaders. (p. 54)
The advice offered by this theory was “for managers to find ways of motivating
employees by devising programs or practices aimed at satisfying emerging or unmet
needs” (Ramlall, 2004, p. 54). Ramlall stated that one of the other consequences for the
public and private sector is the need to introduce support systems and focus groups
assisting the workforce to deal with issues such as stress, particularly during the more
difficult times, and taking the time to understand the needs of the respective employees.
When organizations adopt Maslow’s hierarchy philosophy, the results are virtually
indisputable. Steers and Porter (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) put it this way:
Managers have the responsibility to create a proper climate in which employees

can develop to their fullest potential. Failure to provide such a climate would
theoretically increase employee frustration and could result in poorer
performance, lower job satisfaction, and increased withdrawal from the
organization. (p. 54)
Table 1 lists possible ways of sustaining the needs of an employee as shown in the
book Motivating Strategies for Performance and Productivity: A Guide to Human
Resource Development, by Champagne and McAfee (as cited in Ramlall, 2004).
Referring to the information in Table 1, Ramlall (2004) stated that some of these
implementations can be easy and cost effective, and others problematic and expensive. It
is important to note that Champagne and McAfee (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) stated that
leaders who use these practices are, for the most part, seen more favorably by their peers
and viewed as thoughtful, reassuring, and attentive of their employees’ wellbeing.

34
Table 1
Possible Solutions to Employee Needs
Need Examples
1. Physiological Cafeterias
Vending Machines
Drinking Machines
2. Security
Economic Wage and Salaries
Fringe Benefits
Retirement Benefits
Medical Benefits
Psychological Provide Job Description
Give praise/awards
Avoid abrupt changes
Solve employee’s problems
Physical Working conditions
Heating and ventilation
Rest periods
3. Affiliation Encourage social interaction
Create team spirit
Facilitate outside social activities
Use periodic praise
Allow participation
4. Esteem Design challenging jobs
Use praise and awards
Delegate responsibilities
Give training
Encourage participation
5. Self-actualization Give training
Provide challenges
Encourage creativity
Note. Adapted from “A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and Their Implications for
Employee Retention Within Organizations,” by S. Ramlall, 2004, Journal of American Academy
of Business, 5(1/2), p. 54.
When employees are moving toward a level of self-actualization, they are looking
for a level of satisfaction that gives them purpose in life (Hackman & Oldham, 1980;
Herzberg et al., 1959; Maslow, 1943; Pink, 2009).

35
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
According to Ramlall (2004), some individuals have high energy and
determination for success. These workers do so for the intrinsic satisfaction rather than
the tangibles that come with success. The intrinsic drive to be better and more productive
at their job is the intangible these employees have (Robbins, as cited in Ramlall, 2004).
McClelland (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) explained the theory of needs. He looked
at three specific points associated with needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. He
said the need for achievement is the drive to shine, to exceed whatever benchmark is set,
and to strive to triumph. McClelland described the need for power as the necessity to
force other employees to act in a manner they would not otherwise. He said affiliation is
the longing for welcoming and close personal interactions. McClelland conducted
research that suggested that there is a correlation between economic development and
achievement motivation (Ramlall, 2004).
Kreitner and Kinicki (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) cited Murray when defining the
high need for achievement as a desire to accomplish something difficult. Although there
are some methods that universally work in motivating employees, motivation and
performance will differ based on the need of the individual. Being able to master,
manipulate, and sort physical objects, human beings, or ideas is a form of an individual
looking to fulfill his or her need to achieve (Ramlall, 2004). According to McCelland (as
cited in Ramlall, 2004), these overachievers tend to be thriving entrepreneurs.
It is inferred that those with the need for affiliation must have time spent
socializing with others and participating in activities promoting social harmony (Ramlall,
36
2004). Individuals who have a higher than normal need for affiliation spend the majority
of their time wanting to be cherished, join groups or teams, and do what they can to stay
in social groups. According to Kreitner (as cited in Ramlall, 2004), these types of leaders
are not the most productive. Kreitner believed these managers have a challenging time
making hard decisions because they fear not being liked (Ramlall, 2004).
Theories related to achievement suggest that motivation and performance differ
from person to person based on the intensity of the employee’s need for achievement
(Kreitner, as cited in Ramlall, 2004). When an employee has the longing to tutor, train,
persuade, and support others to achieve, he or she is exhibiting the need for power.
According to McClelland (as cited in Ramlall, 2004), in order for a manager to be
successful and effectively lead others, that manager must have a high need for power
mixed with a low need for social interactions.
Equity Theory
Individuals want their tasks and accomplishments to be judged fairly compared to
others. According to equity theory, individuals are motivated to maintain relationships
they perceive to be fair with others and to resolve relations they deem unfair by making
them fair (Baron, 1983). Three key factors that influence equity theory are as follows:
1. Inputs: what a person brings to the job, such as age, experience, skill,
seniority, and contributions to the organization or group. Inputs can be
anything that he/she believes relevant to the job and that should be recognized
by others.
2. Outcomes: what the person perceives to be received as a result of work.
Outcomes may be positively valued factors such as pay, recognition,
promotion, status symbols, and fringe benefits. They may also be negative
factors: unsafe working conditions, pressure from management, and
monotony.
37
3. Referents: the focus of comparison for the person, either other individuals or
other groups. (Adams, as cited in Tosi et al., 1994, p. 231)
Ramlall (2004) explained that equity theory is that employees are not just
cognizant of the remunerations they receive for their work, but how their remuneration
compares to others. Factors such as effort, familiarity, education, and aptitude will lead
employees to compare themselves to others as it relates to income, rank, and other
factors. Tension is created when there is a discrepancy with their outcome-input
proportion when it is compared to others. Robbins (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) said this
tension is the genesis of motivation as the employees fight for what they perceive to be
equal and fair.
J. S. Adams is one of the most well known individuals on the subject of equity
theory (Ramlall, 2004). According to Steers (as cited in Ramlall, 2004), Adams’s theory
is probably the most comprehensive declaration on how employees view social exchange
relationships. Inputs and outcomes are the two main mechanisms in his theory. An
example of input would be a scenario where an employee trades his or her efforts for a
salary. This includes prior employment, education, and experience. The consequences
associated with those efforts are outcomes. More likely than not, an employee will
perceive rewards such as salary, rank, and recognition as outcomes. Equity theory is
based on three main ideas:
1. People will perceive what is fair and equal for the work given.
2. Employees have a tendency to evaluate their relationship with their employer.
3. When employees perceive that they are not being treated fairly compared to others,
they will be provoked to take action they feel is necessary to rectify it (Ramlall, 2004).
38
During the process of socialization, Adams (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) believed
the employee learns about the relationship between input and output expectations about
what is fair and equal. Pinder (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) supported Adams’s theory. He
declared the feelings of inequity occur when the employee feels he or she is not being
fairly compensated for his or her work. Therefore, according to Ramlall (2004),
organizations need to develop a compensation system that is seen as fair and equitable by
the employees and is consistent with the employees’ own beliefs about their worth to
their employer. Figure 3 illustrates an employee’s perception of equity.
Figure 3. Employee perception of equity. From “A Review of Employee Motivation Theories

and Their Implications for Employee Retention Within Organizations,” by S. Ramlall, 2004,
Journal of American Academy of Business, 5(1/2), p. 62.
39
Solving the Issue of Inequity
When the perception of unfairness is present in the workplace, arrangements are
usually made to reestablish some form of normalcy. Obviously, because of the subjective
nature, individual opinions about what establishes inequity and the different ways to
restore equity vary. For example, Vecchio (1981) found that people who were morally
mature (i.e., had a strong conscience and high ethical standards) were more likely to
respond to unfair circumstances. Some of the ways equity might be restored are by
modifying inputs, changing outcomes, rationalizing the inputs and outputs, leaving the
field, acting against the other person, and changing the referent (Tosi et al., 1994).
Hawthorne Study
In the early 1920s, Harvard Business School professor Elton Mayo conducted one
of the earliest studies that looked at motivational factors in employees. Mayo (1949) was
part of a research team that conducted an experiment at the Western Electric Company in
Hawthorne, Illinois. The original premise of the research assumed that better lighting
would result in higher worker productivity. Mayo manipulated variables, and the data
concluded that no matter what factor was manipulated, worker production increased. The
employees at Western Electric Company only performed at a higher level because the
researchers conducting the experiments were watching them. Mayo noted that the extra
attention from researchers and management changed how the workers viewed themselves
and their role in the company. The workers no longer felt like isolated individuals; they
saw themselves as participating members of the greater group, which elicited feelings of
affiliation, competence, and achievement (Mayo, 1949).

40
Work Redesign
Hackman and Oldham (1980) explored the degree to which motivating factors
influence an employee’s growth needs. They found that if the employee’s need for
growth and self-actualization is low, the motivating potential of the motivating factors
will be low; however, if an employee’s need for growth and self-actualization is high,
increasing the motivating factors will motivate the employee to greater performance
(Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Hackman and Oldham suggested there are three key
conditions that drive internal motivation for workers on the job. The following is how
they described creating conditions for internal motivation:
First, the person must have knowledge of the results of his or her work. If things
are arranged so that the person who does the work never finds out whether it is
being performed well or poorly, then that person has no basis for feeling good
about having done well or unhappy about doing poorly.
Secondly, the person must experience responsibility for the results of the
work, believing that he or she is personally accountable for the work outcomes. If
one views the quality of work done as depending more on external factors (such
as procedure manual, the boss, or people in another work section) than on one’s
own initiatives or efforts, then there is no reason to feel personally proud when
one does well or sad when one doesn’t.
And finally, the person must experience the work as meaningful, as
something that “counts” in one’s own system of values. If the work being done is
seen as trivial (as might be the case for a job putting paper clips in boxes, for
example), then internal work motivation is unlikely to develop—even when the
person has sole responsibility for the work and receives ample information about
how well he or she is performing. (p. 73)
3-D Theory
One of the ways employees can reach their full potential for achieving satisfaction
is to have managers and supervisors recognize that in order to ensure success, they must
pay attention to their employees. Managers can be successful at their jobs if they are
flexible and adapt accordingly to the different situations they encounter (Reddin, 1970).
41
Reddin (1970) said the best test of a manager is the effectiveness of his/her subordinates.
According to Reddin, a successful way of making subordinates more effective is by
giving them challenging responsibilities early in their careers. The more challenging the
responsibilities, the more effective a subordinate is likely to become. Reddin (2012)
created “the first relatively simple method of measuring what he called ‘situational
demands’—i.e. the things that dictate how a manager must operate to be most effective”
(para. 1). The method was designed to serve as a practical tool for managers and team
leaders, showing effectiveness as a central value.
According to Reddin (2012), “Reddin’s model was based on the two basic
dimensions of leadership identified by the Ohio State studies. He called them Task-
orientation and Relationship-orientation” (para. 1). Reddin (1970) defined task
orientation as “the extent to which a manager directs his own and his subordinates’
efforts; characterized by initiating, organizing and directing” (p. 24). He described
relationship orientation as “the extent to which a manager has personal job relationships;
characterized by listening, trusting, and encouraging” (Reddin, 1970, p. 24). In addition,
Reddin (2012) “introduced what he called a third dimension—Effectiveness” (para. 1).
Effectiveness is developed when “one used the right style of leadership for the particular
situation” (para. 1). Reddin said the 1-D theories suggest one particular style is better
than another; the 2-D theories suggest that a variety of styles may be appropriate; the 3-D
theory shows how and when each style is effective. The following are the eight
managerial styles based on Reddin’s 3-D theory:
Executive: This particular type of manager uses high Task Orientation and high
Relationships Orientation in a situation where such behavior is appropriate. This
42
manager is, therefore, more effective; perceived as a good motivating force who
sets high standards, treats everyone somewhat differently, and prefers team
management.
Compromiser: This particular type of manager uses high Task
Orientation and high Relationships Orientation in a situation that requires a high
orientation to only one or neither and who is, therefore, less effective. This
manager is perceived as being a poor decision maker, as one who allows various
pressures in the situation to influence him too much, and as avoiding or
minimizing immediate pressures and problems rather than maximizing long-term
production.
Benevolent Autocrat: This particular type of manager uses high Task
Orientation and low Relationships Orientation in a situation where such behavior
is appropriate and who is, therefore, more effective; perceived as knowing what
he wants to get it without creating resentment.
Autocrat: This particular type of manager uses a high Task Orientation
and a low Relationships Orientation in a situation where such behavior is
inappropriate and who is, therefore, less effective. The Autocrat is perceived as
having no confidence in others, is unpleasant, and is interested only in the
immediate task.
Developer: This particular type of manager uses high Relationships
Orientation and low Task Orientation in a situation where such behavior is
appropriate and who is, therefore, more effective. This manager is perceived as
having implicit trust in people and as being primarily interested in harmony.
Missionary: This type of manager uses high Relationships Orientation
and a low Task Orientation in a situation where such behavior is inappropriate
and who is, therefore, less effective. This manager is perceived as being primarily
interested in harmony.
Bureaucrat: This type of manager uses low Task orientation and a low
Relationships Orientation in a situation where such behavior is appropriate and
who is, therefore, more effective. This manager is perceived as being primarily
interested in rules and procedures for their own sake. He is wanting to control the
situation by their use, and as conscientious.
Deserter: This type of manager uses low Task Orientation and a low
Relationships Orientation in a situation where such behavior is inappropriate and
who is, therefore, less effective. This manager is perceived as uninvolved and
passive or negative. (pp. 41-43)
Reddin (2012) acknowledged “four major leadership styles on the high
effectiveness plane and four corresponding styles on the low effectiveness plane, [with]
effectiveness being where the leadership style matched the demands of the situation”
(para. 2). The following is an example of how the third dimension works:
43
A manager who demonstrated a high level of task-orientation and low

relationships orientation where it was the style that was required was called a
Benevolent Autocrat while a manager who applied that style of behaviour where
the situation did not call for it was labelled an Autocrat. (Reddin, 2012, para. 2)
Alternatively, “It is quite possible and reasonable for behavior labeled DESERTER in
one situation to be labeled BUREAUCRAT in another” (Reddin, 1970, p. 44). Reddin’s
3-D model centers on “the idea that one could assess [a particular] situation and identify
what behavior was most appropriate” (Reddin, 2012, para. 2). The four basic styles of
managerial behavior that Reddin (1970) described are related, integrated, separated, and
dedicated:
Related Style—a basic style with less than average Task Orientation and more
than average Relationship Orientation.
Integrated Style—a basic style with more than average Task Orientation
and more than average Relationship Orientation.
Separated Style—a basic style with less than average Task Orientation
and less than average Relationships Orientation.
Dedicated Style—a basic style with more than average Task Orientation
and less than average Relationships Orientation. (p. 33)
High Involvement Organizations
A model that cultivates the type of environment promoting the type of behavior
that fosters efficiency is the high involvement organization (HIO; Tosi et al., 1994). The
HIO is an increasingly modeled approach to creating an organization that promotes the
motivation of employees in the work place and improves the effectiveness of the
organization (Tosi et al., 1994). This effectiveness keeps the organization alive and
keeps it in a position to adapt to the fast-paced world that is always changing. Through
the HIO, job satisfaction is achieved by increasing skill variety, task identity, task
significance, autonomy, and feedback so that workers will have more jobs that are
44
meaningful, a greater sense of responsibility, and more feedback. Employees will have a
greater sense of purpose, thereby wanting to go above and beyond to help better benefit
the organization they work for. Organizations that pay attention to their employees and
have the environment to help them succeed are not only successful but also have a higher
profit margin than those organizations that do not exercise flexibility with their
employees (Agypt & Rubin, 2012; Hart, 2012).
Treven and Kajzer (1999) discussed the origins of the HIO:
Its roots are in the quality of work life (QWL) movement which began in the
1970s. . . . [B]oth QWL and HIO approaches attempt to change the adversarial
relationship between workers and managers that dominates many companies and
to replace it with a cooperative approach. (p. 118)
HIOs may use a number of different management practices. These practices include, but
are not limited to, participative decision making, self-directed work groups, job design
programs to enrich work, total quality management (TQM), improved safety and working
conditions, innovative compensation plans to emphasize gain sharing and skill
development, the elimination of organizational levels, and minimization of bureaucratic
processes and practices (Handel & Levine, 2004). In a study of 1,600 organizational
units in 1987, more than 50% utilized some facet of HIO practices (Horn, 1987). The
following section discusses some of the more common and important aspects of HIOs:
job enrichment, self-directed groups, compensation practices, and lean organization
structures.
Job enrichment. The HIO is based on the job characteristic model (Hackman et
al., 1975). The job characteristic model is focused on growing (a) skill variety, (b) task
identity, (c) task significance, (d) autonomy, and (e) feedback so that workers will have
45
more meaningful jobs, a greater sense of responsibility, and more feedback. There are
five points that are needed for creating jobs to increase motivating potential in employees
(Hackman et al., 1975). Figure 4 demonstrates how these strategies “are related to the
core job dimensions, critical psychological states, and personal and work outcomes”
(Tosi et al., 1994, p. 250).
Figure 4. Strategies for implementing job redesign and their relationships to job characteristics.
From Managing Organizational Behavior (3rd ed.), by H. L. Tosi et al., 1994, Cambridge, MA:
Blackwell, p. 250.
Tosi et al. (1994) expanded on the strategies in the figure:

46
1. Combining tasks. Small tasks, especially those that are “fractionalized,”

should be combined into larger, more complex tasks. If the new task is too
large for one person, it may be assigned to a self-directed team. Combining
tasks may increase skill variety and task identity.
2. Forming natural work units. Tasks should be grouped into units so that as
much of the work as possible can be performed in the same unit. This leads to
a sense of ownership of the job, thereby increasing task identity and task
significance.
3. Establishing client relationships. If possible, it is desirable to link the
worker with the purchaser of the product or the service. Since the worker
cannot often interact directly with a customer, it may be possible to devise
ways that the customer can give the worker feedback. If client relationships
can be established, skill variety, autonomy, and feedback should improve.
4. Vertical loading. The job should be enriched by vertical loading, such as,
adding responsibilities from higher organization levels as opposed to
horizontal loading or adding more tasks from the same level. Vertical loading
gives the person more responsibility for work. The greater amount of control
will lead to an increase in the level of perceived job autonomy.
5. Opening feedback channels. There are two ways to provide feedback. Job-
provided feedback occurs when the person knows how to judge performance
from the job itself. Management feedback comes from the supervisor or from
reports such as budgets and quality reports. Removing obstacles to increase
job-related feedback will improve performance. (p. 251)
Self-managed work teams. Although well-designed careers can strengthen the
feeling of responsibility, the expansion of self-directed teams puts more accountability on
the persons who make up the team (Tosi, Zahrly, & Vaverek, 1990). These teams
commonly have responsibility for some decisions once retained for management. Teams
might be run by someone in management or may be led by a member of the team
designated as the leader. Although the person in charge is usually one of the more highly
skilled participants, the team leadership could alternate from individual to individual.
Treven and Kajzer (1999) stated,
[Groups] are encouraged to work together as a unit, identify problems and look
for their solutions, help and train each other while maintaining high quality
production. Often they have responsibility for controlling other members of the
team through self-regulating activities such as recommending disciplinary action
47
if necessary, making individual work assignments, and sometimes deciding on

member pay increases. (p. 120)
The success of high involvement organizations. There are many well-known
instances of organizations successfully creating HIOs. Maybe the most famous and
earliest case is that of Volvo (Schleicher, 1977). Volvo improved its process from an
assembly-line method to a work system that centered on teamwork. The teams were in
charge of the different mechanisms and for the assembly itself. In a particular plant at
Volvo, there were 30 teams that comprised anywhere from 15-20 workers. This process
was streamlined so well that the workers were able to meet with the management staff to
collaborate about what worked and what could be done efficiently. Because of the
harmonious relationship between the leadership and the staff, turnover and down time
were significantly reduced. Although there were some increases to cost during this
period, they were perceived to be short-run problems (Schleicher, 1977). Other
successful HIO experiments have been conducted at General Mills (Donaldson, 1990),
Toyota (Dyer & Nobeoka, 2000), General Motors, and Chrysler (Shinkle & Spencer,
2012).
Although the case studies just mentioned may been seen as subjective, there may
be more evidence that supports the success of HIOs. Three studies using a compare-and-
contrast method on job enrichment showed improved job conditions are associated with
higher performance and higher job satisfaction (Fried & Farris, 1987; Guzzo, Jenne, &
Katzell, 1985; Stone, 1986). Guzzo et al. (1985) determined that job enrichment had the
most influence on productivity of employees, more than any type of involvement. Fried
and Farris (1987) and Marks, Hackett, Mirvis, and Grady (1986) first conducted an
48
analysis of the effects of quality circles (QCs). The first examination of the studies
demonstrated that employees were more satisfied when they were included in the
decision-making process. The same studies showed these employees were just as
appreciative when they were given the opportunity to offer proposals, organizational
communication, and the chance for the workers who were not involved in QCs to move
ahead in their organization. Figure 5 shows the changes in rates of productivity achieved.
During a period of over 2 years, the QC groups showed greater increases in production,
efficiency, and productivity than those who did not participate. It was also no surprise
that the QC groups also had a lower absentee rate than the others who did not participate
(Marks et al., 1986).
Figure 5. Productivity changes between QC and non-QC groups. From Managing

