Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Armenia Azerbaijan
Armenia Azerbaijan
Armenia Azerbaijan
new partners
SHIREEN HUNTER
Introduction
One of the most significant _ albeit
M ikh a i I Go.b" ch.u, s .C-for*
"*",
rural particularism, drive .
p"r i.i., :il:t:;l'r:.
;:ilTf :::.: J:
foi poliri."l indepe'denci, and the rise of a
variety.of popular movemenrs ,l,.oughooi
In rhe Baltic republics, Georgiai u-J rhe USSR.
er-.nia, from rhe beginning
popular movements. have had ,i.^,
n"tl.,arrrt focus, poriticaty and cul-
turally' They arso have had a^ clear r.rr.
which is toward Europe and the.$7esr.
or ,1.i. .*i.-"ilii.nrnrio.,,
In rhe Muslim republics, by conrrast, the
enhanced ethnic and cultural
particularism and self-asserrion has l"d
ro-.o'furio.,
the elite regarding their nation.t r.li-iJ.nriry
exrernal ties' Indeed, these repubrics
and ".no'g'riJp.opt. ".,a
rhe dile*iJn of rheir
are ,o.n t.r*..; ;;;;;ilres
tural and polirical arrractlon. of cur-
Grearer freedom of cultural expression,
prus the diminution in Russia,s
political and culturar threar, h""; ;;;;
ord ethnic, culrural, and rerri_
rorial rivalries and confricrs. They havei.J
ro reinrerpretarion, and often
disrortion,- of geographic and hir;;i;J;"cts ^
purpose of forging a new sense of and evenrs with rhe clear
narional identity. The resurt has been
increased risk of intra_ and.inr.._..pulii.
ilostility
The loosening of bonds u.t*..n tt.-..iuutr." and conflic.1
in Moscow, and rhe complere airrJrri", of "r,a in..."rr"r aurhoriry
broughr the question of htw aiii.r."i'r.publics rhe Soviet Union, have
immediate neighbors and ro ,h. b;;;;.; would rerate ro rheir
fore' The larter is of grear imporrance
ll,.rn"rio.,"l community to rhe
to the neighboring stares and to rhe
ex-tra-regional powers,, l1.lud,ine rhe grear
powers. No clear patterns of
rnrera*ion birween the Musrim ..pu.-bri.,
emerged' Nevertheless, rhe'enrire
dour.r Rri" ""a.ii.i. ;ilil;";ave yer
regional and inrernational competition has become the focus of
for infl,r.n...
It is clear, however, thar-the Muslim ..pJii.r'
world, in particurar with their relations wirh the ourside
expand. It is also clea1.1h1r ".isib;;;';. "rh.;i;i;;j"'""r"r,,.r, *,,
"urrt"rr.*ouia U. keenly interesred in rhe
evolution of these republics' .*r..niir.t",iJ.,
they wourd try to affecr
".,a
225
Azerbaiian: sed,'t lt t,,
{p
would be significant.
The impact would be most dramaric if these republics w(.r( ,,
independence and have no mediating center, and somewhat l. ., , ,,,,,
if they were to rentain within the Commonwealrh - even il ,, , , r
likelihood, Moscow's prioriries and irs policy uis-d-uis rhe rrr r1.t,l
states would have consideratrle influence in derermining the.1,.,,, ,
their relarions and nor merely the larrer's own proclivities.z The ( ,,,,,..
wealrh of Independent Srares, if ir can achieve a unified milir.rri r.,
could reduce the risk of intra- and inrer-republic conflicr. But rl,, .,.,
union's dissolution a'd the proliferarion of armies has ,,,,,, .. ,
the risk of such conflicts, as well a conflict 'ational
between rhese reDrrr,l,, ,, ,
oping a new national identiry and charting a new course for the co..r,l
outside the context of the soviet Union a challenging, and porenrially (r, ,
tablilizing, process.
The same characreristics offer opportunities for the republic ro f,,,1,,
ZZE Sbrreen Hunter
Azerbaijan: search for identity 229
new and sarisfying ties wirh its two big neighbors, Iran and Turkey, but
The narionarists of Azerbaif an's popurar Front (ApF)
they also entail risk of conflicr, especially wirh lran. and orhers rried to
convey such an image to international observers.
A more problematic issue for the republic would be rhe furure of irs They called for rhe reuni_
relations with neighb.ring Armenia, with whom it has been locked in a
of the so-cated "No*hern" .r,d ..sourh.r;1';;;;;,ans.
'carion the separarion of the two regions
artributed The1,
long and bloody conflicr. Indeed, the dynamics of Azerbaijan's relations ," nirro.r. consprracy
with Armenia could also affect rhe course of its relations with Iran and " oi,i. Treaty
Russia and Iran in 1808 under the ,"..n,
3.j,X::.Ir"ris,t of
Turkey.
Azerbaijan's developments would have implicarions beyond its borders.
In addition ro w^alting reuni'carion, Sovier Azerbaijani
official and non-official.-.h-ave-a very L*r.nr,u" narionalists -
An excessively pan-Turk-isr cultural policy and irredentisr philosophy con6nes of whar thev cail "sourhern Azirbaiian.,'
norion of the ter.torial
would increase rhe risk of regional conflict involving lran and Turkey, in
territory of so-called S3uth...r Azerbaijan Ic;;;il^rl ,n"-, ,h.
addirion to Azerbaijan. However, an approach whi& drew on all aspects exrends as far as centrar Iran.
some urtra rationarists go even fr.rh.,
c>f Azerbaijan's rich and mulri-faceted iultural heritage could become a
janism, and arg;ue in favor of a pr.,-rurkirt tr,"" ir* il"-;;;;; Azerbai_
catalysr for new thinking on regional ries and imperus ro broader uis-r)-uis lran. They
say char Soviet Azerb-aijan's goar shourd
regional cooperation involving lran, Turkey, and ^n p.ih"p, even
orher be "pp.or.h
to unire all of lran,s Turkic_
Transcaucasian republics. speaking population.s
Azerbaijan's experience would also have implications for other Muslim
The inaccuracy of the norion of two Azerbaijans
imperial conspiracies is beyond divided as a resurt of .
republics. In short, developmenrs in Sovier Asia would have ramiGcations do,rfi fo.
'Russo-Ira.ri"r .ui..r-. ;i imparrial
for a vast region strerching from the Black sea ro the persian Gulf. Thus, hisrorian' The history of "ny *^., "ny
and the character of the
trearies signed trerween the two srares and
while sovier republics' ries wirh the new commonwealrh, and even Russia ,1. r".i i[u,;" i;;; of rurk_
alone will remain of key importance, other regional ties may very manchai (1828) is known in lran ih. ..Shameful,,
well shows rhar there was no deal struck ",
(Nangin) reary
become more significanr. Therefore, rarher rhan merely chronicling recenr
jan's expense. R.ather, the separation
b.r*..n Iran and Russia ar Azerbai-
events' political changes, and similar issues, it is more imporrant ro analyre of rhe currenr rerrltory of sovier Azer_
baiian from Iran *'s a. creai .o.r..qu..,.. of
the process of nation-building in sovier Asian republics in its historical and Russia's imperial expansion.
This is not ro s,ggesr rhat these lands or rarher,
or at least some of rhem _ may nor have wanted rh.i, li."i f.,rd"l lo.dr,
-
cultural conrexr, and in light of current dynamics of regional and inter-
national politics. Ir is also imporrant ro analyze rhe scope and characrer of independence from lran,
alrhough most crf rhem fought on lran's ,id.
ties which are devel.ping between these republics, their neighbors, and during rh.';;;;.r"rt rs merery
to point to the of the theory of Russo_"perri;, ;;rp;;".y.
other stares. is equally important ro see how rhese republic!' neighbors -r'91'9,,rheAzerbaiian
_It
view their developments and their impact on their own securiry and In November^ollowness ielegarion ar the paris pi"." .onr.r-
ence presented to the Iranian.de.legation *"which
I n rerests, was not admirted to rhe
Perhaps even more imporrant is a crirical rook at many of the currenrlv
accepted definirions of ethniciry, rerritories, borders, erc. and how they
I:f ",::J';:n::;'[".':ilJ'.:[.,T:;'I;:if [:;iH::T[".ffi l*ili
have evolved as they apply ro soviet Asia. The history of rhis region was relarions'7 However' realizing that Iran was not capabre of protecring
againsr rhe Russians, in Article d of the proposed them
frozen somerime in the mid nineteenth cenrury. Then the commurists rried rreary the Azerbaijanis
to write a new history and ethnography for it. whar is currentry happenrng said that thev needed rhe same.kinq h.ro ri.,at rhe B.i;iri";;;.-"ruppor.d
is. the resumprion of hisrory, but with all rhe baggage
ro give Iran in the contexr of the 1919 "-f Anglo_persian
of Soviet hisro.ogr"- have made Iran a virtua.l British p.or..ro."i..
,.."ry, *t,iJi, *ould
phy. How this resumption of history would is what would deter- nr.rU"i;^" *is wi''.,g
""i"ta
mine the furure of rhese regions and rheir neighbors. to accepr condirions that the lranians rebeiled Th.rr,
r.rni".,
parliament de6ed Britain and refused to ."tify
,h. "g"irri-I".'rr,l
;;;r;.'
consequently, nothing came out of these
Where is Azerbaijan? Iran-Azerbaijan conracrs.
These poinrs are noted here in order ro
appeal of pan-Turkism.ro the Azerbaij"rri,
b;i;"." the rhesis of rhe universar
In January 7990 a number of soviet Azerbai janis tore down borde r posrs
gravitarion of
,, rhe time, and the-o.o_,n.r,
inevirabre
on the soviet-Iranian frontier, The impression was rhen created rhar the Azerbaija" Turkey. Moreover, .u*
world was witnessing something akin to the crumbling of rhe Berlin wail, of Azerbaijan's :":"..d movemenr
pan-Turkic
lpur5s had before dabbled in other
which heralded the reunification of the rwo Germanies.3 ideologies and had triej an lran-orienteJ rr."..gy.
For instance, Mohammad Amin Rasul_Za?eh,
the president of rhe
ffi*.'
230 Shireen Hunter
In that case, separatisr movements could develop in lran seeking unifi- the Iranian Azerbaijanis' proud and independent nature and the rarher
cation with Soviet Azerbaiian. This type of movement, if supported by the disdainful attitude of the Russians, and even cerrain Turkish intelligentsia,
Soviet Azerbaijan, could lead to armed conflict wich Iran. toward them as rough and unrefined would acr as significanr barriers.
It is clearly logical for rhe Sovier Azerbaijanis ro wanr ro promore the Beyond the st:cular, a-religious intellectuals, religious af6niry wirh orher
rhesis of geographic, historic, and ethnic unity of the region and the notion Iranians would conrinue ro affect rhe masses'attitude, such schemes could
of Russo-Iranian conspiracy. The unificarion of rhe two regions would only succeed in two cases: (1) a collapse of cenrral aurhoriry in lran; (2)
enhance the economic and political position of the new unit by expanding profound regional and inrernational changes leading to a total redrawing
its size and increasing its resources. In the more immediate future, Soviet of regional nraps. The latrer development, however, almost inevitably
Azerbaijanis make no secret thar they want to use the lranian Azerbaiian would also mean the disintegrarion of Turkey, as well as Iraq and perhaps
expatriate community in order to Promote their position in Europe and in others.
rhe United States, and to attract their capital. However, so far 'they have It is in the recognirion of these facs thar in rhe last year, officially rhe
not been very successful. In the future, roo, if Iran's economic and political current goveflrmenr of the republic and even the APF have roned down
situarion improves and the process of privatization and the opening of the rheir nationalist rhetoric. There is no more ralk of immediate reuni6cation.
economy continues, and the regime conrinues to woo the exiles back home, There is not even talk of serring a rimetable for reunificarion, Rarher, the
most Azerbaijani investors are likely to go back home to lran rather than rhesis now promoted is rhat of "one people living wirhin rwo states." This
ffy operating in a society that in the last seventy years has lost much of its diminution in the narionalist and irredenrisr rheroric is parrly due to rhe
mercantile and entrepreneurial skills and is likely to be politically unstable fact that popular reacrion in the Iranian Azerbaijan ro calls of unification
for some time. were subdued" True, some Iranian Azerbaijani inrellecruals. both in Iran
However, there is an even more immediate and pressing reason for this and abroad, are receprive to such ideas.15 Many of rhem, howeverr are
historic revisionism. The Soviet Azerbaiianis, by focusing on foreign motivated by their opposirion to rhe currenr Islamic regime rarher rhan
enemies, are trying to foster a separate national idenrity for themselves. separatist feelings. Consequenrly, as one member of rhe Academy of
This is clearly admined in conversations with Azerbaiiani intellectuals Sciences of Azerbaijan SSR rold me, many Soviet Azerbaijanis began ro say
'Whatever the rhar before making unificarion a principal goal they should 6rst find our if
once rheir thesis is challenged with valid historic arguments.
motives behind this policy, rhe achievemenr of this goal will not be easy the Iranian Azerbaijanis wanr ro unite with rhem.
and its political costs could be very high. Although not clearly spoken, it is There has also been a grearer realizarion on the part of soviet Azerbai-
clear thar in talking about unification the Soviet Azerbaijanis see them- jani leadership of differences berween the cwo people. Indeid, an official of
selves as the leader and the senior partner in a united Azerbaijan, although the so-called vatan Jamiyati (The Homeland Association), an organizarion
in order to attract the lranians, they proclaim that Tabriz would be the predating perestroika, wirh rhe goal of atrracting Iranian Azerbaiianis rold
capital of the new state. There is a thinly disguised - and hardly iustified - me that rhe two people 6rst need to become reacquainted wirh one another
sense of superiority among Soviet Azerbaijanis, or ar leasr rhe Baku inrel- before talking about uni6cation.
lectuals, uis-i-uis the lranian Azerbaijanis. This artitude, however, shows Another reason has been rhe realization by Sovier Azerbaijanis rhat uni6-
lack of understanding of the Iranian Azerbaiianis' characteristics. It is carion may not necessarily mean rhe separation of rhe Iranian Azerbailan and
doubtful that the Iranian Azerbaiianis in Tabriz would want to replace its joining with rhe Sovier republic. Rarher, rhere may be the risk rhat ar least
Tehran's authority with that of Baku, even if the nominal capital was some Soviet Azerbaijanis, parricularly those speaking Iranian dialecrs, may
Tabriz. Even within Iranian Azerbaiian, local differences are significant' want to join Iran. In fact, a soviet academician admirted to me thar in places
These differences are even more pronounced with Soviet Azerbaijan like Lankaran, and heavily Shi'a border areas, mosr people would like ro loin
beyond the immediate border villages. The long period of Russification Iran. Moscow's influence, which is concerned about its own relations with
and recent trends toward what could be called "Turkeyization," as Iran, also contribured to rhe lowering of nationalist rheroric. Moreover, as
opposed to mere Turkification, have made even the two dialects vastly long as there was a chance to keep most of the Union togerher, it seemed that
different. Moscow woulcl try its best to keep Azerbaijan within the Union, even if other
Moreover, while some Iranian Azerbaijanis may want greater autonomy Transcaucasian republics such as Armenia and Georgia became indepen-
and even independence from Tehran, it is unlikely that, with few excep- dent.16 But a unired and thus expanded Azerbaijan may be less easily per-
tions, they would like to be subsumed in some sort of confederation under suaded to remain within the new Commonwealth.
the Russians or to become a cultural satrapy of Turkey. In this regard, too' In the meantime, however, Moscow cannot openly repudiate rhis rhesis.
234 Shireen Hunter Azerbaiian: searcb for identity 2.1 5
Moreover, it l'nay hope that it would be able ro keep an expanded Azerbai- of Tr:rl :.: 1.,_,301. in Central Asia, Asia Minor, and elsewhere ro 5,000 yc,rrr
jan in its orbit. However, after the acceleration of the process of the Soviet befcie ri-ri '1.'irrh of chrisr.r8 Hcw,ever, even som€ of the sovier Azerbaij,rrrl
Union's disintegration following the failed right-wing coup of August narionair'tis in privare adnrit ro these hisroric inconsistencies and recogrrre
1991, this point has been made moot. With Azerbaijan becoming com- the more mixed ethnic and culrural background of rheir counrry, incluclrng
pletely independent rhe campaign for reunification with the Iranian Azer- the existence of a strong Iranian element.
baiian could begin in earnest again. Whatever transpires in the future, ir is The reason for emphasizing Turkic puriry, ir was explained ro me by l
clear that the issue of historic confines of Azerbaijan will acquire more soviet Azerbaijani political scientisr, is political expediency. The narirrr-
than academic interest. alisrs believe rhat rhis arrirude is iusrified in order ro forge a srrong Turkie
national identity. orher issues, including conflict with Armenia. are alsrr
Ethnic and cultural legacy and composition manipulated for the same purpose.le Moreover, being fuily aware of rhe
srrength of Sovier Azerbaijan's ties wirh Iran, rhis atritude is parrlv ainrc,l
Azerbaijan's ethnic, sectarian, and linguistic composition and the char- ar preempring and preventing porenrial atrracrion toward lran. ofGcials.,l
acter of its cultural legacy also contribute to its problems of defining a new rhe curre.t governmenr of Soviet Azerbaijan, which is srill dominared lrv
national identity, and determining the nature of irs relarions with irs the old Communisc esrablishmenr, albeir in a narionalisr garb, sancrion rlrrr
neighbors. ' policy. Until rhe developments following the failed coup of August 199 l,
Azerbaijani nationalists are proud of their ancient history and ofren and in view of the close link between rhe Azerbaijani leadershif wirh tlrr
refer to rhat. Meanwhile, most of them insist on the pure "Turkicness" of center' so, ir appeared, did Moscow. similarly, such views also srrrr
Azerbaijan, both ethnically and culturally, throughout its history. It is 'wesrern proclivities which wanr Turkey ro emerge
as the scrongest inllrr
important to make a distinction between the Soviet Azerbaiian and the ence in Azerbaijan.