Organizational Behavior (3rd ed.), by H. L. Tosi et al., 1994, Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, p. 258.
49
When the concept of QCs was introduced into production plants of an electronics
plant, there were improvements in job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
performance (Griffin, 1988). The success continued for a period of 1.5 years before
leveling off. Although the improvement did not last as long as the leadership staff had
hoped, they believed there were other long-term benefits that would help the
organization.
The results show that the job design approaches are similar to others found in
other organizations. From the onset, there is success in job satisfaction and production.
However, these successes level off and the employees get used to the new culture, and
both leadership and the staff at times will discontinue the practice.
Sociotechnical Systems Theory
Teamwork is one way for employees can achieve job satisfaction (Levi, 2007).
One of the core notions of effective teamwork is motivation. Another theory that
identifies the way people work and the best way of organizing them is called the
sociotechnical systems theory (SST; Appelbaum & Batt, 1994). According to SST,
teams should be used when jobs are technically uncertain rather than routine, when jobs
are interdependent and require coordination to perform, and when the environment is
turbulent and requires flexibility (Levi, 2007).
Managerial Motivation
Some managers face difficulties performing their job responsibilities, especially
toward their subordinates (Yukl, 1989). Yukl (1989) described that the motivation to
50
work for supervisors comes from the need for power, achievement, and affiliation. In
order for institutions to create an environment that promotes motivation for their
employees, there has to be a change from the control-and-command system of leading.
Miner (1965) developed a theory of managerial role motivation to describe the type of
motivational traits needed for success in most management positions in large, hierarchical
organizations. The managerial role prescriptions and associated motivational patterns are
as follows (Miner, 1978; Miner & Berman, 1985):
1. Positive attitude toward authority figures. Managers should have a generally positive
attitude toward superiors in order to develop effective relations with them and obtain
necessary resources and support. Any tendency to generalize hatred, distaste, or
anxiety in dealings with people in positions of authority will make it extremely
difficult to meet job demands.
2. Desire to compete with peers. Managers should be favorably disposed toward
engaging in competition to benefit themselves and their subordinates. A person who
is unwilling to compete for status, advancement, resources, and political support is
unlikely to satisfy job demands.
3. Desire to be actively assertive. Managers are supposed to take charge, make
decisions, take necessary disciplinary actions, and protect other members of a group.
A person who becomes upset or disturbed at the prospect of behaving in an assertive
manner is unlikely to satisfy job demands.
4. Desire to exercise power. Managers must exercise power over subordinates, tell
others what to do, and make appropriate use of positive and negative sanctions. A
51
person who finds such behavior difficult and emotionally disturbing or who believes it
is wrong to exercise power over others is unlikely to satisfy job demands.
5. Desire to stand out from the group. The managerial job requires a person to assume a
position of high visibility and do things that inevitably invite attention, discussion, and
perhaps criticism. A person who is uncomfortable assuming a prominent position and
taking controversial positions is unlikely to satisfy job demands.
6. Willingness to carry out routine administrative work. Managerial work requires a
person to perform administrative activities such as preparing budgets, writing reports,
and serving on committees, although the specific activities will vary from position to
position. A person who strongly dislikes doing these activities and avoids them is
unlikely to satisfy job demands.
Managerial motivation is measured with a scale called the Miner Sentence
Completion Scale. The test presents an overall score as well as separate scores for each
of the six aspects of managerial motivation (Brief, Aldag, & Chacko, 1977).
McClelland (1965a, 1965b, 1985) conducted extensive research on managerial
motivation. In most of McClelland’s research, the need strength was calculated with a
projective technique called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; McClelland, 1965a,
1965b, 1985). The test comprises a series of pictures of people in ambiguous situations,
and someone taking the test is asked to make up a story about the pictures. These stories
reveal the individual’s daydreams, fantasies, and aspirations. These variables are coded
by the experimenter to obtain a measure of three essential needs: power, achievement,
and affiliation.
52
Power. Stories that reveal that a person thinks a lot about influencing other
people, defeating an opponent or competitor, winning an argument, or attaining a position
of greater authority indicate a strong need for power. People with a strong need for
power prefer occupations such as executive, politician, labor leader, police officer,
military officer, and lawyer (McClelland, 1975; Winter, 1973).
McClelland (1970) highlighted the point in saying that true power comes from
influence. He stated, “Slaves are the poorest, most inefficient form of labor devised by
man. If a leader wants to have far-reaching influence, he must make his followers feel
powerful and able accomplish things on their own” (p.41). Yukl (1989) stated, “A
socialized power concern is more likely to result in effective leadership than a
personalized power concern” (p. 185).
Individuals with a personalized power concern have little restraint or self-control,
and they exercise power impulsively. According to McClelland and Burnham (1976),
“They are more rude to other people, they drink too much, they try to exploit others
sexually, and they collect symbols of personal prestige such as fancy cars or big offices”
(p. 103).
Individuals with a socialized power concern are more emotionally mature. They
“exercise power more for the benefit of others, are more hesitant about using power in a
manipulative manner, are less egoistic and defensive, accumulate fewer material
possessions, have a longer-range view, and are more willing to take advice from experts”
(Yukl, 1989, p. 185). Because of this emphasis on building organizational commitment,
this kind of leader is more likely to use a participative, coaching style of managerial
53
behavior and is less likely to be coercive and autocratic. These leaders “help make their
subordinates feel strong and responsible, bind them less with petty rules, help produce a
clear organizational structure, and create pride in belonging to the unit” (McClelland,
1975, p. 302).
Needs for achievement. Stories that suggest a person thinks a lot about attaining
a challenging goal, setting new records, successfully completing a difficult task, or doing
something never done before indicate a strong need for achievement. The preferred job
characteristics of these types of people are likely found in professions such as sales
representative, real estate agent, producer of entertainment events, and owner-manager of
a small business (McClelland, 1965a, 1965b). If achievement is the dominant need, a
manager tries to complete everything alone, is hesitant to delegate, and fails to develop a
strong sense of responsibility and commitment among subordinates (McClelland &
Burnham, 1976).
Need for affiliation. Stories that reveal that a person thinks a lot about
establishing or restoring close, friendly relationships; joining groups; participating in
pleasant social activities; and enjoying shared experiences with family or friends indicate
a strong need for affiliation. People who feel the strong need for affiliation receive a
great deal of pleasure from being liked and accepted by others, and they enjoy working
with people who are sociable and supportive. However, an individual with a strong need
for affiliation is usually reluctant to allow work to interfere with harmonious relationships
(Litwin & Stringer, 1966; McClelland, 1975). These managers often disregard
procedures and rules, which leaves subordinates feeling “weak, irresponsible, and
54
without a sense of what might happen next, of where they stand in relation to their
manager, or even of what they ought to be doing” (McClelland & Burnham, 1976,
p. 104). As Litwin and Stringer (1966) pointed out, some basic concern for the needs and
feelings of other people seems vital as a source of motivation to build and maintain
effective relationships.
In general, these findings support the proposition that advancement or
effectiveness in large, hierarchical organizations is associated with a dominant socialized
power concern (Boyatzis, 1982; McClelland, 1975; McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982;
McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Winter, 1973).
Drucker’s Theories
One of the most recognizable business philosophers, Peter Drucker (2001),
recognized the importance of change in the business world. He spoke on the positive
potential of a motivated workforce, and how the worker and the customer both benefit
(Drucker, 2001). Drucker stated that if a business/institution wants to be successful, the
leaders must change their mindset by looking at the business from the outside in. Simply
put, only the customer decides whether the company is successful or not. Drucker stated,
“For this reason alone, any serious attempt to state ‘what our business is’ must start with
the customer’s realities, his situation, his behavior, his expectations, and his values”
(p. 24). Drucker’s point was that employees, as well as managers, cannot reach their full
potential for success simply by dictating their beliefs and ideas.
Intelligence, imagination, and knowledge are essential resources, but by
themselves they are ineffective (Drucker, 2001). Drucker (2001) emphasized the point
55
that effectiveness is what turns those qualities into results. Employees with these
essential resources are effective, and they are motivated to the point where collectively
they are extremely efficient (Drucker, 2001). Drucker said, “Knowledge workers cannot
be supervised closely or in detail. They can only be helped. But they must direct
themselves, and they must do so toward performance and contribution, that is, toward
effectiveness” (p. 193).
Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory
Clayton Alderfer developed the existence-relatedness-growth (ERG) theory in
1969 as a revision to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory (Alderfer, 1972). The premise
of the ERG theory is similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in that an individual is
moving forward toward self-actualization, but there are some differences. In the ERG
theory, there are three basic need categories. These categories are existence needs,
relatedness needs, and growth needs (Alderfer, 1972). Existence needs are similar to
Maslow’s physiological and security needs. The relatedness needs contain needs of an
interpersonal nature, security needs for interpersonal matters, and love and belonging
needs. Growth needs center on the idea that personal esteem and self-actualization must
be reassured. Much like Maslow’s theory, the needs not satisfied will dictate an
individual’s behavior. Once a need is met, the individual will seek a higher order need.
Job Characteristics Model
When it comes to seminal authors on the subject matter of job design, Richard
Hackman, Greg Oldham, and their colleagues are commonly referred to (Ramlall, 2004).
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Although their approach to job design differs from Herzberg’s, it is similar in the sense
that they introduce concepts that lead to job satisfaction for employees. According to
Hackman and Oldham, and Pinder (as cited in Ramlall, 2004), workers will feel
inspiration from their work when three psychological states are met. Hackman and
Oldham (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) first said the worker must have responsibility for the
outcome of his or her job. Next, the employee must feel a sense of purpose in the job that
he or she is performing. The employee must feel that the contribution he or she is
making is positively impacting the organization he or she is working for. Lastly, the
employee needs to have some form of feedback to let him or her know how well he or
she is performing on the job (Ramlall, 2004). Pinder (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) recapped
this point by highlighting that work for the employee must have meaning, responsibility,
and feedback of an individual’s performance.
Hackman and Oldham (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) stated that in order for an
employee to feel a form of importance relative to his or her job, there are three
components that are needed. These elements are skill variety, task identity, and task
significance. Hackman and Oldham (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) defined skill variety as
“the degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities in carrying out the
work, involving the use of a number of different skills and talents of the person” (p. 57).
Hackman and Oldham (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) inferred that jobs that utilize many
abilities are the same jobs that workers find more satisfying than those that require little
or no talent. Pinder (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) agreed that task variety is a necessary
component in promoting job satisfaction, because employees already have the natural
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drive to grow in their profession. The idea of adding tasks is not without its critics.
Herzberg was outspoken in his opposition of adding tasks, which he referred to as
horizontal job loading. Where Herzberg and Hackman and Oldham differ is important to
note because the notion of arrayed tasks can be applied to each of their respective
theories (Ramlall, 2004).
When employees get to see the results of their work as it positively impacts the
organization they work for, they are experiencing task identity. Hackman and Oldham
(as cited in Ramlall, 2004) defined task identity as “the degree to which a job requires
completion of a ‘whole’ and identifiable piece of work . . . doing a job from beginning to
end with a visible outcome” (p. 57). According to Hackman and Oldham (as cited in
Ramlall, 2004), employees have a sense of pride when they see the meaningfulness of
their job in how it helps out other employees and their organization. Pinder (as cited in
Ramlall, 2004) believed task identity would qualify as one of Herzberg’s intrinsic factors
related to the work itself. Task significance, as defined by Hackman and Oldham (as
cited in Ramlall, 2004), is “the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the
lives of other people, whether those people are in the immediate organization or in the
world at large” (p. 58). In other words, employees view their work as having a positive
impact and boost their self-esteem. Hackman and Oldham (as cited in Ramlall, 2004)
also identified autonomy as an additional factor in the responsibility/feedback loop. They
defined autonomy as “the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining
the procedures to be used in carrying it out” (as cited in Ramlall, 2004, p. 58). The idea
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that autonomy leads to job satisfaction is uniform with other viewpoints and other
methods as it relates job design.
The knowledge of results is the third psychological factor in this model. This is
when the employees get knowledge of their work from other people and the actual work
itself. Feedback is a crucial factor in preventing absenteeism and staff renewal rates
(Hackman & Oldham, as cited in Ramlall, 2004). For the most part, there is a significant
correlation between job characteristics and behavioral outcomes (Alera, as cited in
Ramlall, 2004). In addition, feedback is successful in producing personal and behavioral
outcome variables (Fried, as cited in Ramlall, 2004).
The job characteristics model looks at the job design approach in motivation. The
premise of the model is that employees will experience high job satisfaction when
specific job characteristics are present. If the employees do well, the motivation will
provide an intrinsic reward and they will continuously be motivated to perform at a
higher level (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The four general groups of variables related to
the job characteristics model are personal and work outcomes, critical psychological
states, core job dimensions, and growth and need strength.
Achievement/Power Theory
The achievement/power theory was developed from the work of McClelland and
his associates (Atkinson & Feather, 1966; McClelland, 1961). This approach has
generally been called achievement theory because of McClelland’s original focus on the
need for achievement. The foundations of this theory are the concepts of motive and the
force of motives on behavior. Motives are a system organized in order of strength and
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consequence (McClelland, 1975). They are clusters of expectancies growing up, and
cues (reinforcements and other consequences) are emotional experiences for the person.
They are learned, not innate. Motives are an aspect of the personality, and they develop
as the personality emerges.
The achievement motive is described as “an internal drive state of the individual
that reflects the extent to which success is important and valued by a person” (Tosi et al.,
1994, p. 222). If an employee has a rewarding experience related to achievement, he/she
will have high achievement motivation. However, if the individual does not have a
rewarding experience related to achievement, another motive could have a more
dominant place in the motive cluster (Tosi et al., 1994). “The strength of the
achievement motive is related to [one’s] socialization experiences” (Tosi & Pilati, 2011,
p. 91). “One person’s achievement motive may differ from another’s in terms of level
and area of focus” (Tosi & Pilati, 2011, p. 91). For example, the organizationalist may be
driven by this motive to be successful in an area of technical expertise and not seek
organization success. “When the achievement motive is generalized, a person wants to
succeed in everything” (Tosi & Pilati, 2011, p. 91). Miner (1980) stated,
For such a person, achievement is directed toward the top of the motive hierarchy;
it takes only minimal achievement cues to activate the expectation of pleasure and
thus increase the likelihood of achievement striving. (p. 36)
The individuals with high motivation, as it relates to achievement, prefer certain
types of circumstances in order to trigger the achievement need. These are as follows:
x Success must be attained by the person’s “own efforts, not from those of others or
from luck.”
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x “The situation must . . . be challenging, but not impossible.”
x There must be “concrete feedback about success” for the person (McClelland, as cited
in Tosi & Pilati, 2011, p. 91).
The power motive is the person’s “need to have an impact on others, to establish,
maintain or restore [his or her] prestige or power” (McClelland, as cited in Tosi & Pilati,
2011, p. 92). This motive can be established in three ways. A person can take strong
actions, such as assault and aggression, giving help or assistance, controlling others,
influencing or persuading others, or trying to impress someone. Second, a person may
“act in a way that results in strong emotions in others,” regardless of whether or not the
act itself seems to be strong (Tosi & Pilati, 2011, p. 92). Third, this motive is often
“reflected by a concern for [one’s] reputation and, perhaps, doing things that would
enhance or preserve it” (Tosi & Pilati, 2011, p. 92).
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory is an approach that shows contingent rewards are necessary
to motivate individuals. The idea is that extrinsic rewards will have a positive effect on
intrinsic motivation. Research has shown this may be effective when conditions are
highly controlled by researchers, but it is not ideal in the workforce where there are too
many factors “that get in the way of tying consequences to behavior” (Tosi et al., 1994,
p. 227).
There is a lot of research that supports reinforcement theory. The most reliable
conclusions come from the studies performed under greatly regulated conditions—for
example, experiments that involve animals being trained to run mazes or to press a bar
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for food pellets (Allyon & Azrin, 1965). The influences of incentives and reinforcement
schedules are reliable with the reinforcement theory rudimentary schemes. Investigations
into individual behavior where there are similar experimental controls further show the
influence of conditional remunerations. Studies on the conduct of students in a classroom
or patients in a mental hospital demonstrate clear results where incentives can be made
conditional on performance of wanted conduct. For example, research on the impact of
reinforcement on the conduct of psychotic patients showed that the patients displayed the
preferred responses when the reinforcement contingencies were utilized. When the
rewards were taken away, the performance decreased. The performance increased when
the rewards were made dependent again. In this experiment, the environment was under
the control of the researchers. The researchers were not only able to observe the patients,
but they also reinforced them as they behaved in the desired way (Allyon & Azrin, 1965).
Expectancy Theory
On the subject of expectancy theory, Kreitner and Kinicki (as cited in Ramlall,
2004) defined it as this: “Expectancy theory holds that people are motivated to behave in
ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes” (p. 55). Expectancy
theory says an individual will behave in a certain way based on how much he or she
believes he or she will benefit from the act (Robbins, as cited in Ramlall, 2004).
Expectancy theory expresses that the combination of the employee’s perception of his or
her effort and the employee’s view of the outcome expected is the baseline that leads to
motivation. There are many variations of this type; Vroom (as cited in Ramlall, 2004),
62
however, established the recognized work motivation depiction based on the work of
other academics.
People’s actions come from choices related to their mental practices, mainly from
views of beliefs and attitudes (Pinder, as cited in Ramlall, 2004). There are three causes
that dictate behavior: valence, instrumentality, and expectancy (Ramlall, 2004). When it
comes to work-related outcomes, valence is the level of happiness one expects.
Compared to other models, importance is placed on the amount of inspiration and
performance one experiences in the workplace. Vroom (as cited in Ramlall, 2004)
defined performance as the amount a person thinks performing at a certain intensity will
lead to a desired outcome. Figure 6 is “a simplified model” of expectancy theory, as
provided by Ramlall (2004, p. 56).
Figure 6. Simplified expectancy model. From “A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and
Their Implications for Employee Retention Within Organizations,” by S. Ramlall, 2004, Journal
of American Academy of Business, 5(1/2), p. 62.
Vroom (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) inferred that an outcome is viewed positively if
the employee has the power and autonomy to create positive effects that surround him or
her and do what is necessary to avoid those factors that result in negative outcomes. The
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last part of the theory is called expectancy (Pinder, as cited in Ramlall, 2004); it is how
strongly the employee believes a specific consequence will take place. Vroom (as cited
in Ramlall, 2004) said there are factors related to how an individual views the
expectations of his or her job. He said these factors are connected to action-outcome
consequences (Ramlall, 2004).
Vroom’s work on the expectancy model was continued by Lyman Porter and
Edward Lawler III (Ramlall, 2004). They created a model that tried to pinpoint the
genesis of an employee’s valences and expectancies, and connect labor with performance
and job satisfaction (Kreitner, as cited in Ramlall, 2004). This model highlights the issue
of effort. This model says effort is seen as a component on the observed significance of
compensation and the relationship of effort-reward as it relates to compensation. Porter
and Lawler (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) indicated that workers need to put forth more
effort when they think they will be compensated fairly for their work. In determining
performance, the correlation between exertion and performance is influenced by the
workers’ abilities and characteristics (Porter, as cited in Ramlall, 2004). This means
workers with higher skills are able to gain higher levels of achievement relative to the
amount of effort they put forth, versus those who do not have the same talent level.
Therefore, it is fair to say that job satisfaction can result from the employees’ view of the
fairness of the compensation they receive. Generally speaking, workers will be content
when they feel they are being paid their market worth. Furthermore, employees will
determine what they feel they should be compensated based on previous experience
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(Ramlall, 2004). Figure 7 is an adaptation of Ramlall’s illustration of Porter and
Lawler’s expectancy model.
Figure 7. An example of Porter and Lawler’s expectancy model. Adapted from “A Review of
Employee Motivation Theories and Their Implications for Employee Retention Within
Organizations,” by S. Ramlall, 2004, Journal of American Academy of Business, 5(1/2), p. 62.
Victor Vroom (1964) investigated why individuals put energy into those things
that will lead to the outcomes they want. Vroom concluded that people will make a
calculation of the costs and benefits of the different options they have and then choose
the one with the best payoff. House and Wahba (as cited in Tosi et al., 1994) gave an
example of some of the major ideas in expectancy theory:
Suppose a car salesman has different ways to approach work. He might (1) spend
a lot of time calling prospective buyers or (2) wait until customers come into the
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store. What the salesperson does depends on the preference for certain outcomes
and the expectations about these outcomes. Figure [8] shows how such a problem
might be set up if the two possible outcomes are “100 bonus” at the end of the
month or “no bonus.” Figure [8] also shows the expectancy for each of these
outcomes for the different sales efforts. Suppose the salesman estimates that
calling customers has a probability (an expectation) of .8 that the bonus will be
earned and an expectation of only .2 of earning the bonus if he waits for the
customers. The motivation to call customers is much higher. According to
expectancy theory, the salesman would choose the work behavior, calling
customers. The figure shows how this is calculated. The expected value of
“calling customers” is $80, i.e., ([.8 X $100] + [.2 X $0]), while the expected
value of “waiting in the showroom” is $20, i.e., ([.2 X $100] + [.8 X $0]). (Tosi et
al., 1994, p. 228)
Figure 8. A design of expectancy-driven behavior. From Managing Organizational Behavior

(3rd ed.), by H. L. Tosi et al., 1994, Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, p. 229.
66
Tosi et al. (1994) showed in Figure 9 an example of how an employee would view
the different outcomes related to performance. They said the following in regard to
performance outcomes:
It shows four outcomes for the performance. “How many cars I sell.” These
outcomes are (1) “How much pay do I get,” (2) “How I increase my advancement
opportunities,” (3) “How I feel because I did a good job,” and (4) co-worker
relationships. All these outcomes affect the level of motivation. As an
illustration, a salesperson may feel that if he or she puts forth a great deal of
effort, high performance (E Æ P) will result. This level of performance may have
a high probability of advancement can lead to resentful co-workers. These
several outcomes of performance (pay, advancement, self-esteem, and co-worker
relations) are all PÆ O expectations.
Figure 9. Effort-performance and performance-outcome expectations. From Managing

Organizational Behavior (3rd ed.), by H. L. Tosi et al., 1994, Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, p. 230.
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High P Æ O expectancies, particularly with respect to attaining rewards,

are necessary for high performance. This is called the performance-reward
linkage, and if it isn’t made, then we shouldn’t expect a person to put forth effort.
(p. 230)
Goal-Setting Theory
This theory shows that performance is caused by a person’s intention to perform
(Locke & Latham, 1990). The concept of this theory is simple: An individual with higher
goals will do better than someone with lower ones. If someone knows exactly (or
specifically) what he/she wants to do, that person is going to outperform those whose
goals or objectives are vague. The following are some basic ideas that highlight this
theory:
1. There is a general positive relationship between goal difficulty and performance. For
the most part, challenging goals will lead an individual to produce better results as
opposed to those tasks that are not challenging. Regardless of the research setting, the
results remain consistent across the board, regardless of what type of task was given
(Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981; Tubbs, 1986).
This is no different in the world of employment. When employees are given
challenging goals, it leads to better results (Tubbs, 1986). Two studies were
conducted to support this theory. Logging crews with challenging work performed
better than those with easy goals, and software engineers who had complex work
worked harder and functioned at a higher level than those who were not challenged as
much (Latham & Locke, 1975; Lock et al., 1981; Rasch & Tosi, 1992)
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2. Specific goals lead to higher performance than general goals. There is a general
notion that implies managers set goals that are not specific enough for their employees
(Carroll & Tosi, 1973). In fact, there is a substantial amount of research showing the
advantages of having specific goals delegated to employees (Tubbs, 1986). In those
studies, two groups of individuals are given the same work to complete. One group is
given a generic goal without anything specific. The other group of individuals is told
to perform a specific task that is measurable.
3. Participation is related to performance through goal acceptance and commitment. In
the beginning, it was believed by goal-setting theorists that participation was not
linked to an employee’s effort unless it was related to his or her specific goals. This
was a contentious proposal for a couple of reasons. In the late 1950s, the theory of
management by objectives was mainstreamed by Peter Drucker, inferring participation
in goal setting is a management affair. The second issue came to head in the early
1970s when there was an increase in the quality of work-life participation in the U.S.
industry. This movement included more collaboration between managers and
subordinates over working conditions. A study by Erez, Early, and Hulin (1985)
highlighted the influence of participation. In their study, it appeared that participation
did not have a direct correlation to performance but did play a significant role through
commitment and goals. Their study took place in an animal laboratory where workers
were separated into two groups. One group worked collaboratively in a system to
monitor the animals on a daily basis. The other group’s task was dictated by a
supervisor, and there was no collaboration. The results of the study were that the
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collaborative group was more committed to their goals than the other group, whose
tasks were micromanaged. Furthermore, Erez and his associates discovered that the
level of performance was related to individual goal acceptance.
When an individual has the autonomy to make choices on how to reach a goal
as well as the task, his or her participation is likely to increase. This increase in
participation plays a huge role in commitment and the individual’s performance. Erez
and his associates (1985) discovered a link between the information about goals and
the autonomy in how to achieve those objectives. Early (1985) believed choice had a
positive correlation to performance when there was more information provided. He
believed information was a significant influence of an employee’s acceptance of his or
her goals and performance.
It is important to note that the results of this study are complicated. The
findings must not be applied only to specific situations where supervisors want their
employees to set goals, but they must be applied in a general sense (Carroll & Tosi,
1973). The participation of the employees cannot be superficial. Workers need to
have autonomy in how they execute their task, what their goal level should be, and all
the information they need to be successful.
4. Feedback about performance with respect to goals is necessary. Having clear
objectives and constructive criticism about an individual’s work product is necessary
for higher performance (Locke et al., 1981). This is crucial for the employee to know
if the benchmark of the performance has been met. This notion is supported by
Tubbs’s (1986) research on the effect of feedback. His study concluded that when
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there was constructive criticism given to employees, the challenging goals that were
delegated to them showed a strong correlation to their performance. The results were
not as strong for those who did not receive any feedback. Another study reinforcing
the effects of feedback was conducted by Kim and Hamner (1976). Kim and Hamner
rated the performance of two groups of service personnel at Michigan Bell. Goals
without feedback were given to one group, and the other group was given goals and
given feedback on the outcome of their work. The group with goals who received
feedback on their work outperformed the other group who just received goals, not
feedback. The study also concluded that the group receiving the feedback on their
goals had a better safety record and lower costs to their bottom line.
Although the research on goal-setting theory is proven to have a solid foundation
to motivation and performance, there are two issues not taken into account. These
matters deal with individual differences and goal complexity. Generally speaking,
individuals with certain characteristics would create their own sense of what goals they
wish to accomplish and the method they see fit to be successful in obtaining those goals.
For example, a personality factor that would be seen as having a significant influence in
individuals’ performance toward their goals is self-esteem. Carroll and Tosi (1973)
concluded a study where managers having high self-esteem felt they put forth more effort
toward their performance goals than the other managers with low self-esteem. In goal
complexity, tasks were given for simple jobs. These tasks were studied for simple jobs
including typing or loading a truck. Studying objectives for managers and specialists is
not as easy—for example, establishing goals for a police captain or superintendent of a

71
school district. From the vantage point of goal-setting theory, it is virtually impossible to
determine how the superintendent or police captain determines duties and sets priorities
where the tasks set up are expected to show a difference in specificity and difficulty. It is
important to note that capability was not mentioned in this theory. Wood, Mento, and
Locke (1987) gave details highlighting the issue of capability. Their findings concluded
that objective specificity and objective difficulty were lower in outcomes for more
complex tasks than for the uncomplicated tasks. This means there is a high probability of
a higher threshold for the effect of goals on managerial and professional work.
Theory X, Y, and Z
Research has shown the need to shift to a commitment-based styled organization
centered on employee responsibility, autonomy, and empowerment (Orpen, 1979). This
will help improve the quality of people’s jobs, increase internal motivation, and improve
job satisfaction. There are many theories that hypothesize about what actually motivates
human beings. Theories X and Y are two of the most well-known theories today.
Douglas McGregor is perhaps the individual most responsible for contrasting Maslow’s
ideas with the workplace industry. McGregor (1960) developed theories X and Y to
describe his assumptions on what motivates people. The following is a breakdown of
each theory.
Theory X. The traditional view of direction and control:
x Man is a beast
x Evil is man’s inherent nature.
x Biology drives man.
x Force motivates man.
x Competition is man’s basic mode of interaction.
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x Individual is man’s social unit of importance.

x Pessimistic best describes man’s view of man. (McGregor, as cited in Reddin,
1970, p. 189)
In other words,
The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he
[or she] can. Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people
must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment to get them
to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organizational objectives.
The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility,
has relatively little ambition, wants security above all. (McGregor, 1960, pp. 33-
34)
According to McGregor (1960), theory X also assumes the average human being prefers
to be directed, avoids responsibility, has little drive for ambition, and wants security
above all else.
Theory Y. The integration of individual and organizational goals:
x Man is a self-actualizing being.

x Good is man’s inherent nature.
x Humanism drives man.
x Voluntary cooperation motivates man.
x Cooperation is man’s basic mode of interaction.
x Group is man’s social unit of importance.
x Optimistic best describes man’s view of man. (McGregor, as cited in Reddin,
1970, p. 189)
In other words,
1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or

rest.
2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for
bringing about effort toward organizational objectives. People will exercise
self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are
committed.
3. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their
achievement.
4. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept
but to seek responsibility.
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5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and

creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly,
distributed in the population.
6. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of
the average human being are only partially utilized. (McGregor, 1960, pp. 47-
48)
Theory Z. William Ouchi (1981) developed a new theory based on McGregor’s
X and Y theories: theory Z. Theory Z says,
x Man has a will.

x He is open to good and evil.
x Situation drives man.
x Reason motivates him.
x Interdependence is man’s basic mode of interaction.
x Interaction is man’s social unit of importance.
x Objective best describes man’s view of man. (Reddin, 1970, p. 190)
Ouchi (1981) outlined his 13 steps as follows:
1. Understand the Type Z Organization and Your Role. With any type of change,
there will always be some form of resistance. Leaders need to create an
environment where employees can feel safe voicing their opinion. Leaders
need to “resist interpreting skepticism as foot-dragging, lack of cooperation,
or the like.” If leaders do so they will, “the skeptics will conceal their doubts
and never go beyond them.”
Ouchi says the second reason to invite skepticism has to do with the
development of trust. How is trust to be developed? The best way is for the
leader to set an example. Nevertheless, the skeptic, who is being asked to
abandon his old managerial objectives, does not know if he does share goals
that are compatible with new ideas. He said in his experience openness and
candor in a relationship.
2. Audit your company’s philosophy. The mission statement of an organization’s
objectives, gives employees a sense of values to work and live by. It
recommends ways an organization to behave in response to its people, its
clients, and the community it serves. If it seems out of the ordinary for that a
business or organization to depend upon a philosophy of all things, reconsider:
“A philosophy clearly sets forth the company’s motivating spirit for all to
understand. Whether directly or indirectly, that philosophy determines how
insiders and outsiders alike appraise, trust, and value the company and its
products. The reasons for this ‘audit’ are many.”
First thing to remember is that it is not possible to create a philosophy
out of thin air. It is necessary to understand your company’s culture by
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analyzing four or five key decisions it has made in the past. Questions that
probe the answers can be asked such as, “what worked well? What failed?
Where are the inconsistencies and omissions?” Holding a series of meetings
to identify these decisions will help create a foundation for a philosophy.
Second, the reason why “a philosophy is important is that every
organization develops inconsistencies over time between what is officially
declared to be desirable by top managers and what those managers actually
do.”
Third, the audit will reveal the connections between business strategy
and management philosophy. Companies in general have some sort of
business strategy statement. This statement will often refer to financial goals
such as market share, sales growth, and measures of cost or of profitability. It
is rare that these statements of objectives are linked explicitly to an
understanding of the organization.
3. Define the desired management philosophy and involve the company leader.
Once there is a clear understanding of the new prevailing practices, it will
soon come to light which current beliefs are inappropriate, which are at odds
with other practices, and where there are omissions. It is at this time the role
of the formal leader or chief executive is most critical. The process of
organizational change cannot succeed without the direct and personal support
of the top person in the hierarchy. If a group, with the encouragement of their
leader, undertakes a participative approach to an audit, they will be just
beginning to practice a new-to-them egalitarian relationship. The leader may
reluctant to intervene because he might upset his subordinates’ tentative
moves at confrontation, and thus withhold personal views on key issues.
4. Implement the philosophy by creating both structures and incentives. “In a
sense a company’s formal reporting relationship-its system of who reports to
whom-are crutches to prop up the occasional lapses in information and in
cooperativeness that befall humans.” According to Ouchi, in order for
organizations to run more perfectly and efficiently, they need to go away from
the organizational chart, and go more towards a flat organization. A flat
organization has no divisions, no visible structure whatsoever. He compares
this to a basketball team. He says a basketball team that plays well together
fits this particular profile, although it is on a smaller scale. He says, “The
problem facing a basketball team is huge in its complexity, and the speed with
which problems occur is great.” However, Ouchi continued by saying, an
effective team solves these problems with no formal reporting relationships
and a minimum of specialization of positions and of tasks. Each person
understands his task and its relationship to other tasks so well that the
coordination is unspoken. Ouchi compares the less cooperative team as
players trying to hog the ball, players taking as many shots for themselves as
possible as possible, and that these attempts frequently take them out of their
defensive positions. Most organizations, however, need structure to guide
75
them towards cooperation and subtly, towards the long view when other
conditions dictate the opposite.
5. Develop interpersonal skills. Skills that involve dealing with clients,
customers, even family, are the kinds of skills that people must learn to adapt
to colleagues and co-workers. Ouchi says, “Interpersonal skills are central to
the Z way of doing business, because working cooperatively and considerately
is not just a means for soothing egos or getting your way.” He says the Z
organization succeeds through the flexibility to modify its form as it needs
change. In such a setting, the number of strips on a manager’s sleeve do not
necessarily signal who is in charge. When a special committee meets Z-style
to solve a problem, included will be all of the stakeholders, which would
include four people of equal official rank, three of subordinate rank who know
more about the problem, and three of ambiguous rank and authority, who may
be superior, equal or subordinate, but knows, exactly. Often it is the skillful
leader who does more listening than talking. What matters most is the skill of
observing the pattern of interaction in the group and knowing when to
intervene. An interpersonal skill that is not effective is straight probing of
coworkers. It is counterintuitive to ask employees to learn how to reach
decisions and how to handle conflict in unstructured, nonhierarchical groups if
the groups if the problems that matter most are not solvable. The first skill
that needs to be learned is the skill of recognizing patterns of interaction in
decision-making and problem-solving groups. Just as one can learn in
medical school to interpret an X-ray meaningless to the untrained eye, so one
can learn to “see” group interaction in quite a different way than that of the
layperson. Once the leader recognizes the patterns of group interaction, the
second skill, of course, is to provide leadership in such a group, so that the
group can quickly identify the important issues, get to the bottom of conflicts,
and arrive at high-quality, creative solutions that have everyone’s support.
With practice, this skill can also be learned.
6. Test yourself and the system. When an organization innovation is
implemented, there must be some test to reveal whether it had the expected
effect or not. The test does not have to expensive, but it must be capable of
helping to convince the skeptic that his or her concerns were unfounded.
Before any top-level managers implement Theory Z to management at the
lower levels, they must first test themselves to determine how much of the
philosophy has taken hold. One-way managers can see if they are making
progress is to involve a brief questionnaire to their direct subordinates who are
asked to evaluate that person’s participativeness, egalitarianism, and other
changes that involves either personal managerial skills or changes in policy
and structure. Another form of testing involves someone not involved in the
attempted change to visit the operation, interview some of the managers and
subordinates, and to write down their impressions of the organizations. It is
best if the “auditor” is unaware about the extent or nature of the process until
after the report is written. During this process of reflection, the job of the
76
manager does not become easier. With the growth toward a Type Z
organization, the manager will not only feel less harried, but less pleased.
Chances are they will doubt their personal skill at management, question the
coordinative skill of their subordinates, and feel unsure about being a
manager. This is what a Type Z should feel like. Subordinates regularly
challenging and even ridiculing their superiors. Ultimately the Type Z
organization fosters an environment where production workers listen to their
customers and everyone in the organization truly participates in an egalitarian
and integrated setting. This type of environment setting demands more of
managers.
7. Involve the union. At some point preferably well before any substantive
changes in working conditions such as stabilizing employment or introducing
slow evaluation and promotion are discussed, the new Type Z company will
have to involve the union in its plan. “The Union” has become among
managers a code word representing poor quality, low productivity, worker
apathy, absenteeism, work stoppages, and even employee theft. Many Unions
in the United States were created to protect the interests of employees who
were being systematically abused by managements and have thus developed a
contentious relationship with management. Japanese companies, however, are
unionized without any apparent ill effect. It is fair to say that everyone is
against poor productivity and poor employee relations, but no one needs to be
against unions. The Type Z organization relies largely upon an egalitarian
distribution of power for its success. In many companies, however, the union
has been forced into an adversarial position by an unfair and irresponsible
management. Having no trust in the company, the union has resorted to
extremes of bureaucracy. The union insists on detailed work rules to specify
which classes of workers operate the machines, which repair the machines,
and so on. This extensive rule making protects employees from unfair
demands by managers. The unintended consequence of this practice is a loss
of flexibility. Ouchi compares this to a basketball team. He says it is as if the
players on the basketball team were told that one player may only take set
shots, another must always bring the ball down court, and two others may
only rebound. Although the actual distribution of tasks roughly does
correspond to this kind of specialization on a basketball team, the effect on
productivity would be disastrous if the shooter could never rebound, even if
the ball fell into his hands. When the motives of the management conflict
with a hostile union, the company can counteract to weaken the union. An
increase in fringe benefits may work. Management may even try to decertify
unionized plants, thereby throwing the union out. However, in the long run,
these approaches are likely to fail. Companies that change from an autocratic,
to a democratic style of management, will and should win the trust of its
employees who will have less need for union protection. Instead of
sabotaging the union, a patient management will discover that the union
eventually recognizes the need for more flexibility in work rules in order to
77
provide higher productivity and job security. For a workable situation with
the union or any industrial relations specialist, both management and
employees must be convinced of the value of different incentives broader than
just protecting and fighting one another—incentives to sustain a productive
working relationship. After all, unions and companies who fail to work for
these changes lower productivity and otherwise bring about failure.
8. Stabilize employment. Stability of employment comes in part as a direct
outcome of policy. A great deal of voluntary termination by employees who
have better alternatives can be overcome by providing them with a work
environment that offers equity, challenge, and participation in decisions about
their work. Involuntary termination, or mass layoff and specific firing of
employees, is largely a matter of company policy. Some companies will
argue that layoffs are forced on them when the economy weakens and sales
decline. To a company that is noncompetitive, layoffs become a standard
procedure when the economy declines. Companies suffering from short-run
decline can avoid layoffs through a sharing of the misfortune. For example,
shareholders can share in the loss by accepting less profits or moderate losses
for one year. In exchange, a highly committed and experienced team of
employees will repay them in future years with large profits. Similarly,
employees at all levels can share the burden by accepting shortened
workweeks and paychecks, foregoing perquisites and temporarily performing
tasks they find distasteful. On two occasions, Hewlett-Packard has adopted
the nine-day fortnight along with a hiring freeze, a travel freeze, and the
elimination of perquisites. These steps kept the employees on the job while
other companies in the industry had layoffs. Because of these practices by
Hewlett-Packard, they have had the lowest voluntary turnover rate, the most
experienced workforce in the industry, and one of the highest rates of growth
and profitability (House & Price, 2009). A pivotal factor in stabilizing
employment is slow evaluation and promotion.
9. Decide on a system for slow evaluation and promotion. Motion is relative.
Young people are impatient. Despite the constancy of these two facts,
slowing down the process of evaluation and promotion is vital to underscore
to employees the importance of long-run performance. Then they will forget
about the short run and instead do what basically makes sense for the short or
long run—right?
That approach overlooks that the best people always have the most
outside options and that impatient, young people may irrationally leave more
promising career with a Type Z company to join a Type A company. The
solution to the problem is simple: promote them rapidly compared to the
competition so that they won’t leave, but promote them slowly compared to
their peers so that they will develop a long-run view.
10. Broaden career path development. Recently, as it has become increasingly
clear that the United States’ economy was entering a sustained period of slow
growth, research has increasingly focused on the middle-aged, middle level
78
professional or manager who has limited prospects for further advancement.

The results suggest that managers who continue to circulate across jobs within
a company, but without hierarchical promotion, retain their enthusiasm, their
effectiveness, and their satisfaction at a level almost as high as that of the
“stars” who continue to move both around and up. By comparison, those who
remain in the same position without vertical or horizontal movement quickly
lose their interest, their enthusiasm, and their commitment.
11. Preparing for implementation at the first level. All stages of the
implementation to this point have focused on managerial and professional
employees. Many suggestions will prompt managers to deal with first-level
supervisors and with hourly or production and clerical employees in new
ways, but the target group so far has been the middle and upper employee.
Traditionally most United States firms have introduced changes in the lower
ranks. But Theory Z advocates the opposite approach that has been taken by
Japanese companies as well as some United States firms such as General
Motors.
The reasons for starting at the top boil down to one central issue: A
lower level employee or manager cannot participate unless those above
provide the invitation to do so. If an organization begins by being rigidly
hierarchical, evolutionary change must begin at the top of that hierarchy. The
only change that can begin at the bottom in such an organization is revolution,
and revolution was the solution that brought on the United States labor union
movement in its currently antagonistic form.
12. Seek out areas to implement participation. If equitable reward, job stability,
and inter-departmental coordination have been achieved, then the commitment
and the productivity of hourly employees will already have begun to rise.
Although I know of no systemic way to test the proposition, I would guess
that most of the poor productivity attributed by managers to workers in fact is
the result of inputs not received, machinery not repaired, and designs poorly
coordinated by uncooperative managers who are competing against one
another. Nonetheless, significant gains in productivity have been achieved by
companies such as Proctor & Gamble, Herman Miller, and General Motors,
through the application of participative approaches at the office or shop floor
level. Solicit suggestions from workers as a group rather than from a few
anonymous suggestion boxes. And don’t be fearful of implementing them. In
one office, orders taken from customers were passed on to the distribution part
of the company. These customers, however, consistently called at the busiest
part of these office workers’ day. Management’s attitude had traditionally
been grin-and-bear-it. But, under a Type Z approach, the employees decided
to contact those customers, explain their problem, and try to understand the
customers’ needs. A system was arranged whereby the bottleneck of calls
was soon avoided—all through employees’, not management’s ideas.
13. Permit the development of holistic relationships. Wholistic relationships are a
consequence rather than a cause of organizational integration. In part, they
79
help to maintain the egalitarian nature of the organization by bringing

superiors and subordinates together as temporary equals and thus demonstrate
that the distance between them is neither great nor impassible. However, it
would be a mistake for an organization to expect to attain the benefits of
productivity and of social integration by dressing employees in uniforms,
commissioning the writing of a company song, and sponsoring bowling
leagues and picnics. These are the kinds of expressions of solidarity, of
cohesiveness, that emerge from a group of employees who enjoy working
together and who enjoy sharing their feelings of belonging. Any organization
blessed with such an atmosphere will have a difficult time keeping it under
wraps. (pp. 85-109)
The Effects of Rewards on

Intrinsic Motivation
Cameron and Pierce (2002) examined the issue of rewards and how they affect
intrinsic motivation. Based on historical, narrative, and meta-analytic reviews, Cameron
and Pierce showed that rewards do not have extensive negative effects. Cameron and
Pierce stated that careful arrangement of rewards enhances motivation, performance, and
interest.
Stress in Policing
Lack of retention in police departments may stem from stress. Stress has been
found to have a substantial effect on an employee’s level of job satisfaction. While it is
widely known that policing is an extremely stressful occupation, Getahun, Sims, and
Hummer (2008) found that even probation and parole officers who report less stress at
work are more likely to report a higher level of job satisfaction. Martelli, Walters, and
Martelli (1989) stated that police officers with higher levels of stress tend to have lower
levels of satisfaction with their job. Violanti and Aron (1993), through their study of the
source of police stressors, found organizational stressors, such as the administration’s

80
procedures and policies, and inherent stressors, or the nature of police work and fear of
being harmed in the course of police duties, significantly affect job satisfaction.
Organizational stressors were found to be six times more impactful than intrinsic
stressors on police officers (Violanti & Aron, 1993). In other words, police officers with
a higher level of job satisfaction have been shown to have lower levels of stress.
When it comes to the subject of what motivates employees in any profession,
some of the answers include autonomy, being valued, having a sense of purpose, and
doing work that is challenging and rewarding. However, there seems to be a question of
whether or not leaders in policing understanding motivation. The primary sources of
stress in policing are from police administrators (Toch, 2002). Police officers are
satisfied at work when they are in an environment (a) that is “redolent with
professionalism and efficiency,” (b) where fairness and equity are promoted, and
(c) where they are fortunate to have responsive and supportive leadership (Toch, 2002,
p. 2-1). Toch (2002) found, “Least desirable attributes . . . involved political interference,
nepotism and inequity, lack of professionalism or blatant incompetence, conflict, and
insensitive leadership” (p. 2-1).
There is a common culture within the police department where officers have a
distain for management. It is not uncommon to hear phrases such as, “Always cover your
ass,” and “Do not trust bosses to look out for your interests” (Reuss-Ianni, as cited in
Crank, 2004, p. 311). The level of frustration some officers have with administrators,
policies, and procedures can be seen in a comment an officer made regarding rules in his
department’s General Orders:

81
140 years of fuck-ups. Every time something goes wrong, they make a rule about
it. All the directions in the force flow from someone’s mistake. You can’t go
eight hours on the job without breaking the disciplinary code . . . no one cares
until something goes wrong. The job goes wild on trivialities. (Manning, as cited
in Crank, 2004, p. 311)
Micromanaging has been “widely cited in civilian life” as well as law
enforcement, and is usually associated with the “upper levels of bureaucracies in all areas
of contemporary society” (Crank, 2004, p. 315). Some of the problems may be with the
leaders of the agencies, but also the “nature of the rank-structure itself” may be
responsible for the profusion of dissatisfaction among police officers (Crank, 2004,
p. 315). Police officers who have these negative experiences may become unhappy and
dissatisfied at work. Bureaucracies within a police department have always been the
main source of stress for police officers, and stress leads to demotivation (Toch, 2002).
Crank (2004) argued, “Police organizations are quasi-military organizations. Like
military organizations, a sworn officer’s authority lies not in his or her assignment, . . .
but in the rank” (p. 315). In the civilian workforce, authority lies in the assignment of
workers. Rankings in the police organization “range from line officers at the lowermost
rungs to the chief on top” (Crank, 2004, p. 315). Within this structure there are
transitional “ranks of sergeant, lieutenant, captain, and deputy chief. Under a rank-
structure like this, all line officers are technically below all sergeants, who are themselves
below lieutenants, and so forth” (Crank, 2004, p. 315).
Police chiefs have very little control over the behavior of their line officers
(Crank, 2004). However, the perception contradicts this notion. If that is the case, how
is it that perception dictates that police chiefs have control over the culture of the
82
department they serve? For example, it would be extremely difficult for a chief to know
if an officer was making quality proactive citizen or traffic stops when there is probable
cause for a stop. However, a sergeant or above can berate an officer for marginal
infractions such as a badge not being shined to the appropriate level. Crank (2004)
stated, “The illusion of control is sustained by changing the organizational focus from
goal-orientated measures of effectiveness, such as community levels of crime, to a
detailed, ritualistic concern for intra-organizational images or orderliness” (p. 316).
In other words, in order to maintain the perception of chiefs having control over
their departments, they emphasize the importance of internal departmental procedures.
The fact remains, police chiefs have very little control over crime on the street, and they
cannot control the behavior of officers on patrol. Images of orderliness are something
over which chief administrators and higher ranking officers have control (Crank, 2004).
The following story was taken from research in the New York Police Department and
describes the perception that administrators are out of touch with the officers on the front
lines:
They are always hassling us about keeping our hats on and shirts buttoned and
then they send us out to muck our way through garbage, broken bottles, and piss
. . . and I’m not even talking about alleyways, I’m talking about inside buildings
. . . and duck bricks and bottles heaved from those buildings [The officer pointed
them out as we drove by]. All they care about is that someone might take a
picture of one of us with our hats off and our collars open and it would look bad
for them. (Reuss-Ianni, as cited in Crank, 2004, pp. 316-317)
The History of Police Bureaucracy as a