Iranian Azerbaijan. From ancient times, after the massive introduction of Therefore, views which challenge rhis ultra-Turkic narionalisr theory .l
Iranian people into the region, and until the introduction of Arab and history are nor openly aired. Bur there are some indications that such views
Turkic elements in later centuries, the Iranian Azerbaiian has been eth- exist. According to rhe chairman of the political science departmenr of rlrc
nically solidly Iranian. In ancient rimes, however, Albania or Eran or what Academy of sciences of Azerbaijan, only 3 percenr of people in Azerbaijrrrr
is now Soviet Azerbaijan had had a more mixed population, including hold the view rhat rhe ethnic and hisroric origins of Azerbaiian is conncc.
some of the Iranian family of Indo-Europeans.lT Another difference is that red rvirh that of other Iranian peoples,zo There is some reason to believe
the area that is now Soviet Azerbaiian historically has been more vulner- thar rhere may be a much larger number of people who support rhis view.
able to migratory pressures, including those by Turkic tribes. Most his- For insrance, according to the same academician, there is a widesprearl
torians agree that the gradual Turkification of Azerbaiian began in the campaign of insulc and discredir in sovier Azerbaiian aimed ar rhe Iraniarr
tenth or eleventh century. Prior to that, for nearly 3,000 years, in addi- Azerbailani historian-scholar Ahmad Kasravi, a prominenr proponent ol
tion to indigenous inhabitants, particularly in Soviet Azerbaijan (the rhe Iranian origins of Azerbaijan's history and culture. The main chargc
people of the Caucasus), the dominant ethnic group in the region was the against Kasravi is rhar he was an Iranian narionalist and a pan-lranist. This
Iranian branch of Indo-European tribes. creates the suspicion thar Kasravi's views may be more popular rhan
The rise of rival Safavid and Otroman empires in Iran and what is riow admitted openly. otherwise, such a campaign seems fruitless m.o,r
Turkey in the fifteenth and sixteenth cenruries accelerated the Turkifi- spirited. "rd
cation trend. While the Safavids were lranian, their court was heavily whar is imporranr for the furure of Azerbaijan is how irs peopre will
influenced by Turkic elements. Thus, while disputed, the theory that many choose ro de6ne themselves irrespecrive of historical facts or rhe precisc
Azerbaijanis are linguistically Turki6ed Iranian people has merit. Cer- erhnic n.rix of the popularion. If these people see rhemselves as pure Turks
tainly their physical characteristics are more similar to lranian people than or predominantly Turk or Turkified, then rhat is what rhey wili be. If rhcy
to other Turkic people such as the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, etc. Thus, the develop a differenr vision of rhemselves, then rhar view would mold their
current thesis of Soviet Azerbaijani nationalists rhar Azerbaiian has always self-identity. Neverrheless, manipularion of these facrs by various groups
been one hundred percent Turkic is not valid. It is, of course, to be noted inside rhe counrry, in rhe region, and even by outside powers would havc
here that extrem€ pan-Turkists in Turkey, and in Soviet Azerbaijan, an impacr on rhe evolurion of the soviet Azerbaiianis' self-image. For
believe that such ancient people as the Sumerians, Chaldeans, Iranian Par- example, an official policy of Turkeyization through more exrensive cul-
rhians, and even Kurds and Medes, were Turk. And they date the existence tural contacts wirh Turkey, reform of language, and rhe propagation o1
236 Shireen Hunter Azerbaijan: searcb for identity 237
carion linkage has also _expanded. yer, while Turkey is emergrng as rhe
ment, not merely because of their pan-Turkism or ethnic af6nity. By con- favored partner, ties wirh Iran are nor ignored.
trast, Irarl's political and economic problems over the last ten years make ic Indeed, similar economic and .omme.cial agreemenrs have been signed
not a very attractive partner for development. Another consideration is wirh lran.,, In addition to wanring ro maximize rheir economic gains, the
access to Europe and to the West in general. This considerarion also favors
authorities do not wanr to antagonize Iran. Thus rhere is a desir. ro ar leasr
Turkey since it is viewed as a conduit to the'West. keep a semblance of balance between the rwo neighbors. Moreover, the
Moreover, the Azerbaijanis want to develop a positive image which aurhoriries realize rhat .antagonizing lran would i"-p.. rheir plans of
could help them in their conflict with the Armenians. The Western coun- intensifying contacts with rhe Iranian Azerbaijan
tries, especially the United States, have made no secret of the fact that they thu, reduce the
".,d
chances of a future unification of the two regions. Moreover, given Azer_
would like to see Turkey emerge as the dominant influence in Soviet Asia baijan's problem with neighboring Armenia and .u.n porrib'ie rensions
from the Caucasus to Central Asia.28 They feel thar as a secular pro- with Georgia, ir cannor ajford ro engender Iranian hosrility as well.
'Western state, the Turkish presence would enhance Western influence.
The question of balancing ties is nor limited only ro..ono*,i. polirical
Some'Western countries feel this may compensate Turkey for not being areas and exrt:nds even ro cultural issues. For example, during rhe"nd
invited to join Europe. debate over
changing rhe,:urrent cyrillic alphaber into eirher rhe Arabic o"r iuti, ,.ripr, in
However, the inconclusive result of the Turkish parliamentary elections addirion ro the inrrinsic merits of the two, rhe impacron relarions with Iran
of November 7991., growing problems of the Turkish economy, rhe
and rurkey vras also considered. concern was expressed that in the case of
increasing threat of Kurdish separatism, and divisions within the Turkish
choosing Arabic scripr, Iran's culrural influence mighr become overwhelm_
poliry on how to deal with this problem cloud Turkey's future. Should
ing, and in tht: case of Larin, rhat of Turkey. The deblre was finally settled in
Turkey's economic and political problems worsen, it would affect its favor of Latin, hence.favoring Turkey. But in making rheir choice, the Azer-
leadership aspirarions in Azerbaijan and in Central Asia.
.What baijanis had zrlso had their furure ries with the WesIin mind-
is clear is that imperatives of economic development and modern-
Nevertheless, in late 1991 rhere were signs of grearer willingness on
iz.ation would have a very important impacr on rhe orientation of Soviet rhe
part of Sovier Azerbaijanis to allow a more visitle lranian .Jlr,r.rlp..r_
Az-erbaijanis. These considerations may even prove more significant rhan '. ence.Parricularly significanr has been rhe agreemenr berween the two
rhat of ethnic, linguistic, religious, and other bonds in deciding the nature
counrries rhat allows Iran ro set up g.ou.,J sarellire sration in Bakrr,s
Radio and relevision company which"would enable sovier Azerbu,l"r,i, ro
,,f their regional links.
receive Iranian television. They have also agreed to joinrly produce pro-
Ilalancing the two neighbors grams in both Persian and in Azerbaijani dialect, including^a 90_minure
weekly program. If these progra.ms are implemenred, rhey *Juld go a long
As we have observed, rhe nationalist rhetoric and the general culrure
way to restore the current imbalance in Turkey's f^uo..Ji
rrt'rrcl in Soviet Azerbaijan is distinctly pan-Turkic and pro-Turkish. The
In addition to trying to balance rheir two big neighbors and cultural kin,
rrrrrjority of Azerbaiian intellectuals and National Front leaders make no
..r't ret that they see Kemalist Turkey and Mustapha Kemal as the model to
the Azerbaijanis are rrying to expand their direcr ties wirh o(her counrries
as parr of rheir drive. ro enhance their independent national identiry ana
l','t'rnulated. Some of them have even talked about the possibility of creat-
inrernarional personality. Thus diplomatic relarions were esrablished with
rrr1,.:r confederation with Turkey which larer could extend to the Central
Egypt, a trend likely to extend to other Muslirn counrries. B.,t Azerbaijrn
,\,,r:rn Republics. This view was, for instance, expressed by a number of
,'\l'l:rnembers including Ebulfez Aliev in an interview published in the
has even reached agreements with Israel on economic and technical
cooperarion. 'rhis is ,a posirive developmenr. The more indepeJ..,r ,h"
I rrr kish daily Miliyel on July L6, 7990. However, pro-Turkish tendencies
republic becornes in these matters, the better it is to h"u. .orrrt.rctiu. ."1"_
,,r ,irrongest in Baku and within the intelligentsia. There is some evidence
tions wirh many stares in the region, thereby mitigating the fear of becom_
rlr.rr in border areas wirh lran and among the more religiously-oriented
ing dominated by one or rhe ocher.
,
",,r1 1-ropulation,
pro-lranian senriments are stronger.
lrr the last two years a number of agreements on economic and commer-
, r.rl tooperation have been signed between Turkey and the Azerbaijan Views from Ankara and Tehran
'."|t lrr addition, direct air links between Istanbul and Baku have been
, .,,1'lished. There has recently been.talk of building a bridge over River As could bc expecred, evenrs in Sovier Asia have been keenly followed
\r r'. rn order to facilitate communication with Turkev.2n Telecommuni- by both Iran and rurkey. The amirude and approach of each .o.',.rrr" ,o
1.42 ,Shrre.q Flunter
would have a more difficult time managing the Azerbaiiani issue. When che entitled "Nezami Associarions" after rhe great Persian-Azerbaijani poer
''Nezanri Gandiavi. A conference commemorating Nezami's 850th a.nivcr-
Azerbaif an crisis erupted in January 1990, Iran was in a delicate posirion in
terms of its domesric politics and in its international relarions. sary was held in Tabriz, the capital of rhe lranian province of Easrern
Domestically, the factional power struggle and positioning for the post- Azerbaijan in June 1991, artended by experts on Persian literarure from the
Khomeini period was at irs peak as the Ayatollah Khomeini's health region and the world. Religious leaders from Iran also visited the republic
waned. The war with Iraq had ended in a ceasefire, leaving chunks of and there are Soviet Azerbaijani srudenrs in rhe theological schools in
Iranian territory under Iraqi occupation. And the country was Ghom. Howe'ver, the Iranians are still cautious in completely opening up
economically devastated, militarily weak, and in the grips of an intense the borders.
political debate about the misrakes of its revolutionary decade. lfhat is cle'ar is that Iran will be keenly interested in the evolution of
lnternationally, the controversy over the Ayatollah Khomeini's edict in events in the r,:public and their implicarions for its securicy. Iran, ar least at
1989 that the Indian-born British author Salman Rushdie should be killed this point, does not have any irredentist aspiration toward rhe region and is
on charges of apostasy against Islam in his book Satanic Verses, had more concernr:d abour the Sovier Azerbaiian's irredentist claims toward irs
created the worst crisis in lran's relations with the West since the time of own territory, Irs principal objecrive is ro have a presence there and to
the American hostage crisis. The effects of this crisis were still affecting prevent the enrergence of ulrra pan-Turkic tendencies which could expand
Iran-'West relations tn 1991. to Iran and its Turkic minorities.
The only positive elemenr in Iran's foreign relations at the time was the However, g;rowing Turkish activism has raised concerns in lran. The
improvement of relations with the Soviet Union, which had culminated in Iranian press lras been saying rhat by failing to take a more activist arritude
the rhen-speaker of the lranian Parliament Ayatollah Al-Akber Hashcrni toward Azerbaijan, rhe governmenr is allowing Turkey ro implant its
Rafsaniani's trip to Moscow in June 1989. power rhere arid ro turn it into a NATO base which could be used against
Thus the eruption of the Azerbaiian crisis presented Iran wirh a difficult Iran.4l Thus, in the immediate future, Iran may try to raise its profile there.
dilemma: if it were to take a high profile in defense of the Azerbaijanis it In December 1991, the Iranian Foreign Minister Ali Akbar Velayati visited
would risk scuttling all recent improvemenrs in ries with the Sovier Union; Baku and reached new agreements with Az_erbaijan. He denied the charges
and if it responded too coolly, it would jeopardize future ties with the Azer- made in an lzuestia arricle that Iran was againsr Azerbaijani indepen-
baiianis. dence.42
In addition, understandably, Iran was concerned about rhe ramifi- Let us briefly consider the issue of Armenia and how it would play in
cations of events in the Soviet Azerbaijan for its own securiry and terri- Turkish-Azerbaijani relations. The Armenian leaders, largely because of
torial integriry. Iran was also concerned abour possible Soviet milirary pressure by the'Wesr, are seeking to improve ries wirh Turkey.as Bur, as ar
action against itself. The ofEcial attitude of the lranian government was the popular level, anri-Turkish sentiments are strong. Too close Turkish-
cautious and based on the principle of respect for every country's indepen- Azerbaijani relarions would affect Armenia's efforrs ro improve ties with
dence and territorial integrity and support for the legitimate aspirations of Turkey. Iran, by conrrasr, has been a safe haven for Armenians fleeing
Azerbaiiani Muslims.3e Ottoman repression since the nineteenth century.44 Iran, therefore, can
Unofficially, however, opinion on how to respond was divided, with play the Armenian card in its comperition with Turk'ey. In fact, the Arme-
some segments ddvocating a more activist policy in support of Azerbaijani nians, although circugnspecr in their rapprochemenr with lran, have been
Muslims.ao However, the lranian government did nor succumb to these keen on creating airlinks with lran, as well as a land bridge over rhe Aras
pressures and continued irs low-key policy. This attitude of rhe lranian River.a5
government was manipulared by the ultra pan-Turkists in Sovier Azerbai- Also Russia's interest and stake in Azerbaijan would acr as a balance
jan and projected as the modern-day version of historic Russo-lranian againsr Turkish or Iranian dominarion of rhe republic's economic and cul-
collusion to thwart Azerbaiian's aspirations for unity and independence. tural life. A cooperative relationship with both Turkey and Iran would besr
After the relative stabilization of the situation in Azerbailan, the Iranian serve Turkey's inrerests economically, culrurally, and politically, and
government tried to expand and consolidate relations wirh the republic. would enhance its independence in these domains.
Apart from economic agreements between the two countries, the lranian A promising note in rhis regard is the request of Soviet Azerbaijan ro
government and unofficial bodies were using cultural and religious affini- ioin the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) which groups lran,
ties to cement ties and to prevent a Turkish monopoly of the republic's Turkey, and Pakistan. It may lead to expansion of this organizarion and
cultural scene. Cultural societies in Iran and in Baku have been set up, eventually perhaps include other Soviet Muslim republics.a6
245 Sbiyeen Hunter
A.zerbaijan: search ideitity 2l
Azerbaiiani-Armenian relations: is reconciliation for
possible?
Irr rernrs of f'urdame'tar issr:es of national o. i ;':,ili i.: * : Jffi r,[T: j:,-":ff ::ff:5
evolurion of rhe nature of Azerbaiian's
ide'tity anci cultLrre, the
rerations with irs two Musrim f i+i:he ibu'e'u';;;;;;
;
il
Azerbaijan: search for identity 249
248 Shireen Hunter
The situation worsened after the Islamic revolution as Islamic law and
sive property damage and large numbers of dead and wounded, with esti-
morality was enforced with greater rigor. But there was no gross violation
-ut.i urtyi.tg according to Soviet or dissident sources' of the Armenian cornmtrnity's rights, at least not more than those of other
Similar *... ,.rrd. by Armenians on Azerbaiiani communities Iranians whc, did not fit the Islamic mold promoted by rhe new
"ti".ks
and villages. Rising rension between Azerbaiianis and Armenians also government,
resulred in large migration of peoples from each republic. These r.efugees, In shorr, rhe main problem has never been religion but rhe lack of
especially the Arerb"ilani refugees in Baku, became a maior contributor
to
nationalist democracy. 1'hus, religious abuses thar the Armenian community in
the worsening relations betwien the two peoples' increased
NKAO suffen:d, such as the destrucrion of churches, especially during the
passions, 6n"lly leading to the large-scale massacre of Armenians in Baku oeriod rhar Gaider Aliev was the KGB boss of Azerbaijan, were the con-
in the winter of 199o, ,h" introduction of Soviet military forces to Baku
"id i.q.r.n." of anti-religious dimensions of Communism and not the anti-
in January. Christianism <>f Islam.52
3in.. ,h^, time, while there has not been anything resembling what hap- The erhnic factor is more important, given the identification of Azerbai-
pened in Baku, Azerbaiiani-Armenian clashes have continued and all janis as "Turks," and in view of the unhappy experience of the Armenian
.ffo.r. at reconciliation, including those engineered by Boris Yeltsin, Presi- communiry in Otroman Turkey even before the tragic events of 1915,
dent of the Russian Federation, and Nursultan Nazarbayev, President of which is imprinted on their collective consciousness as wilful genocide.
Kazakhstan on September 21, 1991, failed to resolve the problem. The But again, rhis facror should not be exaggerated, Certainly rhe linguisri-
crash of a helicopter on a peace mission in November 1991 carrying cally Turkified Iranian Azerbaijanis have lived peacefully with the Arme-
officials from Azertaiian, Kazakhsran, the KGB, the Defense Ministry, and nians. Even in Kemalist Turkey inter-communal relations have improved.
the Russian Republic's parliamenr, was blamed by Azerbaiian on the Arm-
Nevertheless, the Armenians' historic memory of suffering at the hands of
enians.S1 The outlook for a quick resolurion of this problem is not
rhe "Turks" colors their present attitudes. Thus every Azerbaijani-
promising. Rather, with the Sovier Union's disintegration and the rush by
Armenian conflict acquires dimensions which go beyond what is justified
toth Ar.r,enia and Azerbaiian to form national armies, the risk of outright by the specific incident as they merge with rhis collective consciousness of
war between the two republics has increased' Armenian suffering.