Source for Lack of Motivation
Crank (2004) said,

83
The result of this system of goal-displacement is the arbitrary disbursement of

discipline for officers who work in a highly unpredictable and discretionary
environment that cannot be brought into line with managerial ideas of efficiency.
The organization punishes its members for violating procedures but offers no
specifications for what they should do and how they should do it (Manning,
1978). (p. 317)
This type of blanket response to sporadic issues individual officers bring upon themselves
has always been perceived as contributing to eroding morale in police departments
throughout the United States. According to Crank, “There is a historical linkage between
bureaucracy, chain-of-command,” and low morale (p. 317). In 1893, “police executives
founded what they called the police professionalization movement. . . , so that they could
better control the behavior of line officers” (Fogelson; Walker, as cited in Crank, 2004,
p. 317). Because of the political influence over line personnel, “turn-of-the-century
reformists advocated both the development of chain-of-command accountability and
bureaucratic efficiency” (Crank, 2004, p. 317).
The ideas of the type of “organizational design advocated by police professionals
were wildly inconsistent with commonplace ideas of the professions as embodied in law
and medicine” (Crank, 2004, p. 317). Crank (2004) added, “The process of police
professionalization” was identical to heavy bureaucratization, instead of the “ideas of
creative decentralized decisionmaking associated with the professions (Brown, 1981)”
(p. 318). During the 1930s and 1960s, police reformers found themselves in this
particular dilemma but continued to move forward with the notion of more
bureaucratization. The police professionalization movements “were marked by
accountability procedures [that were] increasingly rigid, as administrators sought to bring
line officer discretion under control” (Crank, 2004, p. 318). Manning (as cited in Crank,
84
2004) viewed this mandate as impossible. It was unfathomable that events officers found
themselves in could be controlled. It was difficult to see how administrators could make
outcomes predictable in police-citizen encounters. Crank observed, “The real
consequence has been and continues to be increasing rift between line personnel and
management brass (Reuss-Ianni, 1983). Management seeks to use new technologies to
expand bureaucratic controls, and line personnel carp, grouse, and seek petty revenges”
(p. 318).
Factors That Lead to Lack of

Motivation for Police Officers
It is widely believed that stress police officers face is related to “the dangers of
everyday police work” and other causes (Crank, 2004, p. 318). However, research shows
that police officers have “consistently identified their own administration, top
[management], middle management, and rules” as sources of stress they encounter on a
regular basis (Crank, 2004, p. 318). Some of the responses in a study by Crank and
Caldero (as cited in Crank, 2004) from police officers were directed at top police
management. One police officer said,
If you need one element—it’s the superiors who run this department . . . the chief
and his kiss-asses who stab you in the back and don’t really care about you as a
human being. Well, you wanted to know didn’t you? In our department, it’s that
way. (Crank & Caldero, as cited in Crank, 2004, p. 318)
Another respondent addressed the frustration associated with middle management
and sergeants:
Over supervision by Sergeants. They arrive at a scene and quickly make a

mountain out of a mole hill, issue various orders to make themselves sound
85
important, and then vanish into thin air leaving the beat officer to straighten out
the mess they made. (Crank & Caldero, as cited in Crank, 2004, p. 319)
Rules and regulations were another issue frequently cited by police officers as
being out of touch with the basic needs of officers.
Rules and regulations . . . are detrimental when they do not allow you the freedom
to do your job according to each situation that arises. Officers who become afraid
to do their job effectively because of overstepping the bounds of the rules and the
regulations are of no use to the public that depends on them. (Crank & Caldero, as
cited in Crank, 2004, p. 319)
Officers do not like any form of favoritism shown to particular officers. The
following statement identifies the preoccupation with authority independent of the police
crime control mission:
. . . favoritism, in that it is already well known in advance by supervisors which of

their buddies they want promoted, and who will be held back, regardless of
ability. Awards and evaluations are doled out to build or destroy careers.
Supervisors do not know how officers are performing because they do not
supervise them. They only count tickets and read reports at the end of the day.
Tickets and popularity become the sole criteria for evaluation. The absolute proof
of this is in the records of the promoted [officers] themselves. The only other
outstanding trait of these placehunting supervisors is their subservience toward
their own “supervisors” matched by their own superciliousness toward their so-
called “inferiors” and former comrades. These heroic knights of the coffee cup
are so lacking in any real creative intelligence as to be truly amusing were it not
for their indolence and inconsistency. (Crank & Caldero, as cited in Crank, 2004,
pp. 319-320)
Police work is not for everyone. Some who are dedicated and committed to the
ideals of policing may someday decide to call it quits, years before they are eligible for
retirement. The loss associated with a police officer leaving the force is felt financially
and emotionally. The police department loses a substantial financial investment in an
officer, but the community has lost a devoted servant. It has been suggested that stresses
and dangers of police work account for police officers’ decision to resign (Reiser, 1974;
86
Singleton & Tehan, 1978). However, it appears that resignation from police officers may
come from pressures associated with the organization. Police officers, upset with the
administrative and rule-laden phenomena associated with chain-of-command authority,
may leave the career of policing.
First Responders Feeling

Lack of Motivation
Congress recently passed the 9/11 Bill (Miga, 2010). The 9/11 bill was
introduced to pay for the costs of medical care for the first responders, rescue workers,
and anyone else who became ill from the dust, smoke, and toxic fumes after the 2001
attack on the World Trade Center in New York City. The bill stalled in the Senate
because Republicans questioned the price tag associated with the bill. It was perceived
by the public and by first responders that members of Congress were playing politics and
ignoring the service many men and women gave during the aftermath of the terrorist acts
at the World Trade Center buildings. Marvin Bethea, a former paramedic from the Fire
Department of New York “who suffered permanent lung damage after helping with the
cleanup,” said, “If it ever happens again, why would anyone do what we did? To be
forced to beg for help for nine years?” (as cited in Miga, 2010, para. 18-19). Bethea
continued to say, “I’m proud of the fact that I played a role that day, but I’m embarrassed
by the way we’ve been treated” (as cited in Miga, 2010, para. 19). The bill’s original
proposal was for $7.2 billion, but after complaints from some lawmakers, the overall cost
for the bill was dropped to $4.2 billion (Miga, 2010).

87
Race
Some might presume that African American police officers would have a
decreased sense of job satisfaction compared to their Caucasian counterparts, since law
enforcement in the United States has been a predominantly Caucasian occupation.
However, current literature delivers no definitive answer on the outcomes of race on job
satisfaction. Miller, Mire, and Kim (2009) found no substantial relationship between race
and police job satisfaction and went on to say, “Much like that of gender, race may be
more indicative of job satisfaction in conjunction with other variables, but provides a
weak prediction on its own” (p. 420).
Buzawa (1984) reported inconsistent findings for the relationship between race
and job satisfaction. Dantzker (1994) also reported that race was not a major predictor of
job satisfaction. However, Boke and Nalla (2009) found race to be the only noteworthy
individual factor affecting police job satisfaction in a comparison of police officers from
Michigan and Ohio. Dowler’s (2005) study suggested African American police officers
are more likely to feel criticized and more likely to believe they are perceived as militant,
but less likely to feel negative or unhappy about work. In a study of correctional officers,
Rogers (1991) learned that African American officers were less satisfied with their job
overall and considerably less satisfied with promotional opportunities. Comparable
studies showed that African Americans consistently reported less satisfaction than
Caucasians, but not at a level that was statistically significant (Dipboye, Smith, &
Howell, 1994).
88
Slavery, institutionalized segregation in the public and private sector, systemic
discrimination, and overt racism are all powerful themes that have shed a negative aspect
on the history of social relations in the United States (Williams & Murphy, 1990). This
unfortunate part of history has not escaped policing. Even with the noble ideas of police
professionals and reformers of the 20th century, police departments have never been
independent of their political environments. Instead, police departments have been the
social and moral gauge of the society they serve. When the communities they
represented carried racist tendencies, the police followed suit. Williams and Murphy’s
(1990) history of policing in the United States uncovered ways in which policing, in
many places, evolved directly from efforts to control enslaved African groups. Clark
(2004) cited Williams and Murphy’s suggestion that “the contemporary community
policing movement . . . held the potential to begin to respond to problems of police
racism” (p. 259). In fact, according to Williams and Murphy (as cited in Clark, 2004),
“Many of the most vocal proponents of the community policing movement . . . were
themselves black police executives” (p. 259). They stated,
Their unswerving emphasis, in their statements of values, on the protection of

constitutional rights and the protection of all citizens, gives us reason to be
optimistic about the future of policing. (Williams & Murphy, as cited in Clark,
2004, p. 259)
Education
Education and age have been found to have a substantial effect on police job
satisfaction. Boke and Nalla (2009) conducted a study of police officer job satisfaction in
Michigan and Ohio and concluded that education has a significant correlation with job
89
satisfaction, with the more educated officers reporting lower levels of satisfaction with
their jobs. Rogers (1991), while investigating education and its effect on correctional
officer satisfaction, asserted that those with higher formal education tend to have higher
ambitions and expectations in their current job, which, if not met, could result in
dissatisfaction. Griffin, Dunbar, and McGill (1978), however, stated that some highly
educated officers may be pursuing greater job opportunities in other organizations as
opposed to stating feelings of job satisfaction.
Krimmel (1996) examined prior research on officers who have degrees and how
they perceive themselves and their job. His study suggested officers with degrees
perform better or may have different perceptions about their duties versus their
counterparts who do not have degrees. His study showed that education led to better
written and oral communication skills.
Dantzker’s (1993) study addressed the issue of job satisfaction as it relates to
officers having degrees. His study found that those who held degrees had a higher level
of satisfaction than those without degrees. However, if those officers were not able to
promote or move around, they became dissatisfied (Dantzker, 1993).
Zhao (1999) and Zhao, Thurman, and He (1999) looked at the sources of job
satisfaction among police officers. A test of demographic and work environment models
was performed. They concluded that officers who achieved higher satisfaction levels had
college degrees.
Research by Carter and Sapp (1990) showed the progress that police agencies
have made as they implemented policies that require some college or bachelor’s degrees.
90
This research showed statistics on minorities and women hired and/or promoted
compared to their respective counterparts. The focus of this body of research was the
relationship of officers who have degrees to citizen complaints. Kappeler, Sapp, and
Carter (1992) conducted a study of the difference in citizen complaints between officers
with degrees and those without degrees. Their study showed that officers with degrees
generated fewer complaints. The only drawback of the study is that it only looked at one
department from the Midwest.
A study conducted by Brooks, Piquero, and Cronin (1993) of two suburban police
agencies in Washington, DC, and their officers’ views of themselves and the community
they serve compared offers who held degrees to those who did not hold degrees. The
study indicated that officers with degrees had more self-esteem than those who did not
have degrees. The study suggested that these officers had a more holistic perspective on
how they approached their job. For example, in the same study, police officers who were
of the service-oriented mindset were more likely to view the community and the system
in favorable terms and less likely to support solidarity and force. In stark contrast, police
officers that were oriented toward crime control viewed the community less favorably
and were more inclined toward force and protecting and violations of other police
officers (Brooks et al., 1993). These findings are consistent with research showing the
correlation between higher education and less likelihood of misconduct of police officers
and positive experiences with the communities they serve (Bostrom, 2005; Carlan, 2006,
2007; Kane & White, 2009; LaGrange, 2003; Manis, Archbold, & Hassell, 2008;
McElvain & Kposowa, 2008; Paoline & Terrill, 2007).

91
Gender
The field of policing has predominantly been a male-dominated occupation. Over
time, law enforcement has increasingly become more of a profession women have
considered, and the amount of women in the business has multiplied substantially in the
past 20 years (National Center for Women & Policing, 2001). Discrimination in the
hiring of female police personnel is a common stressor women experience in law
enforcement (Cordner & Cordner, 2011). For instance, various height and weight
conditions are biased and may have been purposely instituted to prevent women from
entering the police force (Potts, 1983). Potts (1983) recounted incidents in the state of
Alabama and Maryland where these guidelines were deliberately set to reject 81% of the
females ages 18-34, because administrative personnel believed women should not be
police officers. Over time, with the establishment of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of
1964 and the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1974, steps have been taken to end
discrimination against women in the hiring process.
When women are hired in any profession, their usefulness on the job may be
questioned. Weisheit’s (1987) study on female and male state police officers reinforced
outcomes of previous studies indicating opposition to employing female officers. This
notion is not centered on impartial field performance but on the hesitancy of male officers
to accept female officers as equals (Weisheit, 1987). Gender differences in performance
do exist. However, women perform sufficiently overall (Bloch & Anderson, 1974;
Sherman, 1975). Although the evidence shows that females are just as effective as their
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male counterparts, female officers are less likely to receive patrol assignments or
administrative positions (Kukar, 2002; Lehtinen, 1976).
Davis (1984) suggested there is no difference between female and male officers in
regard to their experience as it relates to stress on the job. In his study, more than 50% of
both genders fell into the high-stress response category. However, women identified
danger significantly more often as a major stressor. Women also tend to feel less self-
confident as officers than their male coworkers. However, they view themselves as no
less efficient in their work (Davis, 1984; Harrington et al., 1999).
Pendergrass and Ostrove (1984) conducted a study comparing female and male
officers. Pendergrass and Ostrove found higher levels of biological stress in females than
in their male counterparts, which included women police officers also expressing more
concern with personal safety issues. Even though the likely stressors for female officers
could differ from those for male officers, male and female comparisons in job satisfaction
have not specifically been considered.
In summary, although women in law enforcement may eventually benefit from
the increased self-esteem and fulfillment that often accompanies advancement, they may
also face increased pressure to perform just as well as their male counterparts, and as a
result, they may suffer major occupational stress. Women are exposed to the same
environmental stressors as their male counterparts, and they may not be viewed as
competent by their male peers and may experience considerable role conflict and job
ambiguity.
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Years of Service
The number of years within police organizations can have an impact on job
satisfaction of police officers during their careers. Although training has not been
associated with job satisfaction in many studies within the current literature, it is usually
reflective of length of service within a police department. In other words, the longer a
police officer is employed with a department, the more training that officer will obtain
through in-service and training through outside schools. However, there is a selection
process in determining which officers get the opportunity to go to outside schools for
training. This distinct aspect of training can affect individual officers’ level of
satisfaction within their respective department (Boni, Adams, & Circelli, 2001).
Additionally, the current training for a department’s supervisor might have a
direct impact on the job satisfaction of officers of lower rank. In a study of job
satisfaction among probation and parole officers, Getahun et al. (2008) stated, “Ongoing
training programs for supervisors that focus on effective supervisory practices and
effective communication with staff appear to play an essential role in improving the
working environment and increase overall job satisfaction of organizational members”
(p. 6).
Intrinsic rewards such as autonomy, mastery, purpose, achievement,
advancement, growth, recognition, and doing the job itself provide job satisfaction to
employees of any workforce (Herzberg et al., 1959; Pink, 2009). If the theory out there
proves that these factors are essential to improving the morale of the workforce and
motivating employees, then why aren’t more police agencies using these models? It is
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not unusual to hear about police agencies bringing in outside influences to talk to their
workforce about what it is that works for them. The thinking is that some of these
companies have been successful because of some new techniques and secrets that they
created. The truth is, none of the elements that helped companies considered great for
high employee satisfaction are new. These theories have been proven time and time
again, and those who practice the theories are the ones who are successful.
Herzberg’s Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators
Frederick Herzberg was one of the earliest researchers who examined the area of
job design (Ramlall, 2004). He began his work on causes leading to job satisfaction in
the 1950s. He and his colleagues began by conducting a comprehensive review of job
satisfaction (Ramlall, 2004). Because of the comprehensive literature review conducted,
Herzberg conducted a study of accountants and engineers where he developed the
structure of his theory of motivation. His study discovered that employees were likely to
say fulfilling experiences were due to something intrinsic to the job itself. Herzberg
described these influences to job satisfaction as achievement, recognition, the work itself,
responsibility, advancement, and growth (Ramlall, 2004). In contrast, Herzberg called
the negative experiences an employee faces a result of a hygiene factor. These hygiene
factors mostly come from non-job-related factors like company policies, salary,
relationships with other employees, and supervision (Steers, as cited in Ramlall, 2004).
Herzberg said removing these sources of displeasure (or hygiene) is not going to create
satisfaction, only a state of neutrality. Herzberg argued that job satisfaction and
motivation would transpire only with the use of the motivators mentioned earlier
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(Ramlall, 2004). The point being made here is that motivation can be increased through
basic changes in the environment of one’s job, via job enrichment (Steers, as cited in
Ramlall, 2004). In other words, work would be more productive if it was redesigned to
allow for increased challenge and responsibility, opportunities for advancement, personal
growth, and recognition for employees (Ramlall, 2004).
Herzberg highlighted the fact that factors leading to job satisfaction are not
connected to the factors that create dissatisfaction (Ramlall, 2004). Because of this,
supervisors looking to eliminate the factors leading to job dissatisfaction will only be
propitiating their employees instead of motivating them (Robbins, as cited in Ramlall,
2004). Kreitner and Kinicki (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) emphasized an important point
made by Frederick Herzberg related to job satisfaction. In a study they conducted,
supervisors gave their employees more responsibilities that were performed by their
managers (vertical loading), instead of more work of the same difficulty (Kreitner &
Kinicki, as cited in Ramlall, 2004). Herzberg (as cited in Ramlall, 2004) outlined the
seven principles of vertical job loading:
1. Principle: “Removing some controls while retaining accountability.” Motivators
involved: “Responsibility and personal achievement.”
2. Principle: “Increasing the accountability of individuals for their own work.”
Motivators involved: “Responsibility and recognition.”
3. Principle: “Giving a person a complete natural unit of work (module, division, area,
and so on).” Motivators involved: “Responsibility, achievement, and recognition.”

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4. Principle: “Granting additional authority to an employee in one’s activity; job
freedom.” Motivators involved: “Responsibility, achievement, and recognition.”
5. Principle: “Making periodic reports directly available to the worker . . . rather than to
the supervisor.” Motivators involved: “Internal recognition.”
6. Principle: “Introducing new and more difficult tasks not previously handled.”
Motivators involved: “Growth and learning.”
7. Principle: “Assigning individuals specific or specialized tasks, enabling them to
become experts.” Motivators involved: “Responsibility, growth, and advancement.”
(p. 57)
Ramlall (2004) concluded,
In essence, there [is] more to a manager’s role in motivating employees other than
[providing] compensation, good working conditions, and similar benefits.
Herzberg argued that for an employee to be truly motivated, the employee’s job
has to be fully enriched where the employee has the opportunity for achievement
and recognition, stimulation, responsibility, and advancement. (p. 57)
Other researchers have studied the issue of motivation and have come up with
similar findings. Herzberg was one of the original psychologists who researched the
factors that motivated employees at work (Chapman, 2010). Regarded as the “father of
job enrichment,” he conducted several research studies from the 1950s to the 1970s.
From his research, he developed the motivation-hygiene theory (Herzberg et al., 1959).
The two-factor theory states there are certain factors in the workplace that causes job
satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. Herzberg et al. (1959)
theorized that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each other.
According to Herzberg et al., the motivating factors that cause dissatisfaction are related
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to extrinsic job characteristics. They described these external factors as pay and benefits,
company policy and administration, relationships with coworkers, supervision, status, job
security, working conditions, and personal life. Herzberg et al. discovered that intrinsic
motivators are the factors that lead to job satisfaction in employees. They described
those motivational factors as achievement, growth, recognition, advancement, and the job
itself. The following section shows how Herzberg described the two categories of
factors.
Intrinsic Factors
Recognition. Herzberg (as cited in Adair, 2009) outlined recognition as follows:
Any act of recognition, be it notice, praise or criticism . . . served as the main

criterion. The sub-categories allowed distinction between situations when
concrete awards were given along with the acts of recognition and those in which
they were not. (p. 72)
According to Maslow (as cited in Garcia-Retamero & Müller, n.d.), the fourth level of
motivation, which includes self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, and
respect by others in the organization, is normally based on the person’s productive
accomplishments. These successes can come in the form of “appraisals, incentives,
rewards received, and recognitions obtained, which all are related to self-confidence”
(Garcia-Retamero & Müller, n.d., para. 3).
Achievement. Sisk (2009) stated, “Achievement . . . can be defined as the need
for success or attainment of excellence” (p. 12). Sisk added, “Motivational researchers
. . . John Adair . . . and Douglas McGregor share the view that achievement behavior is
an interaction between situational variables and the motivation to achieve” (p. 13).
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According to Adair (2009), “Stories mentioning some specific success (or failure) were
placed in this category, e.g. successful completion of a job, solutions to problems,
vindication, and seeing the results of one’s work” (p. 73). Researchers interested in
behaviors related to achievement have recognized the important interaction between
achievement goals and intrinsic motivation (Herzberg et al., 1959; Maslow, 1943;
McGregor, 1960; Vroom, 1964). Customarily, two sorts of achievement goals have been
characterized. The first are mastery goals, which involve attempts to learn and increase
an individual’s competence. The second are performance goals, which attempt to
maximize positive assessments of competence and minimize negative appraisals.
Growth. Constantly improving one’s knowledge, skills, and abilities best
describes the desire for growth. Maslow (1943) viewed the need for growth as a need for
self-actualization. He believed the needs for growth and self-actualization lead
individuals on a quest for mastery, achievement, independence, and prestige. Similarly,
some intellectuals explain the need for growth as the need for competency. Maslow
defined the need for competency as the desire to master the environment and discover its
effects on individuals. Furthermore, other scholars say that employees with a strong need
for growth are satisfied by work that has high levels of autonomy, variety, significance,
and feedback (Herzberg et al., 1959; McGregor, 1960; Tosi et al., 1994). Growth needs
can be pursued but are not satisfied like deficiency needs. Failure to satisfy growth needs
could lead to depression, alienation, and cynicism in the workplace.
Advancement. This category was used only when there was an actual change in
the status or position of the person in the company. High turnover rates are likely to
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result from burnout due to working on difficult problems with scarce resources (Gazley,
2009; Light, 2002). For example,
[An] area that makes the nonprofit sector unique in terms of human resource
management is the relatively high rate of turnover. Nonprofits report a 3.1%
annual rate of employee turnover in comparison to 2.7% for business and 1% for
government (Cappelli, 2005). This suggests that turnover is a significant
challenge for [organizations, especially in the nonprofit] sector and may lead to
increased personnel costs and other issues for organizations. To a certain extent,
high turnover in professional positions is normal because small nonprofit
organizations offer little opportunity for advancement, and employees must often
change organizations to advance (Ban et al., 2003). This is especially true for
executive directors and development personnel, who mainly advance by moving
to larger organizations over the span of their career. (Word, 2011, p. 396)
The work itself. Adair (2009) said, “Mentions of the actual doing of the job, or
phases of it, as sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction found places in this category”
(p. 74). The theory of job enrichment by Herzberg
was further supported by the job characteristics model (JCM) by Hackman and
Oldham (Hackman and Oldham, 1980), which proposed that five job
characteristics (task variety, autonomy, feedback, significance and identity)
promote individual motivation, job satisfaction, and performance through critical
psychological states such as experienced meaningfulness. The beneficial effects
of jobs with these characteristics are expected to be greater for individuals high on
growth need strength who have a preference for growth and learning at work.
(Parker & Ohly, 2010, p. 270)
Responsibility. According to Adair (2009),
This category covered those sequences of events in which the respondent

mentioned satisfaction gained from being given (or denied) responsibility. In
cases, however, in which the story revolved around a wide gap between a
person’s authority and the authority he needed to carry out his job responsibilities
the factor identified was “company policy and administration.” The rationale for
this was that such a discrepancy between authority and job responsibilities would
be considered evidence of poor management. (p. 74)
Worker responsibility can be highly motivating, and when present, workers can be
extremely efficient. However, it is seldom delegated to line employees because many

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leaders’ priority is control (Schaffer, 2010). Many supervisors believe their ideas alone
are the reason for the productivity of their workers. Rather, individuals on teams, which
have both autonomy and power over their work, tend to maintain motivation over longer
periods of time (Levi, 2007; Pink, 2009).
Extrinsic Factors
Salary. Adair (2009) noted, “This category included all sequences of events in
which compensation plays a role. Surprisingly enough, virtually all of these involve
wage or salary increases, or unfulfilled expectation of salary increases” (p. 73). On
average, whether it is the private or the public sector,
the single largest operating cost . . . is employee compensation or remuneration

(Blinder, 1990; European Parliament, 1999; US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001).
Thus, for any organization to be successful, it must effectively manage not only
what it spends on compensation, but also what it gets in return. (Gerhart, 2010,
p. 210)
Remuneration can be a significant component in successfully executing an organization’s
strategy, but it is not a long-term effect.
Interpersonal relations. According to Adair (2009),
Under this general heading actual verbalizations about the characteristics of the
interaction between the respondent and some other individual were divided into
three categories according to the identity of the latter: superior, subordinate and
peers. These were interactions which might take place in working hours but were
independent of the activities of the job. (p. 73)
As stated in the article “Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation” (2012), “The
relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors and subordinates should be
appropriate and enjoyable” (para. 4). There should be no clashes or shame of any level
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present in the relationship. The basis of the relationship should be founded on respect for
all.
Supervision-technical. Adair (2009) explained, “This category included remarks
about the competence or incompetence, fairness or unfairness of the supervisor or
superior. Comments upon the superior’s willingness to delegate or teach, on his tendency
to nag or perpetually criticize, would be classified under ‘supervision-technical’” (p. 73).
Many studies have shown that compliance can lead to private acceptance via a
variety of mechanisms. Possibly the best known procedure is the one offered by Leon
Festinger (1953) in his theory of cognitive dissonance. Based on his theory,
inconsistency between public actions and private beliefs generates a tension known as
cognitive dissonance. This tension motivates people to decrease their discomfort by
changing their personal beliefs to be more uniform with their public behavior. Studies
show that belief change is most likely to occur when there is minimal pressure to comply
and the compliance is public. When too much force is used to acquire compliance, there
will be less cognitive dissonance and therefore less pressure to change private beliefs to
be consistent with public behavior (Festinger, 1953).
While the development of knowledge and examination into the science of
supervision has been remarkable over the past 20 years, there is still work to be done in
investigating the supervision process. As an example, it is still not obvious why at a
given point in time an individual will positively respond to a specific supervisory
intervention while at other times or when used with other individuals it may be
ineffective.
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Company policy and administration. Adair (2009) stated, “This category
included descriptions of adequate or inadequate organization and management. Apart
from such structural components, remarks about the overall characteristics of the
company’s policy (especially its personnel policy) as harmful or beneficial were placed
under this heading” (p. 74). It is fair to say that company policies need to be brought in
line with the proper work of employees of any organization. Human resource traditions
of involvement by employees may produce a more pioneering workforce that creates
plans for better job design and work organization (Ciavarelli, 2003). Training
opportunities and other policies can improve the competency of any workforce of an
organization.
Working conditions. According to Adair (2009), “Comments about the physical
conditions of work, the amount of work, facilities available, ventilation, tools, space and
other environmental aspects came into this class of ‘thought units’” (p. 74). The ideal
properties that assist in knowledge moving from the instruction phase to the actual job are
an optimistic work environment, support from one’s supervisor, and support from one’s
peers. The workplace environment can be beneficial when the individual shows the
ability to showcase what he/she learned in training and to perform those skills back on
the job (Colquitt, Le Pine, & Noe, 2000). An employees’ mental state is just as
significant for transferring his/her skills into the work he/she performs.
Factors in personal life. Adair (2009) noted,
This factor covered a range of statements about cases in which work impinged
upon personal life in such a way that the effect was an ingredient in the
respondent’s feelings about his job. Family needs for salary levels or problems
stemming from job location would be examples of this type of comment. (p. 74)
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There is a “notion that the less of a life outside the job one has, the better and the more
useful one is to the organization” (de Graaf, as cited in Meyer & Leitner, 2011, p. 816).
Certainly, this is not all true. According to Meyer and Leitner (2011),
There lies great potential in actually trying to set up a work situation so that
family life can be well-lived out (Mulgan & Wilkinson, 1995). . . . Empirical
evidence suggests that the greater an individual’s perceived work-family conflict,
the lower his or her career success (see also Mayrhofer et al., 2008). (p. 816)
Status. Adair (2009) stated, “This term was employed to classify any actual
mentions of signs or appurtenances of status as being constituents in reaction to the job,
e.g. a secretary, company car, a certain eating facility” (pp. 74-75). According to Bianchi
(2009), status characteristics theory (SCT) describes the phenomenon associated with the
process of creating a status hierarchy rank organization of individuals based on social
prestige with particular people. Hochwarter, Ferris, Zinko, Arnell, and James (2007)
observed the role of worker status and its influence on perceived effectiveness.
Individuals who have established a positive reputation are seen as “more legitimate,
competent and trustworthy and typically enjoy the benefits of being viewed as possessing
a higher level of status” (Hochwarter et al., 2007, p. 568). Further, “individuals
perceived as reputable are progressively more prone to be afforded the benefit of the
doubt” (Hochwarter et al., 2007, p. 568). Hochwarter et al. found that status mediated the
connection between political behavior and job performance, such that those with a high
reputation were more likely to have higher supervisor-reported performance.
Job security. Adair (2009) noted, “Objective signs of the presence or absence of
job security, such as tenure and company stability or instability, were listed under this
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factor” (p. 75). One of the key aspects that enrich the employee experience is job
security. However, this can vary distinctly through time as the economy flourishes and
suffers. Job satisfaction also differs across space, as some jobs are correlated with higher
levels of job security than others. The autonomy workers have in their roles at work has
also been identified as a key factor affecting the employee experience. Such influence
can be multifaceted and vary according to the factor concerned. According to Green (as
cited in Green, Huxley, & Whitfield, 2010),
The problem of job insecurity—the risk of job loss or of other uncertainties within
the job—is a perennial issue which could hardly be removed altogether in a
modern society. Nevertheless, over the last quarter century, progress on wages
has to some extent been matched by very significant improvements in workers’
security, albeit after enduring a period of sustained mass unemployment. This is
despite a major increase in the last decade of the twentieth century in the
perception of job insecurity in some areas, as evidenced by press references
thereof. (p. 382)
Job Satisfaction
There remain a number of different ways of evaluating how satisfying a job is to
an individual. It would be easy to ask someone, “Are you satisfied at your job?” But
using this approach does not allow the rigor and detailed consideration of the several
factors that can affect one’s level of job satisfaction (Green, 1989). To obtain a
sufficiently comprehensive understanding of job satisfaction, organizational
psychologists generally employ conceptual models originally developed by Herzberg and
his associates (1959), made into empirically tested attitudinal scales by Hackman and
Oldham (1980) and their associates.

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To date, the most comprehensive review and theoretical analysis of job
satisfaction was supplied by Locke (1969, 1976, 1983), who defined job satisfaction as “a
pleasurable emotional state resulting from the perception one’s job fulfills or allows the
fulfillment of one’s important job values” (Locke, 1976, p. 1307). Job satisfaction
appears to play a significant role with respect to the motivational factors associated with
it. The implications of understanding the factors of job satisfaction are enormous. How
significant can these implications be? According to Pink (2009),
Gallup’s extensive research on the subject shows that . . . more than 50 percent of
employees are not engaged at work—and nearly 20 percent are actively
disengaged. The cost of all this disengagement: about $300 billion a year in lost
productivity—a sum larger than the GDP of Portugal, Singapore, or Israel.
(p. 109)
These implications are mainly true for the people-oriented service organizations
such as the police organization. Therefore, it would appear the study of job satisfaction
among police officers would be seen as very important to investigate (Dantzker 1997).
Unfortunately, job satisfaction, as it pertains to policing, has received little attention
(Buzawa, 1984; Dantzker, 1993, 1994; Love & Singer, 1988). For example, of the 1,007
articles on job satisfaction published between 1974 and 1997, only 34 were related to
policing (Dantzker 1997).
Job satisfaction has been researched extensively during the past century within the
public and private sectors of the business world. In the profession of policing, police
agencies have only been sporadically involved in this type of research. Because of this,
job satisfaction in the policing field is one of the most underresearched areas in the
criminal justice field (Dantzker, 1994).

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Summary
Lack of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for police officers will lead to lower job
satisfaction and production. This research focused on what motivating factors affect job
satisfaction for police officers. Employees who are satisfied with their jobs are more
motivated to perform necessary tasks, have fewer absences, are more inclined to assist
others, and are more likely to commit themselves to the overall goal of the organization
(Miller et al., 2009). Job dissatisfaction in any career can affect absenteeism, abuse of
sick time, turnover, and level of performance while on the job. There are a number of
factors known to affect job satisfaction. The more law enforcement officials know about
these factors, the better prepared they will be to prevent low morale.
The engagement of the community policing philosophy has recently been
associated with greater job satisfaction for police officers (Hayeslip & Cordner, 1987).
Officers working in a specialized unit within a police department may have a grander
sense of job satisfaction due to the fact that they have worked to get to their current
position and are where they want to be. Many officers waive any type of promotion or
transfer because they enjoy the patrol aspect of policing and making contact with the
public on a regular basis. Every officer has different reasons for pursuing promotions or
transfers to specialized units or staying in patrol, and these reasons, combined with other
factors, may play a role in affecting the job satisfaction of a police officer. Problem-
oriented police officers are responsible for solving neighborhood problems that do not get
the same attention from patrol officers. Officers are often tasked with solving problems
such as burglaries, robberies, violent crimes, and so forth. The priority is placed on
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eliminating and preventing future problems. All of this goes back to the fundamental
principles of modern policing introduced by Sir Robert Peel, who argued that the
principal duty of the police is the prevention of crime and conditions that diminish public
safety (Reiner, 1985). Officers want to solve these problems to improve the overall
quality of life in the area they work in.
Police organizations are ignoring the concepts of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
(Blum, 2000). Agencies are taking away resources from the officers with the expectation
that the officers will still perform with the same efficiency. This could be seen as an
unrealistic expectation, and it creates a paradox of dissonance. There are examples of
government agencies throughout the nation expecting their officers to provide great
customer service, but they deny the same officers overtime they need to finish their job in
order to stay within budget (Eiserer, 2009; Koch, 2009).
If the theorists identified in this chapter agree that individuals are motivated when
given intrinsic rewards such as autonomy and responsibility, why aren’t more leaders
following suit? If managers in policing know they can motivate officers by doing these
things, why aren’t they practicing the theories out there? If leaders knew what kept
officers motivated on the job, especially during these challenging economic times, the
benefits would be positive. Public safety would not be compromised, recruiting and
retention would not suffer, and more officers would not be stressed out on the job.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The methodology for this study is described in this chapter. The researcher
explains the purpose and research questions for this investigation. This chapter also
examines the researcher’s rationale for using the design, population, sample,
instrumentation, field-test, data collection and systematic procedures, and the study’s
limitations. At the end of this chapter, the researcher provides a synopsis of the
methodology.
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions
motivation?
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109
Research Design
Descriptive and ex post facto research was the design used for this study. Several
factors aided this research design. These factors included the following: population,
sample, instrumentation used for data collection, validation of the actual instrument,
procedures used to collect the data, analysis of data, and the limitations of the research
study.
To respond to Research Question 1, the particular study design qualified the
researcher to decide to what degree law enforcement authorities, specifically police
officers and police managers, perceived Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic factors to be
important motivating factors on the job. Locke, Silverman, and Spirduso (2004)
described descriptive research as a form of research that “captures and displays a graphic
picture of some aspect(s) of a situation—expressed in numbers” (p. 134). There is a
variety of sample methods that can be applied to this research design. In descriptive
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research, surveys of public opinion, fact-finding questionnaires integrated with
interviewing studies, and surveys of writings and subjective records are examples of
different methods used.
O’Leary (2005) described this form of descriptive research design as “surveying”
(p. 103). O’Leary described surveying as “the process of collecting data by asking a
range of individuals the same questions related to their characteristics, attributes, how
they live, or their opinions” (p. 103). O’Leary pointed out that surveys are useful because
they can do the following:
x Reach a large number of people

x Represent an even larger population
x Allow for comparisons
x Generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data
x Generate qualitative data through the use of open-ended questions
x Be confidential and even anonymous (p. 104)
The study design for this experiment revealed the degree to which Herzberg’s
intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the motivational aspects of police officers and
police managers presently in the workplace. A primary matter concerning this type of
research methodology, as it relates to descriptive studies, is that examiners are typically
not associated with the results being sought.
All four research questions were answered using the inquiry method of ex post
facto (retrospective studies). As explained by Meltzoff (1998), in retrospective studies,
“the researcher postdicts (i.e., tells backward) antecedents or causes from known
consequences or effects” (p. 40). Meltzoff defined this particular study as “judging from
the present what happened in the past” (p. 282). However, Meltzoff (1998) warned
readers that with this type of study they “should be cautious when weighing the
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credibility of causal statements and causal inferences from retrospective studies” (p. 40).
Meltzoff based this on the fact that researchers have
no control over the amount, duration, or timing of the levels of the antecedent; no
control over the selection or assignment of participants to the antecedent
conditions; and no control over other events, situations, and circumstances that
could have a bearing on the dependent variable. (p. 40)
This type of methodology was appropriate for this study because the researcher
had no influence on how the respondents answered the questionnaire. The researcher was
not present when the respondents took the questionnaire, and the researcher did not have
any expectation for how the participants would answer each question.
Population and Sample
Meltzoff (1998) defined a population as “the total number of people or things
from which a smaller research sample is drawn” (p. 285). Additionally, Meltzoff
commented on the need to refine the total population. Meltzoff stated that when research
questions are being approached through a survey, “the representativeness of the sample
can be even more crucial” (p. 50).
Thorne and Giesen (2003) described sampling as “the process of selecting a
sample from the population” (p. 14). Therefore, Thorne and Giesen defined a sample as a
“portion or subset of the population” (p. 13). Locke et al. (2004) pointed out that “rarely
is an investigator able to observe or measure every possible instance of the phenomenon
being studied” (p. 48). Hence, the researcher used sampling methods to “be sure that the
sample group truly represents the population and is not distorted in any way by the nature
of the selection process” (Locke et al., 2004, p. 49).

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Police managers potentially play a major role in influencing the effects of the
culture of police organizations, their environment, and police officers. The employees
surveyed for this analysis consisted of police managers and police officers from three
Northern California law enforcement agencies. Police officers work an array of
assignments, which include homicide, traffic, narcotics, school resource officers (SRO),
patrol, special weapons and tactics (SWAT), as well as other assignments. Officers were
defined as those who have not advanced to the rank of sergeant or above.
The researcher chose to survey three police agencies in Northern California to
obtain a suitable sample size from the population. These agencies were the Sacramento
Sheriff’s Department, the Roseville Police Department, and the Sacramento Police
Department. From this sample population, police officers and managers made up a
purposeful sample. Krathwohl (1998) described a purposeful sample as “assembled by
intentionally seeking individuals or situations likely to yield new instances and greater
understanding of a dimension or concept of interest” (p. 690).
During the months of December 2011 and January 2012, the questionnaire was
administered by the researcher to approximately 2,900 police officers and managers from
the three agencies. The criteria for inclusion in the sample included police officers and
managers who
x are certified by the California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training
(POST),
x are members of a police department having at least 100 sworn police officers and
managers,
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x are members of a police department whose rank and file union members are members
of the Peace Officers Research Association of California (PORAC),
x are employed in the state of California, and
x volunteered and completed the researcher’s questionnaire.
Instrument Used
A questionnaire was created for the sample population. Police officers and police
managers were sent an electronic survey with questions pertaining to Herzberg’s intrinsic
and extrinsic motivators. Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivators were incorporated
using the survey method for the law enforcement personnel to reflect their perceptions of
these motivational factors in order to assess if there were any significant differences in
perceptions of the motivational factors in terms of gender, education level, years of
service, and marital status (see Appendix A).
Cox and Cox (2008) summarized the value of keeping the questionnaire as simple
as possible. Cox and Cox specified, “Questionnaires collect less information from more
people” (p. 71). They asserted that the instrument should have user-friendly, similarly
worded, and sequential questions.
The researcher’s survey consisted of two important parts. The first section
provided a short overview for the participants of the intention of the research. The
second area asked for their consent and endorsement to complete the questionnaire. The
researcher submitted an Application for IRB Approval of Research Protocol to the
University of La Verne’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). The application defined the
purpose of the study, the participants, research methods, and data collection procedures.
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The application specified any risks to the participants and how these risks would be
addressed. Upon approval by the IRB, the researcher assembled the results from the
three police agencies into a database for analysis.
The dissertation chair reviewed the instrument and feedback before the instrument
was presented to the committee for review and approval. Presenting the instrument to the
College of Education and Organizational Leadership IRB and the University of La Verne
IRB followed. In addition, since the study took place at three police agencies, there was
extensive protocol to be undertaken prior to receiving approval from the Sacramento
Sheriff’s Department, the Sacramento Police Department, and the Roseville Police
Department for this study. The three agencies required that the host IRB first grant
approval before being submitted to them for their approval.
Once the subjects agreed to participate in the study, their signed agreement forms
were collected. In the second field, the subjects looked at a sample question. This
question contained an inquiry using a Likert scale with rankings that ranged from 1 to 6.
A Likert scale, also known as a summated rating scale, is a form of attitude scaling. The
subjects answered the questions based on a scale measuring how strong they felt about
each question. The questions were rated as strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), somewhat
disagree (3), somewhat agree (4), agree (5), and strongly agree (6). A Likert-type rating
scale “indicates a level of agreement or disagreement with each of several statements by
selecting one of four or five options that typically include ‘strongly agree’ and ‘strongly
disagree’ on the ends” (Huck, 2008, p. 479).

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Expert Validity and Field-Test
According to Glesne (2006), when a researcher develops his or her own research
method, it must be trustworthy. Glesne stated that trustworthiness is “an issue that should
be thought about during research design as well as in the midst of data collection” (p. 37).
Creswell (2005) expressed that when a person creates his or her own instrument, the
process should consist of “reviewing the literature, presenting general questions to a
target group, constructing questions for the item pool, and pilot testing the items”
(p. 160).
A comprehensive review of the survey questions was conducted by three experts.
In order to test the content validity of the survey instrument, the researcher shared the
survey with an expert panel made up of three members:
1. Mark Henderson, EdD, who is CEO and president at Henderson Technology and
Management Group and has vast experience with writing surveys.
2. Rebecca P. Bocchicchio, PhD, who is the associate dean of liberal arts at Sierra
College and has extensive experience in writing surveys; and
3. Heather Holbert, a statistician with extensive experience in creating survey
instruments related to motivation theory.
The researcher needed to create this instrument in order for content validity to be
measured. According to Creswell (2005), content validity is based on the strength of the
following question: “How well do the questions represent all of the possibilities of the
questions available?” (p. 165). On the subject of content validity, Creswell stated that
experts need to review “the plan and the procedures used in constructing the instrument”
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(p. 164). Krathwohl (1998) asked the question of what one can do “to make judgments
less subject to criticism” (p. 593). Krathwohl recommended the following:
1. Structure evaluations in a way all agree is fair: what evidence will be

available, what kinds of individuals will judge it, what the criteria will be, and
on what cycle the judging will be done—all are clearly stated and understood.
2. State criteria for judgment in written, publicly available form, preferably as
close as possible to low-inference criteria and jointly developed by judges and
those judged.
3. Involve more than one judge. How many? One is too few; 15, far too many.
4. Make a written report available in some appropriate form to the person who is
being evaluated or to some other trusted party who will provide an appropriate
summary of the judgment. A person who is being evaluated will have the
opportunity to respond, if desired.
5. A group selected as a fair one by both judges and judged should review and
approve the evaluation report, any response, and any minutes of meetings.
(p. 593)
The experts assessed the information regarding the goal of the instrument in both
subject fields, including the degree of complicatedness of the questions. Utilizing the
experts to review the questionnaire offered “a safety net to catch flaws not otherwise
provided for” (Krathwohl, 1998, p. 593). According to Gay (1998), content validity “is
the degree to which a test measures an intended content area” (p. 156). Hence, Gay
expressed that performing content validity aims to “require both item validity and
sampling validity” (p. 156).
The questions on the survey instrument underscored the intrinsic and extrinsic
motivators outlined by Herzberg. First, the instrument was reviewed by three experts,
intended to ensure the experts could “identify whether the questions are valid” (Creswell,
2005, p. 165). The three experts chosen had completed studies and/or experiments
concerning Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivators and applied the motivational
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factors for their respective populations. All three specialists concluded that the survey
instrument was transparent and to the point.
The experts offered feedback on possible improvements to survey questions.
Some of the feedback received was on Survey Question 8. The experts told the
researcher that the answers related to Survey Question 8 might not fully answer the
question. For example, they said officers could answer that they have a good relationship
with their supervisor, but they could be unsatisfied for another reason. For Survey
Question 18, the experts told the researcher that officers may answer that they are
recognized by their supervisor for doing good work, but it may be possible that they do
not love their job for a different reason. The specialists advised the researcher that when
the questionnaire was administered to every individual in the sample population, it was
imperative to inform the respondents that the focal point of the research was to find
police officers’ perceptions of what provides job satisfaction in the workplace.
After the expert panel review, the researcher field-tested the survey with six
different police officers and police managers in order to obtain insight and feedback. The
particular sample represented in the field-test was comparable to the group tested later
(i.e., active police officers and police managers). These police officers and police
managers held comparable ranks and positions in their respective agencies. Those tested
in the field included one police officer and one police manager from the Oakland Police
Department, Roseville Police Department, Sacramento Police Department, Elk Grove
Police Department, Rocklin Police Department, and the California Highway Patrol.
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The field-test subjects surveyed for this research represented six different police
departments. They included six different police officers and six managers who were not
part of the study sample but were part of the population. Because of the nature of police
work, the respondents came from various backgrounds and had different amounts of
experience. These subjects worked in various units, including patrol, detectives, SWAT,
and so forth, with their respective agencies. The participants provided the researcher
with opinions about the outline, arrangement, and organization of the questions. Every
subject who participated in the practice survey completed the inquiry form and replied to
the questions. Once the respondents completed the survey, feedback was acquired
concerning the straightforwardness and descriptive nature of the questionnaire.
The recommendations obtained from the police professionals highlighted some
minimal changes to the makeup of the questions posed within the questionnaire. The
researcher made the necessary edits. Other respondents advised the researcher that the
survey was short, clear, and concise. The changes that were recommended were
completed before the survey was administered to the study sample.
Data Collection Procedures
This segment chronicles the technique used to gather the data. A brief, 15-minute
survey, managed by the researcher, took place during the months of December 2011 and
January 2012, using an Internet-based instrument called Zipsurvey. This electronic
instrument software used a Likert scale to measure data. A survey was administered to
all participants for the purpose of collecting data. Prior to making contact with the
officers, the researcher obtained written permission from the chiefs of police at the
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Sacramento Police Department, Roseville Police Department, and the Sacramento
Sheriff’s Department. The participants were contacted via e-mail and given an overview
of the purpose of the study prior to the survey being administered. The researcher asked
the police professionals to participate on a volunteer basis.
Data Analysis
Statistical analyses using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and inferential
statistics were used in this study. The inferential statistical method “can be used to
estimate characteristics of a population from sample data, or to test various hypotheses
about the relationship between different variables” (O’Leary, 2005, p. 243). The author
used t tests and purposeful sampling. Additionally, Krathwohl (1998) maintained, “We
use a sampling distribution called the t-distribution” (p. 476). With regard to answering
all four research questions, a t test enabled the researcher to “determine whether two
means are significantly different at a selected probability level” (Gay, 1998, p. 436). The
t test was used for this study to compare the differences in mean scores for all statements
relating to motivating influencers by gender and marital status, each of which had only
two groups of comparison.
Furthermore, an ANOVA was needed “where more than two groups or where
multiple conditions [were] compared” (Gay, 1998, p. 490). The ANOVA was used for
this study when comparing responses to the statements based on years of experience,
rank, and education level, each of which had more than two groups of comparisons. This
statistical approach, using ANOVA, estimates “the population variances are made from
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the variability between groups” (Krathwohl, 1998, p. 679). Therefore, the ANOVA was
used to “test differences among several means” (Krathwohl, 1998, p. 490).
Study Limitations
As described by O’Leary (2005), “Limitations refer to conditions that may impact
on results” (p. 57). One of the limitations of this research was confining the police
population to a particular geographical area. In the state of California, there are tens of
thousands of police officers and police managers. In order to provide a purposeful
sample, this study focused on the police officers and police managers in three Northern
California police agencies.
The following are additional limitations of this study:
1. The study focused on the perceptions of police officers and police managers in
reference to the motivational factors associated with gender, years of service, and
education.
2. The research involved police officers and police managers who agreed to finish the
research survey and decided to partake in this investigation.
3. This experiment involved personnel from three police departments in Northern
California.
4. This research asked police officers and police managers to provide demographic data
(e.g., gender, etc.), including position held with their department (officer, sergeant,
etc.).
5. Other than the intrinsic and extrinsic motivators outlined by Herzberg, no other
motivational theory was used in the questionnaire.