Erhnic anirnosity steadily increased following the introduction of
The principal culprit: religion, ethnicity, or the legacy of Soviet Russian power and the relative favoring of the Armenians as fellow Chris-
imperialism and mismanagement? tiarrs. Thus even in earlier times, envy and disparity in social and economtc
conditions have been more important than mere ethnic differences.s-r
while rhe dispure over the territory of Nagorno-Karabagh is the Repressive policies adopred by Communist regimes only exacerbated
immediate and most tangible cause of Armenian-Azerbaiiani conflict, rhese rensions. These policies, plus the manipulation of inier-ethnic conflict
other factors have also conqributed to this problem' During the crisis of
both by the local Communist leadership and central power in Moscow rn
January 1990 and the massacre of Armenians in Baku, many
wesrern
rhe battle between reformers and hard-liners' as well as the center's vacilla-
Lbr.ru"rr, especially journalisrs, referred to religious and ethnic differences rion and confusion during the early part of the crisis in 1988 and Gorba-
berween the^Azerbailanis and the Armenians as the underlying causes of inept efforts to keep a crumbling union together, have
chev's desper^te
conflict between the two PeoPles. ^nd
been principal culprits in exacerbating Azerbaijani-Armenian animosity.5a
No doubt these factors are important, but nevertheless, undue emphasis
Indeed, some observers have gone so far as to accuse the communist
on rhem, especially religion, should be avoided. In fact, the case of the
esrablishment in Azerbaijan of complicity with hard-liners in Moscow in
Armenian communities in neighboring Iran, including the Iranian Azerbai-
jan, proves that religious differences have never been an insurmountable provoking the worst of Azerbaiiani-Armenian clashes, namely those in
Sumgait in 1988 and in Baku in 1989*1990. These riots were supposed ro
obstacle to peaceful and even friendly coexistence'
show the dangers of perestroika and glasnost, and thus discourage the
since rhe safavid times in lran, Armenian communities have lived in in Moscow from pursuing them. In January
central government 1990,
safety in that country. Admittedly, non-Muslims do not enioy equal rights
arracks against the Armenians were allegedly provoked in order to pave the
wirh Muslims in Islamic societies run by Islamic law. But they enioy pro-
way for the introduction of the Russian army to Baku in order to crush the
rection and freedom to Practise their faith. In secularized Muslim societies,
Azerbaijani independence movemenr, This move at the time was viewed as
they enjoy equal sratus with other citizens. This was increasingly the case
pro-Armenian by rhe Azerbaijanis. They maintained that undue influence
in lran under the secularizing influence of the Pahlavis"
250 Sbireen Hu.nter
Azerbaijan: searcb for identity Z.5 l
of rhe Armenians within the Moscow establishmenr was
the reason for rhis interpenetrated Asian possessions of the Tsar herve
move. lr is very dif6cult ro ascerrain rhe veraciry cif conrributed t,,
rhese.r,r.g.r. Buc rhere heighrened sense of erhnic and cu"rttrrar p:rrticur:rrism.
seems to be enough circumstanrial evidence ro This increased scr
support the rhesis that some
degree of. manipularion by locar and cenrral authorities was of separareness has sown rhe seeds of furure conflicrs.
involved, both in the Sumgaic and Baku evenrs. indeed In cenrral Asia, fo.r_ example, because of the communisrs,
building srraregies, suddenly rhe mixed Turko-Iraniun-rrtumic'.urtur. narr.
Certainly the attitude.of rhe_centrar governmenr roward
rhe issue of rhe region has become divided into Tajik, Uzbek,
Nasor19:K-ara bagh, and the. confl icti ng .r"i-, of
Azerba,irjan A.-.r,i" wirh hisroric falsi'cation practised by ih.'r,ew sysrem,
;;; n;;;..iog",l,
since i.987 largely depended on the rwo repubricr'
pori,ion, "nd
on the issue policy has been ethnic and cultuiar conflicr and unrearistic
the legacy of tl
of independence or remaining wirhin the union. Tirr,
1990 Armenia seemed to be moving toward indep.nde.,c"
*h.r, Ly A,.,g,..rr claims by these new entiries toward rheir neighbors. irrederrtr
*nir" Azerbai_ The u.r, .*"*pr.
jan indicated thar ir was wiiling ro remain in rhe u"i";;-';h. central rhis is the fabrication of rhe notion of Norrhern
and Sourher'
government began ro shift toward a more pro-Azerbail".,i In addition ro this process of state- and nation-building, nr"ruoi1,,,,
during the Azerbaijani-Armenian clashes *hi.h rook
poriiro.,. Thus *t
ruared erhnic and religious parricurarism rarhe*rrr.-r"ii..i.gi.r, o...,
pr"..'i.'rrr"y rssr, inrernationalism, Sovier policies, s.uch as playrng soci,rrr
soviet rroops and Azerbaijani forces cooperated one erhnic group ag.rrr
the Armenian forced displacement of ethnic groupr, such
miliria. "g"ir,r, 11o1h.er' as rhe rransfer of slri
The immediate cause for rhese crashes was sovier efforrs Meshketian Turks ro predomi'a.,trf sun'i uzbekisran.
ro disarm Arm- borders without adequare concern abour ethni. Drawing r
enian militia which the-repubrican governmenr rr"a p.o-ir.Jr;;; una ti.,g;irr-J-f".r.r*
but had persian-speaking Tajiks
not been able to comprete. But the Armenians accused
the cenrrar govern- :":! ."t.leaving the of samarkand and Bukrr,*
menr-of using this prerext to punish Armenia for having in Uzbekisran - also conrribured to und .,.lru.ui .ir"rry'"ii"r,,,,,,
new Union Treary, and thus sided with Azerbaiian.ss
i"ir.d;; sign rhe siry' In the case of NKAO, the fare"rhni.
o[ rhe region was nor decided o'rrr
orhers relared rhis ro basis of its ethnic composirion nor on the principre
-the
intra-leadership .or,fli., in Azerbaijan becween
determination.
of narionar scrf
Mutalibov and Hasan Hasanov, the Azerbail"ni .q"i*-r"*'lf p.i*.
Minisrer. The Karabagh issue has been manipurarei
o As long as the central governmenr pursued a total
by uoriou, facrions
policy of repressir,ll
and groups in Azerbaiian in efforts to gain power rhese feelings were kept benearh rhe surtace. But
and influence.r6 as soon as the lid w,r,
Bur perhaps more rhan any factor orhei rhan lifted under glasnost, ro Gorbachev' s urter surprise these
p"riri."i."pi.rrion pouring our.
feelings cilllG
economrc stagnarion, rhe inherenr inconsistencies
of the notio'n-ol .,ro.i"l_
"nd
ist inrernationalism" and irs contradicrion with th.
.,.tion-i.rrtdi.,g poti_ . Economic sragnation, environmentar damage, and other socioecon,rrrrr
shorrcomings of rhe sovier sysrem furrher exacerbated
cies of sovier leadership which began under Starin t,"r. .".,riuured ethno-culturar irrri
currenr difficulties nor only in-Azerbaijan, but to mositv' In fact, rhe Azerbaijani-Armenian conflicr
i"1rn.;;;;;r*;;;; rion to irs obvious territorial dimensions, has been
L;;;;;;i, in
"; affected
"fr"
soviet empire. The essence of sociarisr inrernarionalism
was that crass by all ",t,r,
thcre
Interesrs and lovalries rather rhan erhnic and facrors. probably under a.rruly open
rerigiou; ;;;;i";sms and
allegiances would consriture principar u""at rrninf;il;;:'sociarist
-rl;i.rl;;;i;;;;;lu,y
petng system the Karabagh Armenians' desire f". pru,
society' But a socialisr society cannor be created
oi.rnigi.,t- t,lot o.,ty th.
Armenia would have becomi much ress inrense, if "ni6;;;Lr, *,rrr
not tora[y-"ii*innt",t.
old socioeconomic and poriticar strucrures have ro Moreover, if inter-repubric curturar and other ;"";;;;;'.lop..^,i.,,,
u"" air-u",red, but had been kept at a high rever, rhe Armenians would
peoqle.must be cured of iheir religior* u'i narionarist nor have f"rt ,.pu."t",.
and ethno-cenr.c from rheir kin and rhus wourd nor have seen any need
procfivtrles. for rerriroriar rerrrrl
This goal 6carion.57
... .was supposed to be achieved by what the soviets called In rhe more recenr pasr, the same lack of understanding
"inrernarionalist education." Even as lare as r9g7_'9gg, of the forces rrf
Gorbachev ethnicity by the soviet.leadership, especiaily Gorbachev,
blamed rhe
_ourpouring of nationarist senrimenrs and ethnic viorence misha.ndling of the Armenian-Azerbaiyani conflicr.
.In,.rL,rr.a ,,, ,r,u
-" -consr.rl
throughout th-e empire on the governmenr's laxness in tnde.d,
inrernarionalist edu_ complaint in rhe Soviet Union and abioad was
cation' The fact, however, is rhar erhnicity and religion rhat Gorbachev had rrrr
stronger forces of group identificarion than class.