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6. The questionnaire used in this investigation asked the respondents to offer their
insights on Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivators as a police officer or police
manager, respectively.
Summary of Methodology
This chapter recapped the approach and outline of the study. Additionally, the
researcher defined the population and sample participants. The researcher then explained
the instrumentation that was implemented. In addition, reviews by the expert panel and
the use of a field-test aided in authenticating this study. The researcher pinpointed the
target population for the survey that was tested. Finally, the chapter specified the method
used to evaluate the statistics.

CHAPTER IV
DATA ANALYSIS
This chapter presents the data collected through the study. The study utilized an
online survey given to police officers and police managers at three Northern California
agencies. The data were collected using an online survey, ZipSurvey, and then loaded
into a spreadsheet for ease of analysis. The data were first reported out using descriptive
statistics to present an overview of the responses to the survey questions. Each of the
survey questions was then reclassified into one of Herzberg’s 15 motivational factors.
The data were used to answer the research questions using both descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics, looking for relationships in the data that were significant. The
inferential statistics were analyzed by running t tests and analyses of variance (ANOVAs)
to compare the differences of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivators among a variety of
demographic characteristics. This chapter is organized in the following manner:
(a) Purpose Statement, (b) Research Questions, (c) Factors, (d) Population and
Description of Sample, (e) Type of Data Collected, (f) Analysis of Data, and
(g) Summary of Findings.
Purpose Statement
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123
Research Questions
motivation?
Factors
Herzberg (as cited in Santa Ana College, n.d.) described the following as intrinsic
factors:
Achievement
This includes the personal satisfaction of completing a job, solving problems, and
seeing the results. . . .
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Growth
This includes actual learning of new skills, with greater possibility of
advancement within the current occupational specialty as well as personal
growth. . . .
Recognition
This is the recognition by others for a job well done or personal
accomplishment. . . .
Advancement
The actual change in upward status in the company. Increased opportunity
changes with no increase in status are considered under responsibility. . . .
Work itself
The actual content of the job and its positive or negative effect upon the
employee whether the job is characterized as interesting or boring, varied or
routine, creative or stultifying, excessively easy or excessively difficult,
challenging or non-demanding. (p. 2)
Herzberg (as cited in Santa Ana College, n.d.) described the following as extrinsic
factors:
Company Policies & Administration

The feelings about the adequacy or inadequacy of company organization and
management. This includes poor communications, lack of delegated authority,
policies, procedures, and rules.
Supervision
The competency or technical ability of the supervisor. This includes the
supervisors [sic] willingness to teach or delegate authority, fairness, and job
knowledge.
Interpersonal Relations
The relationships between the worker and his or her superiors,
subordinates, and peers. This includes both job related interactions and social
interactions within the work environment.
Status
Factors that involve some indication of status: private office, important
sounding title, secretary, company car, and other “perks.” Changes in status
would be considered under advancement.
Working Conditions
Factors that involve the physical environment of the job: amount of work,
facilities for performing work, light, tools, temperature, space, ventilation, and
general appearance of the work place.
Job Security
The employee’s job tenure and/or the company’s stability or instability—
objective signs of the presence or absence of job security, not the feelings of
security.
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Salary
This includes all forms of compensation and focuses on wage or salary
increases or unfulfilled expectation of increases. (p. 2)
Population and Description of the Sample
The population for this study was police officers and police managers in law
enforcement agencies that employed more than 100 sworn police officers/sheriffs. The
sample comprised police officers and managers in three Northern California agencies.
The researcher attempted to include the California Highway Patrol in this study.
Unfortunately, the researcher was not successful in obtaining permission from the
California Highway Patrol. The information about each agency was found on its website.
Once the agencies were found matching the criteria listed, they were added to the list of
agencies for possible inclusion in the study.
The population was established from the agencies matching the criteria. From
this population, a sample of each category, police officers and police managers, was
collected. At each agency, the police chief/sheriff was contacted and asked to participate.
Participation meant completing the online survey and forwarding it to sworn personnel.
The sample for this study included three police agencies in Northern California. Table 2
lists the agencies that participated in the study and the distribution of those agencies
within the sample.
At each police agency, the chief/sheriff was asked to participate in the survey and
to forward the invitation to participate to the agency’s sworn personnel. The police
officers and managers then completed the online survey. Given a population of 2,928
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Table 2
Law Enforcement Agencies Involved in the Study
% of
Agency Number of respondents total sample
Roseville Police Department 55 14%
Sacramento Sheriff’s Department 93 24%
Sacramento Police Department 244 62%
sworn personnel across the three departments, using the finite population correction
factor formula, the minimum number of police officers and police managers necessary to
establish a valid sampling in order to obtain a margin of error of +5% was 339. The
researcher was able to exceed the minimum number of respondents and obtained
responses from 392 police officers and managers (see Table 3). The corresponding
margin of error for the obtained sample size was +4.6%. Some police agencies had more
staff participate. The data were kept in aggregate form from each police agency site. The
researcher was able to see how many respondents had participated and what their role
was, officer or manager, but the identities of respondents were kept anonymous.
Table 3
Ranks of All of the Participants
Number of % of
Rank responses total samplea
Police officer/sheriff 304 78%
Sergeant 59 15%
Lieutenant/executive staff or above 21 5%
a
Eight respondents chose not to divulge their rank (2%).
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Type of Data Collected
The participants in the study were asked to complete a 20-question survey. Each
question corresponded to one of Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory factors. The
theory states that motivation is derived from achievement, growth, advancement,
recognition, responsibility, and the job itself (intrinsic factors). The theory states that the
hygiene factors come from salary, company policy, relationship with supervisor,
relationship with peers, job security, working conditions, and status (extrinsic factors).
The survey was designed using a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 =
disagree, 3 = disagree somewhat, 4 = agree somewhat, 5 = agree, 6 = strongly agree).
Composite scores were calculated by taking the mean of each question for participants
from each agency.
When the data were reported out, the scores for each factor were examined in
comparison to different performance indicators. The participants were kept in two
categories to answer the research questions: police officers and police managers. Scores
were compared for each cohort group against performance indicators.
Analysis of Data
Demographic Data
This section describes the various demographics portraying the sample.
Demographic data included gender, education, marital status, and years of service. Table
4 represents the gender of all survey respondents. The majority of respondents, 81%,
were male, and 17% were female. Two percent of respondents did not designate gender.
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Given the greater ratio of male to female officers in these departments, this percentage
difference was not unexpected.
Table 4
Gender Distribution of Participants
Number of % of
Gender responses total samplea
Male 316 81%
Female 67 17%
a
Nine respondents chose not to divulge their gender (2%).
Table 5 illustrates the number and percentage of respondents in each group of
years of experience. The smallest percentage of respondents had less than 5 years of
experience (9%). The greatest number of respondents fell in the 5-10 years of experience
group, with a response of 29%, and the 11-15 years of experience group at 25%. The
next largest group was the group with over 20 years of experience, with a 24% response.
Two percent of the respondents did not divulge how many years of experience they had.
Table 6 represents the education level of all survey respondents. The smallest
percentage of respondents had 1 year of college or completed high school, with a 1%
response rate for each. The greatest percentage of respondents had a bachelor’s degree,
with a 47% response. The next largest group had a bachelor’s degree plus some graduate
classes, with a 17% response. This was followed by those with 2 years of college, with a
12% response. The next largest group to respond was those with a master’s degree plus
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Table 5
Participants’ Years of Experience on the Job
Number of % of
Job experience responses total samplea
Less than 5 years 34 9%
5-10 years 112 29%
11-15 years 97 25%
16-20 years 47 12%
Over 20 years 94 24%
a
Eight respondents chose not to divulge the number of years they have been a sworn peace officer
(2%).
some doctoral classes, with an 11% response. Following that group were those with 3
years of college, with a 5% response. The next largest group to respond was those with 4
years of college (but did not obtain a bachelor’s degree), with a 4% response. Finally,
2% of respondents reported having a doctoral degree. Two percent of the respondents
did not designate their highest level of education achieved.
Table 6
Education Level Completed by the Participants
Number of % of
Education responses total samplea
High school 3 1%
1 year of college 3 1%
2 years of college 45 12%
3 years of college 20 5%
4 years of college (did not obtain bachelor’s degree) 14 4%
Bachelor’s degree 183 47%
Bachelor’s degree + 65 17%
Master’s degree + 44 11%
Doctoral degree 6 2%
a
Nine respondents chose not to divulge their highest level of education (2%).
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Table 7 illustrates the number and percentage of respondents in each marital
status group. The smallest percentage of respondents were single (21%). The greatest
number of respondents were married, with a response rate of 77%. Two percent of the
respondents did not divulge their marital status.
Table 7
Marital Status of the Participants
Number of % of
Marital status responses total samplea
Single 83 21%
Married 300 77%
a
Nine respondents chose not to divulge their marital status (2%).
Survey Responses
Table 8 portrays the overall results of the assessments of the survey questions in
descending order by mean score. It also includes the cumulative percentage of agreement
by combining the percentages of agree somewhat, agree, and strongly agree responses.
The greatest number of respondents (96%) agreed with the statement, “The
colleagues I work with are helpful and friendly” (M = 4.89). The next largest number of
respondents (95%) agreed with the statement, “I am successful because I have reasonable
control over my work product” (M = 4.86). The third largest number of respondents
(91%) agreed with the statement, “I stay at my job because it is challenging and exciting”
(M = 4.80).
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Table 8
Survey Question Findings
%
Survey question n agree M
2. The colleagues I work with are helpful and friendly. 389 96% 4.89
11. I am successful because I have reasonable control over my work 389 95% 4.86
product.
1. I stay at my job because it is challenging and exciting. 390 91% 4.80
10. I love my job because I am empowered enough to perform my 392 90% 4.64
duties.
17. Working at this agency has allowed me to improve my experience, 390 87% 4.60
skills, and performance.
6. I believe my job is secure. 390 77% 4.30
9. I am happy to work here because of the comfortable working 388 78% 4.19
conditions.
4. I like working at my agency because the policies are favorable for 389 80% 4.17
its workers.
19. I feel fortunate to work here because my job allows me to grow and 390 75% 4.14
develop as a person.
3. At my agency, I have sufficient opportunities to learn new skills for 389 72% 4.04
career advancement.
8. Because of my relationship with my supervisor, I feel satisfied at 389 71% 4.03
work.
5. One of the main reasons why I work at my agency is because my 389 69% 3.91
supervisor is a strong and trustworthy leader.
14. I am satisfied working for this agency because I know I would be 390 71% 3.89
treated fairly if accused of wrongdoing.
7. It is more important to advance in career opportunities and 387 62% 3.83
responsibility—rather than achieving a higher income.
15. I think the pay I receive is appropriate and fair for the work I do. 390 61% 3.61
20. I believe police officers are respected by the public. 390 58% 3.58
12. I value my job here because I am responsible for the work of others. 388 52% 3.57
18. One of the main reasons why I love my job is my supervisor always 388 54% 3.42
thanks me for a job well done.
16. I am satisfied working for this agency because it recognizes my 388 52% 3.38
achievements.
13. The working conditions at my agency are satisfying, because there 388 42% 3.16
are an adequate number of officers on my shift.
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The smallest percentage of respondents (42%) agreed with the statement, “The
working conditions at my agency are satisfying, because there are an adequate number of
officers on my shift” (M = 3.16). This was followed by, “I am satisfied working for this
agency because it recognizes my achievements” (M = 3.38, 52% agreement), and, “One
of the main reasons why I love my job is my supervisor always thanks me for a job well
done” (M = 3.42, 54% agreement). These three statements that were least likely to be
agreed with all averaged scores that fell closer to a level of disagreement than agreement
(less than 3.50).
The remaining discussion of the findings focuses on addressing each of the
research questions by reclassifying the survey questions as they correspond to Herzberg’s
factors. Table 9 portrays the factors associated with each of the survey questions. It also
portrays the classification factor that each falls under with regard to being either intrinsic
or extrinsic.
Research Question 1
To what degree are Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory intrinsic and extrinsic
factors perceived by police managers and police officers to be important for motivation?
Table 10 illustrates the overall ranking of the factors in descending order by mean
score. It also includes the cumulative percentage of agreement by combining the agree
somewhat, agree, and strongly agree responses. The factors achieving the highest mean
scores and agreed with by the vast majority of the respondents (over 90%) were peer
relationships and work itself (M = 4.89, 96% agreement, and M = 4.72, 91% agreement,
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Table 9
Survey Questions Classified as Intrinsic or Extrinsic
Survey question Intrinsic Extrinsic

1. I stay at my job because it is challenging and exciting. (Work itself) X
2. The colleagues I work with are helpful and friendly. (Peer
X
relationships)
3. At my agency, I have sufficient opportunities to learn new skills for
X
career advancement. (Advancement)
4. I like working at my agency because the policies are favorable for
X
its workers. (Company policies)
5. One of the main reasons why I work at my agency is because my
X
supervisor is a strong and trustworthy leader. (Supervision)
6. I believe my job is secure. (Job security) X
7. It is more important to advance in career opportunities and
responsibility—rather than achieving a higher income. X
(Advancement)
8. Because of my relationship with my supervisor, I feel satisfied at
X
work. (Supervision)
9. I am happy to work here because of the comfortable working
X
conditions. (Work conditions)
10. I love my job because I am empowered enough to perform my
X
duties. (Work itself)
11. I am successful because I have reasonable control over my work
X
product. (Responsibility)
12. I value my job here because I am responsible for the work of others.
X
(Responsibility)
13. The working conditions at my agency are satisfying, because there
X
are an adequate number of officers on my shift. (Work conditions)
14. I am satisfied working for this agency because I know I would be
X
treated fairly if accused of wrongdoing. (Company policies)
15. I think the pay I receive is appropriate and fair for the work I do.
X
(Salary/benefits)
16. I am satisfied working for this agency because it recognizes my
X
achievements. (Achievement)
17. Working at this agency has allowed me to improve my experience,
X
skills, and performance. (Growth)
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Table 9 (continued)
Survey question Intrinsic Extrinsic

18. One of the main reasons why I love my job is my supervisor always
X
thanks me for a job well done. (Recognition)
19. I feel fortunate to work here because my job allows me to grow and
X
develop as a person. (Growth)
20. I believe police officers are respected by the public. (Status) X
respectively). The factors least likely to be agreed with were achievement and
recognition (M = 3.38 and M = 3.42, respectively), with agreement ratings from just over
half of the respondents (52% and 54%, respectively). Neither of these factors achieved a
level of agreement closer to agree than disagree (value of 3.50 or greater).
Table 10
Factor Ratings
Factor categories % agree Mean

Peer relationships (Q2) 96% 4.89
Work itself (Q1, Q10) 91% 4.72
Growth (Q17, Q19) 81% 4.37
Job security (Q6) 77% 4.30
Responsibility (Q11, Q12) 73% 4.22
Company policies (Q4, Q14) 75% 4.03
Supervision (Q5, Q8) 70% 3.97
Advancement (Q3, Q7) 67% 3.94
Work conditions (Q9, Q13) 60% 3.68
Salary/benefits (Q15) 61% 3.61
Status (Q20) 58% 3.58
Recognition (Q18) 54% 3.42
Achievement (Q16) 52% 3.38
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Table 11 illustrates the factor classification results. When all data were analyzed
by the larger classification of intrinsic versus extrinsic factors, the intrinsic factors were
more likely to be agreed with than the extrinsic factors (M = 4.13 and M =3.97,
respectively). The overall percentage of agreement for the intrinsic and extrinsic factors
was fairly close, although intrinsic factors achieved a slightly higher level of agreement
with 73% than the extrinsic statements’ level of agreement at 70%.
Table 11
Overall Assessments of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Statements
Factor classification % agree Mean

Intrinsic 73% 4.13
Extrinsic 70% 3.97
Research Question 2
Is there a significant difference in perceptions of the importance of Herzberg’s
Table 12 illustrates the assessments of Herzberg’s factors compared by the gender
of the police officers and police managers to determine whether there was a significant
difference between them. Independent samples t tests were used to make this
determination. Table 12 portrays those factors that, when tested, elicited statistically
significant differences (with a significance level of less than .05) between the male and
female respondents. Any factor comparisons not illustrated in the table did not achieve
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statistically significant differences and are therefore not portrayed or discussed by the
researcher. Male respondents were statistically more likely than female respondents to
agree with statements about work itself, responsibility, and status. Of these, the factor
that showed the greatest difference in scores was status, with a mean difference of .41.
When the overall classifications of intrinsic versus extrinsic were compared by gender,
the differences between male and female respondents were not statistically significant.
Table 12
Gender Comparisons
Mean
Factor Gender Mean difference Significance
Work itself Male 4.77
.21 .034
Female 4.56
Responsibility Male 4.27
.29 .017
Female 3.98
Status Male 3.66
.41 .018
Female 3.25
Research Question 3
motivation-hygiene theory intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors based on the years
of experience of police officers and police managers?
Table 13 illustrates the comparison of mean scores of factors based on
participants’ years of experience. All of the assessments of Herzberg’s factors were
compared by the years of experience of police officers and managers to determine
whether there was a significant difference among them. Mean comparisons using one-
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way ANOVA were used to make this determination. Table 13 portrays those factors that,
when tested, elicited statistically significant differences (with a significance level of less
than .05) among the differing years of experience. Any factor comparisons not illustrated
in the table did not achieve statistically significant differences and are therefore not
portrayed or discussed.
Table 13
Years of Experience Comparisons
Years of Mean
Factor experience Mean difference Significance
Supervision Less than 5 4.15 .45
5-10 4.13 .43
.010
11-15 3.99 .29
Over 20 3.70 -
Responsibility 5-10 4.03 -
16-20 4.51 .48 .035
Over 20 4.29 .26
Salary/benefits Less than 5 2.91 -
11-15 3.68 .77
.004
16-20 4.04 1.13
Over 20 3.76 .85
Status Less than 5 3.82 .60
5-10 3.22 -
.001
16-20 3.89 .67
Over 20 3.89 .67
Note. Groups that were statistically different from others are in boldface. Mean difference
compares each group with the statistically different group.
Supervision. Police officers and managers who had 20 or more years of
experience were the least likely group to agree with the statements about supervision
(mean score of 3.70 versus between 3.99 and 4.15 for the other groups). A pattern
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appeared to emerge with statements about supervision: As the number of years of
experience increased, agreement with the statements decreased, in a linear relationship.
The mean score for those with 16 to 20 years of experience (3.97) was not statistically
different from the score for those who had over 20 years of experience and is therefore
not portrayed in Table 13.
Responsibility. Respondents with between 5 and 10 years of experience as a
sworn peace officer were less likely than those with 16 to 20 years of experience and
those with over 20 years of experience to agree with statements about responsibility. The
greatest difference between these groups was between those with 5 to 10 years and those
with 16 to 20 years of experience (close to half of a rating point, .48). There were no
statistically significant differences between those with between 5 and 10 years and those
with less than 5 years or 11 to 15 years of experience, so those groups were excluded
from Table 13.
Salary. Respondents with less than 5 years of experience were much less likely
than those with over 10 years of experience to agree with the statement specific to
salary/benefits. Those with less than 5 years of experience attributed an average rating of
less than somewhat disagree (2.91), while those with 16 to 20 years of experience
averaged a rating slightly above somewhat agree (4.04). This comparison exhibits the
greatest difference in the average scores among the groups for all factors analyzed.
Status. With regard to the statement associated with status, respondents with
between 5 and 10 years of experience were less likely to agree than those in the other
groups (mean score of 3.22 versus a mean score of between 3.82 and 3.89). The mean
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score for those with 11 to 15 years of experience (3.49) was not statistically different
from the score for those who had 5 to 10 years of experience and is therefore not
portrayed in Table 13.
Table 14 illustrates the differences in the mean scores for all intrinsic statements
when combined and for all combined extrinsic statements across the differing number of
years of experience.
Table 14
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors: Years of Experience Comparison
Experience Intrinsic mean scores Extrinsic mean scores

Less than 5 years 4.28 3.79
5-10 years 4.07 3.87
11-15 years 4.12 4.00
16-20 years 4.29 4.24
Over 20 years 4.09 4.01
Those most likely to agree with statements classified as intrinsic were police
officers and managers with less than 5 years of experience and those with between 16 and
20 years of experience (M = 4.28 and M = 4.29, respectively). Respondents who were
least likely to agree with intrinsic statements overall were those with between 5 and 10
years of experience (M = 4.07) and those with over 20 years of experience (M = 4.09).
Although the differences among the groups are statistically significant, the mean
differences are not all that substantial.
Differences among years of experience for extrinsic statements, however, showed
a linear trend, with the exception of the group that had over 20 years of experience. In
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general, as the years of experience increased, agreement with statements classified as
extrinsic also increased, from a low mean score of 3.79 for those with less than 5 years to
4.24 for those with 16 to 20 years of experience. Those with over 20 years of experience
submitted the second highest mean score of 4.01.
With regard to assessments of intrinsic statements versus extrinsic statements,
across the board, all years of experience categories rated intrinsic statements (when taken
together) at a higher level of agreement than extrinsic statements.
Research Question 4
Table 15 illustrates educational comparisons. All of the assessments of
Herzberg’s factors were compared by the highest level of education of police officers and
managers to determine whether there was a significant difference among them.
Education levels were recoded into smaller classifications for purposes of analysis.
Mean comparisons using one-way ANOVA were used to determine significant
differences. Table 15 portrays those factors that, when tested, elicited statistically
significant differences (with a significance level of less than .05) among the differing
education levels. Any factor comparisons not illustrated in Table 15 did not achieve
statistically significant differences and are therefore not portrayed or discussed.