rr"u. prou"n undersranding of the nationariries probrem nor
any rear interest in ir, rr'r
Moreover, in a paradoxical way, the soviet poriry of any clear plans to deal with it.s8
carving our separ-
ate terrirorial and culrurar entities of ethnicary, .utiu."rty, It seems rhat the Soviet readership was srunned ro 6nd our rhar
rlre
sovier Union was nothing but a coioniar empire,
"ni..ilgiourty and rhar as soon cr
r!ffii,',,,, Azerbaiian: search for identity 253
,ffit.',i.i
252 Sbireen Hunter
,
and then the dismissal of
would exPress rheir anti- and his replacement by Abdul Rakhman Vezirov,
opportunity was offered. the non-Russrln l::r'le
rl:l
of Ayaz Mutalibov' Moreover' following
feelings' Vazirov and the comrng to Power
colonial sentlments ln an tlpsurge oI narionelist
.i
int?ru.rtion in Baku, the Azerbaijanis, including the
Moscow,s military Gorba-
and resenrmenr toward
Thus,Gorbachev's,r"ttmt"t-thatbyexpressingnationalistfeeiingsand
were stabbing at the heart of i{ i.rl.*r,lp, de,veloped a srrong dislike ofo-freasons, over
their desire fo. ind.ptndtnlt, tht Armenians .ilt .iJ, p.rr"n, although for a variety ties with Moscow' including concern
of rhis lack of awareness' ln addition' as
;;;r;;iL; *^, th.^ait"ttgou"'n-tnt's
"'ult efforts to hold the union together # ["r^b"gh, thc:y maintained reasonable Lggl' the Azerbai-
noted before, ,t,. ..tt""i of .!s Thus, wher.r the coup attempt took place in August
without at the same ti-.."o-pt"tely.reverting ro rhe repre.ssive methods
policy ffi iani leadershilr was pl.ased' It'deed, Azerbaijan's president Ayaz Mutali-
of milirary Power' led to a of his satiifacrion ar Gorba-
the past, despite ".t;;i;i indeed on rhe entire
ffi fi;,';;;; ii,. it-"'** visiting Iran, expressed
inconsistency o" the NKAO issue' as
u"itt"'iot ""t # chev's dismissal.fe l-t. i*tt denitd that he had done so' But these denials
".,a
problem. W forces' On September 5' Moscow Radio broad-
---in"
nationality r .---.:-- anlmoslty
^-. alJ no, satisfy' opposition
..rui, *", the exacerbation of rhe conflict and growing ffi caStareportthatMutalibovhadsurvivedanassassinationattemptand
toward the Russians and the was denied by Azer-
by both the Armenta";-;;J rhe Azerbaijanis ,W
blamed tire A:zerbaif an Popular Front for ir. But this
central government in Moscow' rela- .fd baijani sources.5o
What the i*fii* for the future of Armenian-Azerbaiiani ,1w Indeed, Ayaz Mutalibov managed to consolidate his
power and be
"Uou"
is thar the ."..""ir.".", or r^r^u"t h is untenable. lt is very unlikely
in the election on September 8 in which he ran unop-
tions Azerbaiiani elected as prer;ident
under
that an overwhelmingly Armenian area could remainthe current situation i$,1
;;;. il! ",.,fy other candidare, a Social Democrat once af6liated wirh
jurisdiction' no*.u.iJh;;; ;tt no easy alternatives to his candidacy at the lasr minute'
Armenia' nor a repatri-
1$l
ipp, Zurau.ht Ali Zade, withdrew
'--er.ru"ii"n
either. For instance, n"i't't' the return of NKAO to -,'l
moved quickly to declare irs independence as ir became
clear
was no more and rhat the so-called
ationoftheArmeniatp"p"f"'i"t'areplausiblealternatives'Theso-called
envisaged keeping the area by';;;i;-tigz rh^, rhe Soviet Ur.rion
;'co*_o.*ealth of lndependent stares" did not have much chance of
Baku plan mediated Uy!lf rrit and Nazarbayev
as part of Azerbaiia,,'Ut" "L'o holding
free elections and granting NKAO the Soviet Union inrensified the po*'er
;i;;;;g it. "l-he disintegiation of
complete self-rule. S,'t,-'o far rhese !lat'' h"t"
not been implemented' leadership. Ir also led to the flaring up of
Moscow or other Asian ,ii"ggr""*i,i,in th" er".6aijani
Indeed, it seems in..*'i"gly unlikely that either
the conflict wirh Armenia over Nagorno-Karabagh.
ln fact, the problem of
rhis problem. Thus, some kind
Republics could find " p"i."rrr solution to .- mediation and inter- iJ;;t; K^rabagh and rhe Azerbaiiani power struggle became inextric-
of internation"t - ir,.l,.tiitg ptth"p' United Nations ably linked rogether.
they were left
vention appear necessary'
and after a period of conscious of the facr rhat with the end of the soviet Union
However, once the ilfaO t1ispute is .settled' to themselves to settle the Karabagh issue' the two sides took measures
and Armenia cannot live In
healing, there ls.,o ui"Utt-'""'on *'hy Azerbaiian i.J to fierce fighting in the winrer and spring of 1992' January'
To achieve this goal' however' in addition to 'Jni.i an acr
in peace, if not in ,",;l;;it' A,ler'aiian decided uring Karabagh under irs direct iurisdiction,
should be taken not to exacerbate 'o uf the fighting the
resolving th. fr.uU"gft ptoUttrn, care
pan-Turkic which contributed ,o ,h. fr"ri.rg of conflict. During
the Armeniarrr' r".tiigr'of being encircled. An
irredentist,
exacerbl': Arme- nr.rt-"ii""i, suffered serious ,.u-..r.t and a large number of Azerbaiianis
fit .t of iould do iust thar' Kholali and Agdarn
were killed by the Armenian forces, particularly in the
the part A?erbaijan 'ftlight'.the
alone' Viewed in this
il""j
""f i".fl"LJ"f .".ittfement and being
influence in Azerbaiian villages. These reverses convinced the Azerbaijan Popular Front and the
pJl.y "f ou".rly p.omoting Turkey- as ihe main leadership to ofpJn.rlr, of President Ayaz Mutalibov.to force him out office'old com-
of In view
could backfir", .u..,--*i.h"r"."nt efforrs of the Armenian divisions within the
ol in. r.rg_enred narure of the ApF and the
of Azerbaiian's
improve ties with TurkeY' munist esiablishment after Mutalibov's removal, the future
leadership became very clouded. Elections were scheduled for Jtne 1992
i, surprised many rhar they were held. vhile various faffions pro-
Post.Augustlgglcoupdevelopmentsandoutlookforthecharacterof "ij
Azerbaii ani government ...a.awithdevelopingtheirseparatemiliria'adevelopmentwhichdidnot
,"g", *.ff for Azerba]ian's stabiliry, elections provided citizen particrpa-
ThecommuntstestablishmentinAzerbaijanwasnevercomfortable to the presidency' APF
tion through , .,o.,-uiol.tt outlet' The man elected
with perestroika and glasnost' However'. they manipulated^these'issues' i."a., RbJ Fez llcibey, promised to regain Nagorno-Karabagh for Azer-
and even more so ,fr. fi"r"U"gh problem, in
their internal in-fighting' This
baiian'
led to the dismissal of Kamran Bagirov
"nd -".,ip.tl"tiot'i'st
in-hghring
--------
254 Shireen Hunrer
|
their own and are reinterpreting hisrory inirder to 6r their
history- is a pracrice rhar ail nacionr .ng"g.
presenr goars.
'Historic revisionism, romanticism, and even mythification of one,s
#,.i'".ji#
#:l'::**i :' f.*",' ffi l*: * ri:lt frif #ft
in ro varying degrees. Bur in the
flt', I
case of soviet Azerbaijan, if pushed tlo"fur,
it couid J..rL ,.rio.rs prob_
lems for them in their external ties.
This search for identiry and efforts ar narion-buirding
rrufu i', in.:; rH i r1j*r,h;il,T:.}ili#Fil
fisIr would
are happening in also allow-A.*.bi,i;';;i:;
a highly conrrolled atmoiphere within o n"r.o*
these issues and the range of.parricipants
erire. popurar debate on
are rimited. Thus, wharever irs I
rerarionships *i;-;;, neighbors
respecrive in,.,.,rr. nder
;+j,:;
,",* more consrructive
r-.f
iftii:ii.'!fr.;*-;, I
#;;;X.ff :::1,ffff; :*, il;;,1 I
an< ,;
ourcome' it may not be very lasting. In rhis process,
Azerbaijan is feering
:::,i#:j:r
new and expanded r"'-' ,.,i'.ut,,,,;i
the impact of several of irs Jhnic, ting,rlrti., .uf
"rp..ti r,rr"l ,.tigiou, "?'r.eionar economi. I
composirion. The people are divided as difFerenr ;r;r;;;.;',i."na
I
.J
*-t1*t+**l;nit*p*t*'*ffi|
#
260 Shireen Hunter
caucasus," Souiet Nationalities Suruey, united states Department of srare, 11 Armenia: the nation awakens
Bureau of Intelligence and Research, no. 15, August 22' 1988' p. 10'
52 See Ronald Suny, "The Revenge of the Past: socialism and Ethnic conflict in NORA DUDWICK
Transcaucasia ," Neut Left Reuiew, no. 184, November/December 1990' See
also Saroyan, "The Karabakh Syndrome."
53 On Gorbachev's vacillarion, see Mark saroyan, "Trouble in the Transcauca-
sus," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 45, no. 2, March 1989' p' 18'
.54 On the pro-Azerbaiian tilr, see "Armenians and Azerbailanis clash in Two
Soviet Villages," Christian Science Monitor, May 7, 1991' p. 5.
5J On Mutalibov-Hasanof rivalry, see ibid.