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Table 15
Education Comparisons
Mean
Factor Level of education Mean difference Significance
Work itself Some college 4.62 .79
Bachelor’s 4.79 .96
.010
Bachelor’s +/Master’s + 4.76 .93
Doctorate 3.83 -
Supervision High school 2.83 -
Some college 3.94 1.11 .049
Bachelor’s 4.08 1.25
Work conditions High school 2.33 -
Some college 3.68 1.35
Bachelor’s 3.84 1.51 .000
Bachelor’s +/Master’s + 3.49 1.16
Doctorate 2.67 .34
Responsibility Some college 4.10 .28
Bachelor’s +/Master’s + 4.38 - .025
Doctorate 3.50 .88
Achievement High school 1.67 -
Some college 3.39 1.72 .048
Bachelor’s 3.53 1.86
Growth High school 2.67 -
Bachelor’s 4.50 1.83 .001
Doctorate 4.00 1.33
Respondents with a doctorate (M = 3.83) were less likely than those who had
some college, a bachelor’s degree, a bachelor’s degree plus some graduate courses, and a
master’s degree plus doctoral courses to agree with the statements about work itself. In
two of the three comparisons (bachelor’s degree and bachelor’s +/master’s +), the
difference was almost one whole rating point.

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Police officers and managers with a high school education were much less likely
than those with either some college or a bachelor’s degree to agree with statements
associated with supervision. These differences accounted for more than one full point on
the rating scale (1.11 and 1.25, respectively).
Respondents with a high school education and those with a doctorate (M = 2.33
and M = 2.67, respectively) were both less likely than those with other levels of education
to agree with the statements associated with work conditions. The differences in average
ratings between the high school educated and other groups made up more than one full
point on the rating scale, while differences in average ratings between those with a
doctorate and those with education levels between some college and a master’s degree
plus some doctoral courses made up almost one full point on the rating scale. The
difference between those with a high school education and those with a doctorate was not
statistically significant.
With regard to responsibility, police officers and managers with a bachelor’s
degree plus some graduate courses or a master’s degree plus some doctoral courses were
more likely to agree with statements than those with some college or those with a
doctorate, although the difference between the former was fairly small (.28).
Police officers and managers with a high school education were much less likely
than those who had some college education or those with a bachelor’s degree to agree
with the statement associated with achievement, by a factor of almost two points on the
rating scale.
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Police officers and managers with a high school education were also much less
likely than those with higher levels of education to agree with the statements about
growth. The differences among these comparisons were also quite large, with high
school educated respondents falling in the range of disagree and somewhat disagree and
those with higher education falling in the range of somewhat agree and agree.
when combined and for all combined extrinsic statements across the differing education
levels. Among the intrinsic statements, a bell pattern emerged. Those at the lower end of
the education spectrum (high school) and those at the upper end (doctorate) were least
likely to agree with the group of intrinsic statements, while those in the middle
(bachelor’s degree) were most likely to agree with them. Differences among education
levels for extrinsic statements showed the same bell pattern, with those at the lowest and
highest ends of the spectrum submitting the lowest mean scores and those in the middle
rating higher levels of agreement. With regard to assessments of intrinsic statements
versus extrinsic statements, for all but the high school educated police officers and
managers, respondents rated intrinsic statements (when taken together) with a higher
level of agreement than extrinsic statements. Respondents with a high school education,
on the other hand, gave higher agreement scores to the extrinsic statements in the survey.
Comparisons by Rank
Table 17 illustrates rank comparisons. All of the assessments of Herzberg’s
factors were compared by the rank of police officers and police managers to determine
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Table 16
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors: Education Comparison
Education Intrinsic mean scores Extrinsic mean scores

High school 3.03 3.27
Bachelor’s degree 4.21 4.07
Doctorate 3.72 3.47
whether there was a significant difference between them. Mean comparisons using one-
way ANOVA were used to make this determination. Table 17 portrays those factors that,
when tested, elicited statistically significant differences (with a significance level of less
than .05) among the differing ranks. The only factors that did not achieve statistically
significant differences among the different ranks were work itself, peer relationships,
supervision, and recognition; these are therefore not portrayed or discussed.
In all of the nine factor comparisons listed in Table 17, respondents with a rank of
police officer or sheriff were the least likely group to agree with the statements. Across
most of the comparisons, those with a rank of lieutenant, executive staff, or above
provided the highest agreement ratings. The only factors where this was not the case
were job security and status, where the sergeants’ agreement level was the highest among
the three rank types.
when combined and for all combined extrinsic statements across the differing ranks.
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Table 17
Comparisons by Rank
Mean
Factor Rank Mean difference Significance
Advancement Officer 3.87 -
Sergeant 4.14 .27 .007
Executive staff 4.38 .51
Company policies Officer 3.93 -
Sergeant 4.27 .34 .000
Job security Officer 4.13 -
Sergeant 5.12 .99 .000
Work conditions Officer 3.60 -
Sergeant 3.90 .30 .022
Responsibility Officer 4.08 -
Sergeant 4.70 .62 .000
Salary/benefits Officer 3.47 -
.002
Sergeant 4.10 .63
Achievement Officer 3.28 -
.003
Growth Officer 4.31 .64
Sergeant 4.53 .42 .001
Executive staff 4.95 -
Status Officer 3.46 -
Sergeant 4.10 .64 .000
Among both intrinsic and extrinsic statements, respondents with a rank of police officer
or sheriff provided the lowest agreement scores, while respondents with a rank of
lieutenant, executive staff, or above provided the highest scores. With regard to
assessments of intrinsic statements versus extrinsic statements, for all ranking groups,
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respondents rated intrinsic statements (when taken together) at a higher level of
agreement than extrinsic statements.
Table 18
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors: Rank Comparisons
Rank Intrinsic mean scores Extrinsic mean scores

Officer 4.06 3.90
Sergeant 4.32 4.24
Executive staff 4.60 4.37
Summary of Findings
This study was designed to determine police officers’ and police managers’
perceptions of motivation that led them to job satisfaction. There are a total of 15
motivational factors according to Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory. They are
broken down into intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The six intrinsic factors are
achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth, advancement, and the work itself
(Herzberg, 1976). The nine extrinsic factors include company policies, supervision, work
conditions, salary, benefits, peer relationships, personal life, status, and job security
(Herzberg, 1976). The four research questions defined by this study inquired about the
degree to which Herzberg’s factors (intrinsic and extrinsic) motivated each of the 392
respondent police officers and police managers.

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From the four research questions, the following summary details some of the
important findings, as perceived by the police officers and police managers who
completed the survey questionnaire:
1. The greatest number of respondents (96%) agreed with the statement, “The
colleagues I work with are helpful and friendly” (M = 4.89). The next highest
number of respondents (95%) agreed with the statement, “I am successful because I
have reasonable control over my work product” (M = 4.86). The next highest number
of respondents (91%) agreed with the statement, “I stay at my job because it is
challenging and exciting” (M = 4.80).
2. The smallest percentage of respondents (42%) agreed with the statement, “The
working conditions at my agency are satisfying, because there are an adequate
number of officers on my shift” (M = 3.16). This group was followed by the group of
respondents who agreed with the statement, “I am satisfied working for this agency
because it recognizes my achievements” (M = 3.38, 52% agreement), and by the
group who agreed with the statement, “One of the main reasons why I love my job is
my supervisor always thanks me for a job well done” (M = 3.42, 54% agreement).
These three statements that were least likely to be agreed with all averaged scores that
fell closer to a level of disagreement than agreement (less than 3.50).
3. Intrinsic factors were rated at a higher level of agreement overall than the extrinsic
factors (M = 4.13 and M = 3.97, respectively). The overall percentage of agreement
for the intrinsic and extrinsic factors was fairly close, although intrinsic factors
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achieved a slightly higher level of agreement with 73% than the extrinsic statements’
level of agreement at 70%.
4. Male respondents were more likely than female respondents to agree with statements
about work itself, responsibility, and status. Of these, the factor that showed the
greatest difference in scores was status, with a mean difference of .41. When the
overall classifications of intrinsic versus extrinsic were compared by gender, the
differences between male and female respondents were not statistically significant.
5. Police officers and managers who had 20 or more years of experience were the least
likely group to agree with the statements about supervision (mean score of 3.70
versus between 3.99 and 4.15 for the other groups). A pattern appeared to emerge
with statements about supervision: As the number of years of experience increased,
agreement with the statements decreased, in a linear relationship.
6. Respondents with between 5 and 10 years of experience as a sworn peace officer
were less likely than those with 16 to 20 years of experience and those with over 20
years of experience to agree with statements about responsibility. The greatest
difference between these groups was between those with 5 to 10 years and those with
16 to 20 years of experience (close to half of a rating point, .48). There were no
statistically significant differences between those with between 5 and 10 years and
those with less than 5 years or 11 to 15 years of experience.
7. Respondents with less than 5 years of experience were much less likely than those
with over 10 years of experience to agree with the statement specific to
salary/benefits. Those with less than 5 years of experience submitted an average

149
rating of less than somewhat disagree (2.91), while those with 16 to 20 years of
experience averaged a rating slightly above somewhat agree (4.04). This comparison
exhibits the greatest difference in the average scores among the groups for all factors
analyzed.
8. With regard to the statement associated with status, respondents with between 5 and
10 years of experience were less likely to agree than those in the other groups (mean
score of 3.22 versus a mean score of between 3.49 and 3.89).
9. Across the board, all years of experience categories rated intrinsic statements (when
taken together) at a higher level of agreement than extrinsic statements.
10. Respondents with a doctorate were less likely than those who had some college, a
bachelor’s degree, a bachelor’s degree plus some graduate courses, and a master’s
degree plus doctoral courses to agree with the statements about work itself. In two of
the three comparisons (bachelor’s degree and bachelor’s +/masters +), the difference
was almost one whole rating point. In other words, respondents with a doctorate felt
the work itself was the least important factor to them.
11. Police officers and managers with a high school education were much less likely than
those with either some college or a bachelor’s degree to agree with statements
associated with supervision. These differences accounted for more than one full point
on the rating scale (1.11 and 1.25, respectively). Simply put, respondents with a high
school education felt supervision was the least important factor to them.
12. Respondents with a high school education and those with a doctorate were both less
likely than those with other levels of education to agree with the statements
150
associated with work conditions. The differences in average ratings between the high
school educated and other groups made up more than one full point on the rating
scale, while differences in average ratings between those with a doctorate and those
with education levels between some college and a master’s degree plus some doctoral
courses made up almost one full point on the rating scale. The difference between
those with a high school education and those with a doctorate was not statistically
significant.
13. With regard to responsibility, police officers and managers with a bachelor’s degree
plus some graduate courses or a master’s degree plus some doctoral courses were
those who had some college education or those with a bachelor’s degree to agree with
the statement associated with achievement, by a factor of almost two points on the
rating scale.
those with higher levels of education to agree with the statements about growth. The
differences among these comparisons were quite large, with high school educated
respondents falling in the range of disagree to somewhat disagree and those with
higher education falling in the range of somewhat agree to agree.

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In conclusion, Chapter V offers a summary of this study’s findings, key
conclusions derived from this study, as well as implications, a summary, and suggestions
for future research.

CHAPTER V
FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR

FUTURE ACTION
Summary of the Study
Keeping high morale within a police department remains a challenge today for
police officers and police managers. In 2011 and 2012, with the volatile economic
situation facing the United States, many agencies have been forced to impose layoffs of
police personnel and reduce police services in order to stay within their budget. With
increased pressure on police departments to do more with less, it is important for
agencies to foster an environment that promotes autonomy and at the same time a culture
that values those who put their lives on the line every day for the communities they serve.
Therefore, it is important for leaders in policing to understand what is necessary to
motivate their employees.
This dissertation not only measured the job satisfaction levels of police officers
and police managers but also addressed what specific intrinsic and extrinsic factors
influence their levels of job satisfaction.
Purpose Statement
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153
Research Questions
motivation?
Methodology Summary
The research methodology for this study included both descriptive and ex post
facto research. For all four research questions asked, the descriptive research method
was selected. As defined by Salkind (2008), descriptive statistics “are used to organize
and describe the characteristics of a collection of data” (p. 8). With descriptive research,
several different sample methods may be used. Based on the methods available,
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including public opinion surveys, fact-finding surveys, questionnaires combined with
interviews, and surveys of the literature and anecdotal records, the researcher selected a
detailed survey questionnaire.
The first research question used an ex post facto design. Meltzoff (1998) said that
during an ex post facto study, “the researcher postdicts (i.e., tells backward) antecedents
or causes from known consequences or effects” (p. 40). Survey questions related to the
first research question asked police officers and police managers to respond regarding
their level of agreement or disagreement with statements related to Herzberg’s
motivation-hygiene theory intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
Additionally, for Research Questions 2, 3, and 4, the questions were analyzed
using descriptive statistics. These questions, supported by the ex post facto research,
inquired about significant differences among three separate categories (gender, education,
and years of service). The researcher used inferential statistics to “infer the
characteristics of a population from a representative sample” (Krathwohl, 1998, p. 455).
Additionally, a test of significance was completed on the data regarding the three
categories through a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). This provided richer
information about the three categories, based on the police officers’ and police managers’
perceptions.
Summary of Findings
Frederick Herzberg (1976) described in his motivation-hygiene theory the
intrinsic factors as advancement, achievement, recognition, responsibility, the work itself,
and growth. Also, Herzberg stated the extrinsic factors as salary, benefits, interpersonal
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relations, supervision, company policy and administration, working conditions, status,
personal life and job security.
From the four research questions, the following summary details the important
findings, as perceived by the police officers and police managers who completed the
survey:
1. The responses from police officers and police managers that produced the highest
level of agreement (M = 4.89) were to the extrinsic factor statement, “The colleagues I
work with are helpful and friendly.” The lowest rated motivational factor (M = 3.16)
for the police officers and the police managers was the extrinsic factor statement, “The
working conditions at my agency are satisfying, because there are an adequate number
of officers on my shift.” For the police officers and police managers, what they
perceived as the most important factors and the least important factors were consistent
with the literature about what is significant to employees in the public and private
sector.
2. For the results based on gender, the perceptions of the police officers and police
managers were as follows: The highest means were reported for the intrinsic factor
work itself, with males providing an average rating of 4.77 compared to females’
rating of 4.56. Furthermore, the second highest rated intrinsic factor, responsibility,
was rated higher by the male respondents (M = 4.27 compared to M = 3.98). The next
highest rated factor, status, was also rated higher by the male respondents (M = 3.66
compared to M = 3.25). All three factors showed statistically significant differences in
the degree to which males and females found them to be motivating. Again, these
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perceptions of the areas of importance were similar to what the literature reflected
about some of the traits and characteristics that are associated with how males and
females perceive job satisfaction.
3. Police officers and managers who had 20 or more years of experience were the least
likely group to agree with the statements about supervision (M = 3.70) compared to
those with less than 5 years (M = 4.15), 5 to 10 years (M = 4.13), and 11 to 15 years of
experience (M = 3.99). A pattern appeared to emerge with statements about
supervision: As the number of years of experience increased, agreement with the
statements decreased, in a linear relationship. The mean score for those with 16 to 20
years of experience (3.97) was not statistically different from the score for those who
had over 20 years of experience.
4. Respondents with between 5 and 10 years of experience as a sworn peace officer were
less likely than those with 16 to 20 years of experience and those with over 20 years of
experience to agree with statements about responsibility. The greatest difference
between these groups was between those with 5 to 10 years and those with 16 to 20
years of experience (close to half of a rating point, .48). There were no statistically
significant differences between those with between 5 and 10 years and those with less
than 5 years or 11 to 15 years of experience.
5. Respondents with less than 5 years of experience were much less likely than those
with over 10 years of experience to agree with the statement specific to
salary/benefits. Those with less than 5 years of experience provided an average rating
of less than somewhat disagree (2.91), while those with 16 to 20 years of experience
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averaged a rating slightly above somewhat agree (4.04). This comparison exhibits the
greatest difference in the average scores among the groups for all factors analyzed.
6. With regard to the statement associated with status, respondents with between 5 and
10 years of experience were less likely to agree than those in the other groups (mean
score of 3.22 versus a mean score of between 3.82 and 3.89). The mean score for
those with 11 to 15 years of experience (3.49) was not statistically different from the
score for those who had 5 to 10 years of experience.
7. Respondents with a doctorate were less likely than those who had some college, a
bachelor’s degree, a bachelor’s degree plus some graduate courses, and a master’s
degree plus doctoral courses to agree with the statements about work itself. In two of
the three comparisons (bachelor’s degree and bachelor’s +/masters +), the difference
was almost one whole rating point. In other words, respondents with a doctorate felt
the work itself was the least important factor to them.
those with either some college or a bachelor’s degree to agree with statements
associated with supervision. These differences accounted for more than one full point
on the rating scale (1.11 and 1.25, respectively). Simply put, respondents with a high
school education felt supervision was the least important factor to them. Additionally,
respondents with a high school education and those with a doctorate were both less
likely than those with other levels of education to agree with the statements associated
with work conditions. The differences in average ratings between the high school
educated and other groups made up more than one full point on the rating scale, while
158
differences in average ratings between those with a doctorate and those with education
levels between some college and a master’s degree plus some doctoral courses made
up almost one full point on the rating scale. The difference between those with a high
school education and those with a doctorate was not statistically significant.
9. With regard to responsibility, police officers and managers with a bachelor’s degree
plus some graduate courses or a master’s degree plus some doctoral courses were
Furthermore, police officers and managers with a high school education were much
less likely than those who had some college education or those with a bachelor’s
degree to agree with the statement associated with achievement, by a factor of almost
two points on the rating scale. Finally, police officers and managers with a high
school education were also much less likely than those with higher levels of education
to agree with the statements about growth. The differences among these comparisons
are also quite large, with high school educated respondents falling in the range of
disagree to somewhat disagree and those with higher education falling in the range of
somewhat agree to agree.
Major Findings
Police Officers Need to Work Around

the Colleagues They Enjoy the Most
The statement, “The colleagues I work with are helpful and friendly,” garnered
the most positive response from the participants in this study. Police officers are a tight-
159
knit group. Because of the stress officers face daily, they tend to confide in other officers
of the same rank. On the other hand, the statement, “The working conditions at my
agency are satisfying, because there are an adequate number of officers on my shift,”
received the lowest level of agreement. One possible reason for this may be related to the
number of layoffs police departments are making. Many officers are seeing their peers
being let go and going to other agencies. This leads to specialty units such as Special
Weapons and Tactics (SWAT), problem-oriented policing (POP), and traffic being
collapsed into patrol. Because of the mass displacement, many officers are finding
themselves working with fewer officers. Because of officer safety issues related to lower
staffing levels, this could lead to officers being less proactive in the streets. This means
officers may answer calls for service only.
More Opportunities for Promotion

and Advancement Need to be
Offered to Women
From the survey results, the statements related to work itself, responsibility, and
status were rated statistically higher for men when compared to women. The literature
on this topic is consistent with the findings. Some possibilities may be that women in
law enforcement are still struggling to advance at the same rate as their male
counterparts. This survey revealed that women are still not being given the same
responsibilities as their male counterparts in the field. These responsibilities include but
are not limited to positions in specialty units, promotional opportunities, and special
projects. (This means women are working in the vice unit, gang unit, or narcotics unit.)
It is possible that because of the perceived lack of opportunities, the women in this study
160
reported a significantly lower level of job satisfaction related to the work itself,
responsibility, and status. This finding is consistent with the literature, highlighting the
issue of women in policing not being viewed as competent by their male peers. Based on
this study, the researcher’s conclusion is that women are still not viewed as equals with
their male counterparts. Women are just as capable of doing police work and need to be
given the same responsibilities. By promoting a culture of inclusiveness, the status of
women in policing will likely be viewed on the same level as men.
The More Time an Officer Has

on the Job, the Less He/She
Needs to be Managed
Police officers with more than 20 years of experience were the group least likely
to agree with the statements related to supervision. As the years of experience increased,
the respondents were less likely to agree with the statements related to supervision.
There is no substitute for experience. With more experience on the job, police officers do
not need to be managed as much. It is fair to say this inference is no different from other
professions.
More Incentives Need to be Offered

to Those Who Wish to Continue
Their Education
The literature showed that police officers with a college education are generally
more satisfied on the job than those who do not have an education. The rationale is that
these officers are more ambitious, and if they are not promoted and/or given advancement
opportunities, it will have a negative effect on their satisfaction levels. Research shows
161
that police officers with higher education (i.e., bachelor’s degree and above) are less
likely to have disciplinary issues, use-of-force issues, and do not generate citizen
complaints. This results in fewer potential lawsuits and probably less negative press in
the media. The bottom line is that municipalities end up with less money being paid out
from settlements. City officials need to create incentives for police officers to obtain
higher education on the front end, in order to prevent large payoffs on the back end.
Police Officers Do Not Like Being

Micromanaged by Supervisors
and Managers
Two of the four statements receiving the highest level of agreement from the
respondents were, “I am successful because I have reasonable control over my work
product,” and “I love my job because I am empowered enough to perform my duties.”
Based on the survey results, police officers responded similarly to what was discussed in
the literature review. Police officers take pride in keeping the communities they work in
safe. Police officers generally have Type A personalities, meaning they are take-charge,
assertive, alpha-male type of people. Police officers have autonomy in their jobs, and
they do not like to be micromanaged.
Relationships and Work Itself Are Highly

Valued, but There Is a Lack of
Agreement for Feeling Valued for
Achievement and Recognition
Based on the survey of the Roseville Police Department, the Sacramento Police
Department, and the Sacramento Sheriff’s Department, statements related to
relationships and the work itself achieved the highest mean scores and were agreed with
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by an overwhelming majority of the respondents (over 90%). The factors that achieved
the lowest level of agreement were achievement and recognition. This is likely due to
police officers not feeling appreciated for the work that they do by their supervisors and
managers. Achievement and recognition are intrinsic motivators that are not being met
for police officers. Police officers may feel that their profession is a thankless job. For
the most part, police officers come in contact with individuals needing their help for
various issues, usually resulting from a negative experience. Additionally, police officers
deal with the issues associated with administration, which causes officers to be cynical
(Gilmartin, 2002; Toch, 2002). Police officers work in a profession many consider
stressful and dangerous. Based on the responses from the participants of this study, it
appears police officers need to be recognized for the difficult work they perform
regularly. In regard to achievement, the rationale is that officers want to have the
autonomy to perform their duties without the fear of being negatively scrutinized and
micromanaged.
As a result of the survey, an important finding that was not expected was the
number of participants who agreed with the statement, “The colleagues I work with are
helpful and friendly.” Ninety-six percent of respondents agreed with that statement.
That particular statement is related to one of Herzberg’s extrinsic factors. With the recent
attacks on police pensions and benefits from politicians, distrust between the community
and the police, and the rising number of violent crimes against police officers, it is likely
police officers are feeling increasingly isolated from people who are not police officers.
This sentiment was supported by clinical psychologist Kevin Gilmartin (2002), who
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stated that police officers “trust no one but a small inner circle of partners and friends”
(p. 28).
The statement receiving the third highest level of agreement (91%) among the
respondents was, “I stay at my job because it is challenging and exciting.” The nature of
police work is that no two days are ever the same. When dealing with people from all
lifestyles, there will always be challenges testing an officer’s mental and sometimes
physiological well-being. Because of the constant and unpredictable dynamics of life-
and-death situations officers face every day, as well as other challenges associated with
the economy and layoffs, officers are facing challenges that are taxing and ever-changing.
There are many administrative aspects that police managers are responsible for
that are just as demanding. There are those of the higher ranks (lieutenant, captain,
deputy chief/sheriff, chief/sheriff) who work with community city leaders to help solve
neighborhood crimes, lower crime statistics, and enhance the quality of life in their
respective cities and counties. These challenges police managers face include promoting
trust and positive relationships with politicians and other community leaders. The
constant struggle to help make communities safe is not easy, and it is something all police
leaders strive to achieve. This leads to the cognitive dissonance between what line staff
may want and what the community, politicians, and city leaders want.
Table 19 shows that of the participants in this study, those holding the rank of
police officer/sheriff provided the lowest agreement scores with respect to both the
intrinsic and extrinsic factors (71.2% and 67.7%, respectively). Police managers
provided the highest agreement scores (85.2% for intrinsic and 80.9% for extrinsic
164
factors). The reasons why police officers/sheriffs and sergeants failed to agree with more
of the intrinsic and extrinsic statements may be related to the issue of officers not having
control over the work they do and the conditions presented to them. Police officers want
to go to work and be left alone to do their work. Police officers go to work to solve
problems, and the stress they incur is not related to the work they perform in the field but
comes from the administrative staff.
Table 19
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors: Disagreement and Agreement by Rank
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Rank % disagreement % agreement % disagreement % agreement
Officer 28.8% 71.2% 32.3% 67.7%
Sergeant 21.1% 78.9% 22.3% 77.7%
Executive staff 14.8% 85.2% 19.1% 80.9%
According to the survey results, police managers provided the highest scores of
agreement related to both the intrinsic and extrinsic statements. One possible reason for
this is that police managers have more autonomy in the work they are tasked to do.
Generally, police managers are not scrutinized by their superiors at the same frequency as
the police officers who work on the front lines. Police managers perform duties related to
discipline, policy changes, working directly with community leaders, and other aspects of
the job where they dictate what tasks need to be completed. Police managers are not
scrutinized at the same frequency for all the decisions they make compared to the police
officers who work on the front lines.