55 On the Armenians' cultural grievance, see Saroyan "The Karabakh In a speech ro rhe Armenian parliament in ocrober, 1990, Levon Ter-
Syndrome." Perrosian observed thar the "Armenian people finally woke up from irs
57 On Gorbachev's lack of understanding of nationality problems, see Ludmilla delightful slumber" ro realize rhe realiries of its situation.l In his commenr,
Alexeyeva "Unrest in the Soviet Union," Wasbington Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 1, Ter-Petrosian,, now president of Armenia, was using one of the most
Winter 1990, pp. 63-77. Also, Quentin Pecl, "Dagger at Heart of Perestroika," popular tropes of nationalism.2 Ninereenrh-cenrury nationalist discourse
Financial Times, January 18, 1.99O, p. 17 . de6ned dr:velopmenr of vernaculars and the exploration of folklore
58 See Elizabeth Fuller, "The Azerbailani Presidential Election: A one Horse
-the
which formed the first phase of European nationarism as rhe...redis-
Race," Report on the LSSR,vol. 3, no, 37, September 13, 1991, p' 14- covering' of something deep-down always known."3 Metaphors of
awakening, rediscovery, and regeneration, all of which appear wirh fre-
quency in Arnrenian public discourse, are apr for conceptu alizing national
sentiment in Armenia, for which, despite an unbroken presencc of nearly
3,000 years on rhe Armenian plateau in Asia Minor, ..hisrory has been a
broken trail."4
261
262 Nora Dudwick
Armenia: the nation at*,ak-es 16.l
fourth ce*tury', and the crearion of a phoneric, thirry'-six character alphabe
.r
soc.:, i."
a century lacer under Church sponsorship, played a major role in mai,rraiir,
and.egtons, beginr,,,rg wirh a purely culrural
phasi. ",s
r.r'h,,::r
and lirer.uv
ing a distinctive Armenian identity, for "in a real sense, Armenians did noa
to a militanr camnaign for the "national idea_"17
iecl
even fully becorne 'Arrneniar.rs' until rhey acquired their own distinctively
Armenian religion . ."lo In A.D. 4sl, at rhe Battle of Avarayr, st. Vardan The first awakening
Mamikonian and his 696 men died resisring rhe persian Empire's arrernpr a[e "prehisrory"' of Armenian narionalism can be
to impose Zoroastrianism on the Armenians. Today, Armenians commem- dated to rhe sixteerrrlr
cenrury, when an Armenian currural renaissance
orate this date as a reminder of their willingness ro martyr themselves for b.g"" l;-,h; diasp'rr,
The use of rhe printing press by Armenian commerciar
their christian faith. what is signiGcant, however, is that for the early ro a srream of publications in Armenian,^incruding entrepreneurs lctr
chronicler of this evenr, ir was nor just a religious conflicr. According to menian Bible (Amsrerdam, 1.666), and the 6rsr
ri.-Hrri'p.i"ted Ar-
Elishe, Vardan and his men foughr the persians to defend rheir craditional (Madras, iournal of Armenian affairr
customs and way of life, evidence thar a sense of distincriveness already
L7 94). Afi rhese pu blicarions disseminated E"."p;;;
learning amons Armenians.rs A. very signi6cant R.naissance
existed among Armenians some 1,500 years ago.ll After the sixth cenrury
culru.ral awakening was rhe ..dir.o.,..y"and
f";;;:;..;i-';
-"i Armeni*r
schism between rhe Armenian and Byzanrine churches, Armenia formed a repubric"ri"" Armenii,l
classical religious, riterary and hisroric"i ,.*,,
distinct cultural unit between rhe classical wesr and the persian east.l2 by rhe rra"r.r,ir".i* monks,
an Armenian Benedictine order founded in Venice
Split between the Persian and Roman (and larer, Byzantine) empires by the in the eighreenrh cen"
rurv're The Mekhirarists' efforts were aimed
end of rhe fifrh cenrury, Armenians conrinued to enioy relative auronomy
menian communities of the ortoman Empire,";;i;;;d.";;i, f.ii*"ro or_
despire rendering nominal fealry ro rheir imperial rulers.lr "u", ,rt./*.J.".li.rut ,,o, ,,,
transform cultural views into poridcar trends."2o
waves of invasions by Turkic tribes from cenrral Asia in rhe eleventh Hirro.i."i
cal Armenian heroes who had resisted foreign
cenrury, followed by the Mongol invasions of rhe rhirreenth and fourteenrh dominarion "Jmychologi_
were offered r,
Armenians primarily as sources of pride anJ spiriruar
centuries, stimulated Armenian migration to cities rhroughour Europe, u"tu.r.-ir,"
of the "narion," however, remained .urtrrr"i rarher i-t,"" 'p"iiri.al concept
Russia, and rhe Middle Easr. By rhe end of rhe Gfreenrh ..nr.,.y, ih. antr
wirhin rhe ottoman Empire, where the bulk of ,h;
ottoman Turks had esrablished themselves in consrantinople, and rvere A;;;l"lloput"tion
srill formed an impoverished, semi-lirerare, often Turkish-speaking
extending rheir power inro Anarolia. The orroman Empire iuled religious mass,
rhe "nation" as a self-consc^ious enriry consisted
minorities through rheir religious leaders; rhus, the patriarch of rhe Arme-
clerical and wealthy classes,2t
pri-"rily ;;,h. miilet,tt
nian Aposrolic church became rhe functional head of rhe Armenian com-
Following the Mekhitarisrs modificarion of the
munity, or millet. The church became rhe single mosr imporranr insciru- ancient literary ran-
guage, grabar, Khatchatour Abovian popurarized
tion of Armenian life within the ottoman Empire,la and "from rhe fiftee'th
nacular with the pubricarion of his ,,tuer, wounds"
,"ai."ily ,,,oJifi.d u..-
to the late ninereenth cenrury, whoever led rhe church spoke for what nacular subsequently became the medium
of Armenia. This ver-
there was of the nation."15 ir,.ri.ringt ;utior,"tir,i.
A sixteenth-cencury rreaty with rhe persian Empire divided Armenia inro
literary revival in which appeals
-.r. -"d. "fto"r,Armenians in rhe
a western portion under ottoman hegemony and an eastern portion under ! empire ro "wake up ... . from your death_inviting ottoman
ig'or"n..,
state"tu;b";-of
I remember your pasr glory, mourn your present
Persian hegemony. The new boundary rransformed Armenia into a perpe- ,l of wrerchedness and
heed the example of orher enlightened n"tion,
tual rhearer of war, as military campaigns, pillage, deportations and iil . . .,,22
In rhe mid-nineteenth ..nt,rry,,, culrural pracrices,
famine during rhe following cenruries accelerared the depopulation of rhe as summed up by the
conception of "narion," graduaily displaced ."rigior,
Armenian hinterland, ultimately turning Armenians into a minoriry in
ethnic identity for a new Armenian middre,crass "r-r-h;!J"l"r,ro, or
their homeland.16 In contrast to rhe impoverishmenr of rhe Armenian writers, reachers, and smail.manufacturers, who
of doctors, Iawyers,
heartland, a prosperous commercial bourgeoisie developed in rhe urban
ov.er social and poriticar life in rhe miilet.23
chailer.i .rrl. control
diaspora. It was among these communities that a nationaiist consciousness this new riberal class achieved
a limited democratization of rhe miilet administration,
6rst developed. Now permanent "outsiders," Armenians turned rheir which turned its
arrenrion ro spreading.,rireracy and enlightenment
attention to rhe plight of the distanr but longed-for homeland. In rhese among the Armenran
popularion. Bur mosr liberals focused thJir efforts
wirhin
cities, they were also exposed ro the revolutionary and nationalist currents
for as one liberal editor wrote, "the patriarcr, i, rr,"r.,-ii.. tor,rr"n,r'opr.,
which began to sweep Europe in rhe eighreenrh and nineteenrh cenruries.
educared elemenrs of the narion are there. In ii"olrri* "ra
As in Europe, nationalism among Armenians developed unevcnry among one word, the great strengrh
of the narion is there."za
264 Nora Dudwick Armenia: tbe nation awakes 265
The growth of cultural nationalism in the urban centers contrasted with Table 11,.1,. Distribution of tbe Armenian population, 19gg
the lack of narional consciousness in the rural hinterland, where rhe very
concept of "Armenia" had been lost for the mass of Armenians unril ir was Sovier Union 4,500,000 Latin America 100,000
rediscovered and reinvented by intellectuals in the nineteenth century.2s Armenia 3,100,000 Canada 50,000
Sentimenr in the countryside consisted of "the simple artachment to a land United States 750,000 Balkans
invested wirh historical and spiritual significance," and the goal of the Middle East 6c Libya, (Bulgaria, Greece, Romania) 50,000
peasantry was the creation of an environment which allowed them to pre- Egypt, Ethiopia 475,000 Australia 25,000
serve traditional norms.26 In contrast, the cultural awakening in the cities $Testern Europe 400,000 Far East 12,500
stimulated a new generation of educated provincial Armenians, such as the lran 140,000 Africa 5,000
self-taught clergyman from Van, Mkrtich Khrimian, who in his concern
for the welfare of the masses "began a shift in Armenian political thought source: adapterl from claire Mouradian, De staline i Gorbatcheu (1990), p. 169.
'where she has
from an abstract nationalism to a concrete populism . . ."27 By redefining Provided a range of fgures I have averaged them to produce a single
estimate for a given region.
patriorism as love of the fatherland, the nation was linked to particular
territory, a further step in the development of a political program.