165
Conclusions
Based on the results of the survey, police officers want to be treated by their
superiors as competent employees and left alone to do their jobs without being
micromanaged. Policing is a noble profession, and as a result, police officers take pride
in ensuring sure the community they work in and serve is safe. Additionally, police
officers value their relationships with other police officers. Police officers trust other
police officers since they can understand each other’s issues and problems (Gilmartin,
2002; Toch, 2002). Furthermore, the push from politicians and government leaders to
reform pensions and benefits, and the rise in violent crime against police officers has
forced officers to align more closely together. This is evident in that the top two factors
the respondents positively responded to were related to relationships and the work itself.
Women in the law enforcement community have overcome major hurdles.
However, from the survey results, it appears gender is still an issue with female police
officers today. Factors related to status, work itself, and responsibility were rated
statistically significantly lower in satisfaction by female police officers compared to their
male counterparts. This is important to highlight because the perception is that women in
policing are still not viewed as equal to men. Additionally, based on the survey results,
women are still not being given the same responsibilities to succeed as their male
counterparts. Women may need to be given more opportunities to make an impact in the
law enforcement community. Diversity is valuable to any police organization because of
the involvement of officers with different backgrounds, experiences, knowledge, and
understanding. Having a diverse workplace in policing can promote problem solving and
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implementation of new ideas, because there are more people who are able to come up
with the needed solutions and ideas. Female police officers have much to contribute and
can offer different perspectives on issues within a male-dominated profession. The
survey results show that law enforcement officials have a lot more work to do to help
bridge the gap with regard to gender inequality.
Implications for Action
Leaders in policing, city officials, and city council members wishing to see a
more harmonious relationship between police officers and police unions need to know
what motivates police officers. The following recommendations are offered as strategies
to most effectively ensure job satisfaction for police officers and managers.
Theme 1
Because there are fewer police officers working in various agencies, police
officers are starting to feel they cannot be as effective in performing their work functions
as they have been used to. Specialty units such as POP are disappearing, and other units
being reduced may cause police officers to be dissatisfied. With these changes, officers
may not be willing to be as proactive as they once were because of officer safety issues.
The officer who works an area known for high crime may generally not be willing to
maintain the high visibility and enforcement to help deter crime. With the elimination of
certain specialty units, displaced officers may not want to put forth the same effort of
service because they do not feel valued by their leaders. This can put public safety at risk
and negatively affect the quality of life in a particular area. Police officers are the reason
167
society does not fall into anarchy. City leaders need to keep this in mind when they
consider cuts to public safety and the unintended consequences that are associated with
such cuts. Having said that, police officers should be offered the opportunity to work
with other officers they get along with whenever possible.
Theme 2
Today, women have made more strides than ever before. There are more women
serving as police chiefs and holding other prominent positions. Police agencies need to
continue to diversify their workforce and specialty units within their respective agencies
and promote a culture where female and male officers are treated as equals. Equality in
promotional opportunities and the opportunity to advance, and having more responsibility
are gender issues police departments have made strides in and need to continue to push
for.
Theme 3
Sergeants and police managers in particular need to be aware of the following
issues when leading their subordinates: respect, trust, and leadership style. There will
always be sergeants and police managers who will treat their subordinates as if they were
brand new officers, even if the subordinates have more experience than they do. It is not
unusual to hear about police officers being upset with their supervisors because they feel
their supervisors do not trust them or their judgments. If sergeants and police managers
want to ensure that their officers maintain a high level of job satisfaction, they need to
focus on treating them with respect, recognizing them as competent individuals, and
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allowing them to make independent decisions. One recommendation is for agencies to
provide professional development opportunities for teaching police officers the
importance of motivation and the significance of job satisfaction.
Theme 4
There are positive benefits for police officers with a college education. Having a
college education can enhance an officer’s perspective on the job, which not only helps
the officer individually, but it helps professionalize the agency too. Having a college
education could result in less use-of-force issues and other situations that cost agencies
and their cities and/or counties a considerable amount of money paid in lawsuits.
Theme 5
Police officers want their superiors to have faith in the work they do, instead of
telling them what to do. For example, in patrol, there are events that are always changing
on the front line. Because of the changing dynamics, officers on the ground make
decisions as they see appropriate. The U.S. military has recognized this and has thus
moved away from the paramilitary structure of most of the decisions being made from the
top, instead letting the troops on the ground make decisions as necessary. The command-
and-control structure takes the power away from the officers on the front line and limits
the control the officers have over the situations they are involved in. Police officers not
only have authority to enforce local and state laws, but they also have a sworn duty to
uphold the U.S. Constitution. Police managers and sergeants need to give more
169
autonomy to their subordinates to make neighborhoods safe and enhance the quality of
life in the cities and counties they serve.
Theme 6
Based on the survey results, achievement and recognition were the two factors
that were rated at the lowest level of agreement. Police officers and police managers
perceive that they are not being recognized for the important work they do. Additionally,
the perception is they are not being given the resources needed for achievement.
City leaders and council members need to let police managers do the work that
they know how to do. The overwhelming majority of city leaders and council members
do not have firsthand knowledge of how to do police work and therefore may not be
qualified in deciding how a police department should be run. Decisions made by city
leaders and council members may not always be in the best interest of the agencies, and
by removing the autonomy and resources from the leaders within the police department,
it causes dissatisfaction for those leaders.
As it pertains to newer officers, making them feel as if they are a valued addition
to the city/county is necessary to keep them employed. An applicant going through the
academy and making it through field-training and the probationary period costs
cities/counties approximately $100,000. When younger officers perceive their city
officials as using them as collateral damage in making budget, they are inclined to leave
and join other agencies that are more financially stable. The younger officers take that
training and experience away from their original department and bring it elsewhere where
they feel valued. City officials need to recognize this because it leaves their city at a
170
financial loss and puts public safety more at risk with fewer officers in the police
department.
What Does All This Mean?
So what does all this mean in regard to factors motivating police officers? How
do these factors influence job satisfaction for police officers? How are negative attitudes
and low levels of job satisfaction affecting police officers, the agencies they work at, and
the communities they serve? The main issue highlighted is if police officers are not
feeling motivated by intrinsic factors, they will not be satisfied.
Recently, there have been attacks on the pensions and benefits of police officers.
These events, coupled with the rising number of police officers being ambushed, such as
in the tragedies in Oakland, California; Lakewood, Washington; and Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania have put police officers on edge. Police officers, in certain areas they
patrol, are not liked and are not trusted by the public. The perception from some police
officers is that politicians and the public are out to get them. Here is how these issues
affect police officers:
On the issue of health, there has not been a substantial amount of research on the
link between the health of police officers and job satisfaction. However, there may be a
significant relationship between the two variables. Discontent associated with the
profession can directly affect the physical and psychological well-being of police
officers, which can make them more vulnerable to injury and illness or force them to
resort to coping mechanisms detrimental to their health, such as alcohol abuse or drugs.
Martin and Roman (1996) completed a study of job satisfaction as it related to

171
employees’ drinking behaviors. Their study concluded that those with higher levels of
job satisfaction consumed alcohol in excess less than other employees. Additionally,
O’Driscoll and Beehr (1994) discovered that unhappy and frustrated employees report
more illnesses, digestive problems, and sleeping problems than those who are satisfied
with their work. These types of health issues can be costly by having a law enforcement
agency provide medical help for injured employees or alcohol and drug counseling for
those who have developed substance abuse problems.
Psychological problems, which include anxiety, burnout, and depression, have
also been linked to low job satisfaction (McCue & Gianakis, 1997). Sterns and Moore
(1993) conducted a study of 290 police officers and discovered that health issues and
cynical attitudes were associated with burnout. However, police officers who spent more
time pursuing sports or hobbies were found to have reduced levels of burnout. The
growing problem of police officer suicide mentioned in Chapter I can also be cited as a
psychological problem that may be a result of low satisfaction at the workplace.
Suicide is a problem that plagues the policing community. Suicide among police
officers is a problem that has been associated with job satisfaction. According to the
International Association of Police Chiefs (1996), it is estimated that more police officers
commit suicide annually than are killed in the line of duty. Miller et al. (2009) stated,
It is commonly reported that police officers suffer high rates of heart disease and
stomach disorders; show high rates of divorce, sometimes reported to be twice
that of other occupations; and have suicide rates two to six times the national
average. (p. 420)
It is safe to say that police officers work for a low rate of financial compensation
relative to the risks associated with their job. Additionally, the gap between what an
172
employee actually makes and what he or she thinks he or she should get paid can result in
lower job satisfaction (Lawler, 1973).
Morale has been defined as the psychological attitude employees have toward an
organization, its policies and procedures, and the way they are administered (Souryal,
1995). Morale is particularly significant in policing, as low morale can result in a lack of
productivity and a lack of belief in the organization as a whole by its employees. There
are several things that can boost morale in a police department. These things include but
are not limited to positive feedback, rewards (when appropriate) from supervision,
assuring there are equal opportunities for advancement, and equipping officers with the
necessary tools to do their work effectively.
Miller et al. (2009) stated, “Policies, procedures, working conditions,
assignments, and so forth, seem to have a more profound effect on perceptions of overall
job satisfaction among officers than do actual duties and dealing with the public”
(p. 420). Miller et al. also discovered that feedback from police administration and the
community within the job itself was a major predictor of job satisfaction. In a study of
probation and parole officers, Getahun et al. (2008) discovered that organizational culture
and management style are far more important factors than background characteristics of
the officers in explaining employee satisfaction.
Factors such as stress, low compensation, and working conditions can negatively
affect job satisfaction for an individual. As it pertains to police agencies throughout the
country, administration, rewards and recognition versus punishment, shift assignment,
days off, morale, and burnout can also have a significant effect on police job satisfaction.
173
Recommendations for Further Research
The purpose of this research was to discover how the intrinsic and extrinsic
motivators outlined in Herzberg’s two-factor theory lead to job satisfaction in police
officers and police managers.
Relationships
The respondents who participated in this survey were police officers. Based on
the research, of the top five reasons respondents were motivated to work, the
“relationship with the supervisor” was not considered. Police agencies are hierarchical in
nature, and there is a chain of command that must be followed. Seeing that most of the
stress that police officers face is related to supervision and administration, a topic for
future research could be the level of emotional intelligence for the leaders of police
departments. This research could play a significant role in finding new directions in
motivating employees. Emotional intelligence is a better predictor of an individual’s
chances for leadership than IQ. Police agencies tend to put an emphasis on the IQ
portion in the promotional process from officer to sergeant. More research could focus
on the emotional intelligence portion of those exams in how they influence a new culture.
Morale
From the current research, morale within a police department and the factors that
increase or decrease morale levels have a direct influence on officer job satisfaction. A
study determining what those particular factors are and the degree to which they affect
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employee satisfaction is also needed to advance further research on the link between low
morale and job satisfaction for police officers.
Trust
Trust between police officers and the general public continues to be a hot issue in
law enforcement. Research on job satisfaction levels and trust with the public is needed
to see if there is a link between high job satisfaction for police officers and more trust
with the public. If there is a correlation between the two factors, it could change the way
police managers/city council members do business in policing.
Replication of the Study
A replication of this study in other geographical areas in California would be
beneficial to see if the findings in other areas are similar to the findings in this study. If
the findings are similar, it further reinforces the need to make changes to promote more
opportunities for women, promote incentives for those with a bachelor’s degree, as well
as other strategies to help promote positive experiences for law enforcement officials.
Education
A study exploring the relationship between education and job satisfaction for
police officers should also be investigated. If there is a correlation between higher
education and positive attitudes/self-esteem for officers, it could further promote the idea
that incentives are needed to help encourage officers to get their bachelor’s degree and
higher.
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175
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APPENDICES
191
APPENDIX A
JOB SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE
192
193
Motivators Affecting The Intrinsic And Extrinsic

Rewards Of Police Officers
Agreement to Participate
A. I have read and understand the Informed Consent to Participate in Research and
agree to answer the survey.
Yes - I Agree
No - I Decline
Motivators Influencing Police Officers
B. Please rate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following
statements.
STRONGLY SOMEWHAT SOMEWHAT STRONGLY

DISAGREE AGREE
DISAGREE DISAGREE AGREE AGREE
1. I stay at my job because 1 2 3 4 5 6
it is challenging and
exciting.
2. The colleagues I work 1 2 3 4 5 6
with are helpful and
friendly.
3. At my agency, I have 1 2 3 4 5 6
sufficient opportunities
to learn new skills for
career advancement.
4. I like working at my 1 2 3 4 5 6
agency because the
policies are favorable for
its workers.
5. One of the main reasons 1 2 3 4 5 6
why I work at my agency
is because my supervisor
is a strong and
trustworthy leader.
6. I believe my job is 1 2 3 4 5 6
secure.
194

DISAGREE AGREE
7. It is more important to 1 2 3 4 5 6
advance in career
opportunities and
responsibility—rather
than achieving a higher
income.
8. Because of my 1 2 3 4 5 6
relationship with my
supervisor, I feel
satisfied at work.
9. I am happy to work here 1 2 3 4 5 6
because of the
comfortable working
conditions.
10. I love my job because I 1 2 3 4 5 6
am empowered enough
to perform my duties.
11. I am successful because I 1 2 3 4 5 6
have reasonable control
over my work product.
12. I value my job here 1 2 3 4 5 6
because I am
responsible for the work
of others.
13. The working conditions 1 2 3 4 5 6
at my agency are
satisfying, because there
are an adequate number
of officers on my shift.
14. I am satisfied working 1 2 3 4 5 6
for this agency because I
know I would be treated
fairly if accused of
wrongdoing.
15. I think the pay I receive 1 2 3 4 5 6
is appropriate and fair
for the work I do.
16. I am satisfied working 1 2 3 4 5 6
for this agency because
it recognizes my
achievements.
195

DISAGREE AGREE
17. Working at this agency 1 2 3 4 5 6
has allowed me to
improve my experience,
skills, and performance.
18. One of the main reasons 1 2 3 4 5 6
why I love my job is my
supervisor always thanks
me for a job well done.
19. I feel fortunate to work 1 2 3 4 5 6
here because my job
allows me to grow and
develop as a person.
20. I believe police officers 1 2 3 4 5 6
are respected by the
public.
Survey Demographics
21. What is your gender?

1 Male
2 Female
22. What is your rank?
1 Police Officer/Sheriff/Highway Patrol Officer

2 Sergeant
3 Lieutenant/Executive staff or above
23. How long have you been a sworn peace officer?
1 Less Than 5 Years

2 5-10 Years
3 11-15 Years
4 16-20 Years
5 Over 20 Years
196
24. What is the highest level of education you have completed?

1 GED
2 High School
3 1 year of College
4 2 years of College
7 Bachelor’s Degree
8 Bachelor’s Degree +
9 Masters Degree +
10 Doctorate Degree
25. What is your marital status?

1 Single
2 Married
APPENDIX B
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE FORM
197
198
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH

MOTIVATORS AFFECTING THE INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC REWARDS
OF POLICE OFFICERS AND POLICE MANAGERS
You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Obed

Magny from the Organizational Leadership Department at the University of La
Verne. Results from this study will contribute to research being gathered for a
dissertation. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because
you are a police officer/police manager.
x PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
It was the purpose of this study to determine if there are differences, as

perceived by police officers and police managers, in the importance of certain
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors.
x PROCEDURES
If you decide to participate in this study, we will ask you to do the following
things:
9 Participate in an online survey lasting no more than 15 minutes.

9 If you wish, a copy of the findings will be sent to you upon completion of
the study.
x POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
Participation in the study is strictly voluntary. However, there may be some

discomfort as a result of participating in the electronic survey or interview. A
participant does not need to answer any survey or interview question that he/she
is not comfortable with. Survey participants will electronically give consent and
interview participants will give consent during the survey and will give verbal
consent at the beginning of the interview. Participants will have the right at any
time to decline any questions or withdraw from the study.
x POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
The feedback provided by the participants will be used to study the perception of
police officers and police managers as to the degree of importance relative to
Frederick Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors. Feedback will also
determine if there is a significance difference as to the degree of importance of
Herzberg’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors as motivators based on
experience, gender, education and/or officer versus manager. The findings,
199
along with the recommendations suggested by the researcher as a result of the

study, will be made available to all participating respondents.
x PAYMENT FOR PARTICIPATION
No payment will be given to any participant in this research study.
x CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study, and that can be
identified with you, will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your
permission or as required by law. Confidentiality will be maintained by means of
coding each police department participating and not by using specific names. All
data collected will be kept in a locked cabinet only to be seen by the researcher.
All electronic data and interview tapes will be destroyed at the completion of the
study. Participants will have the option of reviewing their audiotape in order to
make any changes they feel necessary.
x PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this
study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You
may also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still
remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if
circumstances arise which warrant doing so.
x IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to
contact me via e-mail at miamirul@hotmail.com, or by phone at 617-594-9007. I
can also put you in contact with my dissertation chairperson: Dr. Doug DeVore at
623-748-9704 (ddevore@laverne.edu) if needed.
x RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of
your participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your
rights as a research participant, contact Marcia Godwin, Ph.D., Director of the
Institutional Review Board, University of La Verne at 909-593-3511, extension
4103, or via email at mgodwin@laverne.edu (Institutional Review Board, 1950
Third Street, La Verne, CA 91750).
APPENDIX C
PERMISSION FROM CHIEFS/SHERIFFS TO USE

THEIR SWORN EMPLOYEES
200
201
202
203
APPENDIX D
IRB APPROVAL LETTER
204
205

Instrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

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Instrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

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UNIVERSITY OF LA VERNE

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE JOB SATISFACTION

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

College of Education and Organizational Leadership

Organizational Leadership Department

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

All rights reserved

By Obed Magny, EdD

Conclusions. Police officers want to be treated by their superiors as competent

FIGURES ................................................................................................................... xii

TABLES ................................................................................................................... xiii

DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... xvii

I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE ................................................. 1

Background of the Study........................................................................... 1

Problem Statement .................................................................................... 6

Hierarchy of Needs ............................................................................ 6

Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory ............................................. 7

McClelland’s Need Theory ................................................................ 7

Equity Theory .................................................................................... 8

Hawthorne Study ............................................................................... 8

3-D Theory ......................................................................................... 10

High Involvement Organizations ....................................................... 10

Sociotechnical Systems Theory ......................................................... 11

Job Characteristics Model .................................................................. 13

Achievement/Power Theory .............................................................. 13

Expectancy Theory ............................................................................ 14

Theories X, Y, and Z.......................................................................... 15

The Effects of Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation................................ 16

How Stress Affects Motivation in Police Officers ............................ 16

Herzberg’s Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators................................... 17

The Importance to Police Organizations............................................ 19

Purpose Statement ..................................................................................... 20

Research Questions ................................................................................... 20

Significance of the Research Problem ...................................................... 21

Definitions of Terms ................................................................................. 23

Delimitations of the Study ........................................................................ 26

Chapter I Summary ................................................................................... 27

Organization of the Study ......................................................................... 28

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 29

Synthesis of Employee Motivation Theories ............................................ 29

Need Theories of Motivation ............................................................. 31

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ........................................................... 31

McClelland’s Theory of Needs .......................................................... 35

Equity Theory .................................................................................... 36

Solving the Issue of Inequity ............................................................. 39

Hawthorne Study ............................................................................... 39

3-D Theory ......................................................................................... 40

High Involvement Organizations ....................................................... 43

Sociotechnical Systems Theory ......................................................... 49

Existence Relatedness Growth Theory .............................................. 55

Job Characteristics Model .................................................................. 55

Achievement/Power Theory .............................................................. 58

Reinforcement Theory ....................................................................... 60

Expectancy Theory ............................................................................ 61

Theory X, Y, and Z ............................................................................ 71

The Effects of Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation................................ 79

Stress in Policing ....................................................................................... 79

The History of Police Bureaucracy as a Source for Lack of

Factors That Lead to Lack of Motivation for Police Officers ........... 84

First Responders Feeling Lack of Motivation ................................... 86

Intrinsic factors .................................................................................. 97

Extrinsic factors ................................................................................. 100

Job Satisfaction ......................................................................................... 104