Despite the millet reforms and the guarantees for Armenian security were executed or died on death marches across Turkey.3r Refugees poured
which the European powers forced the Ottoman Empire ro make after rhe inro Russian Armenia, where they consrirured ar leasr one fJumh^of the
Russo-Turkish war of 1877-t878, the economic and political situation in population by rhe beginning of the rwenries.32
the provinces steadily deteriorated. The war had devastated the Armenian Ir is impossible ro exaggerare rhe signiGcance of rhis event for conremDo-
countryside, and the Sultan's repression against the Armenians for their rary Armenian rhinking, borh in Armenia and in rhe diaspora. The seno-
perceived pro-Russian orientation and increased poliricization resulted in cide virrually eliminared Armenians from nine-re.tth, of rheir hisrJrical
the massacres of 1895-1895, which took 300,000 Armenian lives.28 homeland in easrern Anatolia, leaving them only rhe small, mangled rerri-
By the early nineteenrh century, the annexation of rhe Crimea and tory in the Russian caucasus. Throughout the Middle Easr, Europe, and
Eastern (Persian) Armenia by Russia introduced new security and pros- Norrh America, it created new or vastly enlarged diasporan commr-rniries
perity to the Russian Armenians.2e As in the Ottoman Empire, a new gener- where rhe memory of rhe genocide served as a virtual "ih^rr., of identitv."
ation of secular, nationalist intellectuals emerged by mid-cenrury. Their even among families who had nor direcrly experienced ir.13 Since then,
socialist and revolutionary ideology had a profound impact on the pro- Armenians have repearedly soughr an official acknowledgement of the
grams of the Armenian political parties. Although two of these parries, rhe genocide by Turkey, which in recenr years has poured a significant amounr
Hunchak parry (Geneva, 1.887), and the Dashnak party (Tbilisi, 1890) were of money inro a sophisticared denial.3a In rhe afterm"rh of rhe senocide.
founded outside Armenia proper, rheir efforts were directed primarily ar Armenians were willing ro see rhe Sovier Union as irs bulwark asainsr
the six eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire, where most Turkish traditional ene mies, or ar leasr, as the lesser of two evils. This percJption
Armenians lived. Their programs were radicalized by increased oppresslon parrly explainr; Armenians' acceptance of sovier aurhority, as well as rhe
and large-scale massacres in the Ottoman Empire and rhe example of rhe relative lack of anti-sovietism among many diasporan Armenians.
successful Balkan resistancd movements. Ultimately, the parties' dearth of wirh the collapse of central power which fonowed the october Revo-
' lution in 191.7 ,and the wirhdrawal of Russian rroops from
manpower and economic strength, rhe lack of acrive support from inrerne- the Transcauca-
cine confliccs, and a futile reliance on assistance from the European powers, sus, Armenia, ,\zerbai.;'an, and Georgia declared independence. In 191g, rhe
contributed to the failure of the nineteenth-centurv revolurionarv move- Armenian rel:ublic began its exisrence under rhe leadership of the Dashnak
ment to secure its aims.3o Pa*y, on ab.ut 4,500 square miles (1,2,000 square kirometers) of bleak rugged
rerrain, crammed with refugees, devoid of the bare essenrials of life, and sur-
rounded by hostile forces . . . it became the "Land of stalking Death," as
The 1915 genocide famine, contagion, and exposure swepr away nearly 200,000 peop"le during rhe
The Armenia liberation movemenr came ro an abrupt halr during World ensuing year.J5
'$?ar I, when the Ottoman Empire took rhe opportunity to rid iself of its
During rhe war wirh Turkey, harvests had decreased by 40 percenr, rhe
troublesome Armenian population. In the organized slaughter which land under culrivation by a third, and industrial producrion had almost
peaked between 1915 and 1917, between one and 1.5 million Armenians ceased. The Turkish invasion and occuparion of rgrg lefr 200 villaees and
266 Nora Duduick
Armenia: the nation aw,akes
half the vineyards in rhe Ararar valrey in ruins.l5 By 1919,the 26-
repubric was
overwhelmed by alrnosr 300,000 refugees, resenrful
",
r.it,r..,
Armenian leadership; new refugeer po.,..d in dairy f;-;h;'Ni";h
lf the Easc F.,xple1in, the limits of nariona[,,ii:
"*"y
According to a British eyewitness, ';p.ople were amazed, incredulous, bur
for the mosr p.arr apatheric- Anyhow, tirey though, i, *"uiJi. :i?:,"I':',-i?i.# Ti} i:, fil';::'Jl,::p-" r' ",.,, " n a . n.',. n". o r, h o u,
i
youths tlid nor have to cease being Armenian, they had to become Soviet 'l Table 11.2. National composition of Armenia,1979*1989
Armenians."55 '.
r979 989
During this time, Armenia acquired rhe structures oI national statehood ,i
1
contrary, Armenia remained "a 'loyal millet' within the Soviet Socialist was replaced. His successor, Kochinian, launched a criticism of Armenian
world."el nationalism but authorized the 6rsr monument ro the Armenian Genocide.
Nevertheless, in contrast to rhe intellectuals' protesrs, which were con- an imposing strucrure which thereafrer allowed yearly commemorarions
r;
fined to the realm of culture, radical dissent arose among a small group of be channelecl roward a precise and instirutionalized space.ro2 In rhe follow-
people born toward the end of the Sralin era into working class or lower ing years, addirional monumenrs were erected to heio.s of the Armenian
middle class families.e2 Many of these families had originated in Turkish Iiberation str:uggle a1{
ihe bartle against rhe Turkish Army, in a similar
Armenia, and the national question was inexrricably bound up wirh their effort to assLlage and defuse narional feelings.ro:
personal fate. Human rights issues were often instrumenralized to serve rhe ln 1,977, the Armenian Helsinki warch Group was founded ro monitor
"Armenian Cause" (Armenian irredenta) in a system where rhe only compliance .,vith rhe Helsinki Accords and to work for Armenian mem-
authorized political space was the national, and where the heavy burden of bership in the united Nations; membership included a few of the NUp's
the Armenian past and the ongoing reality of the national question made it founders. An announcemenr made by the group in
June, 1377, d,escrrbed
dif6cult for young Armenians to think politically in universalisric rerms.es civil rights violarions in Armenia and enumerated the ..anti-nationaliry
For the most part, their activities received little attention or supporr among policies of the central and republic governments," the desrruction of
the Armenian diaspora. narional customs and language, the privileging of Russian over Armenian
The 6rst known Armenian group wirh a narionalisr agenda, rhe Union schools, lingrrisric Russification, and finally, the ongoing violation of the
of Patriots, appeared in 1955 ar Yerevan State University.ea Ir was followed Karabagh Armenians' civil rights. By February,'197g, wiih its members
in
in L963 by the Union of Armenian Youth, which conrinued for three prison and awairing sentencing, the group had been crushed.loa The
years.es The National Unification Party (NUP) formed in Yerevan in 7966, ensuing investigations rried ro discredit the NUp and rhe Armenian
Hel-
called for an independent Armenia which would include \Tesrern Armenra, sinki watch ()roup by linking them to an explosion which occurred in the
Nakhijevane5 and Karabagh. The leaders were arresred in 1968, and the Moscow merro, Janua,ry 8, 1977. Three young workers, including a former
nineteen-year-old Parouir Hairekyan took over leadership until his arresr NUP member (rehabilirated in 1985), were rried secrerly in Moscow and
in 1969.e7 execured in 1979.los The early eighries saw conrinuing arresrs and rrials
for
Despite the small numbers involved in radical proresr, it was during rhe the dissemination of samizdat urging indeper.rdenc. 6!.4r-"ni^.roe
sixties that the first massive outbreak of national feeling occurred in
Yerevan. On April 24, t955, as public officials, represenrarives of the Ar-
The Karabagh movement
menian Apostolic Church, and delegares from the diaspora garhered in the
Spendarian State Theater of Opera and Ballet ro commemorate rhe fifrieth In February, 1988, in response to acrivism among the Armenrans in
anniversary of the Armenian Genocide, an esrimared 100,000 people Nagorno-Karabagh, the largest demonsrratrons since 1965 erupted in
gathered ourside, demanding the return of Armenian lands seized by the Armenia. In Nagorno-Karabagh, a concerted movemenr d.u"loped'".ou'J
Turks and asking for Soviet assisrance.es The demonsrration was broken 'rhe single goal of arraching rhe obrast to Armenia. In Armenia,
,h. p.or.r,.
up by the militia, and many of rhe student-age parricipanrs spenr a few of support rransformed into a movement wirh a broad agenda of demo-
days in jail, among them, future leaders of the Armenian national move- cratic and cultural demands. The goal of independen.. u,u"r.-6.r, articulated
ment (ANM). much later in rhe movemenr, and even then, wir.f ambivalence. In effecr,
It is evident that the narional issue had already become the focus of while Armenians in Nagorno-Karabagh used Gorbachev's slogans of p.r-
considerable student acriviry. Vaskan Manoukian, one of rhe ANM estroika and glasnost to legitimize rheir struggle to join Arm.iia, rhose
in
leaders, says that it was at this time that the idea of independence was born Armenia used the Karabagh issue ro furrher their srruggle for peresrroika
among Armenian yourh.ee In March t967, for example, thirty-two studenrs and glasnost.loT
were expelled from the universiry for nationalist, anri-Soviet activiry.roo At Historically, Nagorni Karabaghros was one of the few regions in Eastern
Yerevan State Universiry in the 1970s, a group of reform-minded Komso- Armenia to preserve a certain degree of autonomy, rured "by rocal Arme-
mol members attempted ro democrarize university policies by engineering nian princes who offered fealty to Muslim khans. Bur
the election of popular candidares.lol while Armenian cultural and economic acrivity flourished in rhis region, it
As a result of the 1965 demonsrrarions, the 6rst secrerary of the Arme- also
became an imporrant site of Musrim inreilectuar and poriticar de"velopmerrt.
nian Communist Party, Yakov Zohrabtan, a member of Khrushchev's More than Baku, it was this mountainous area that ,..r,.d rhe focal poinr of
team, popular for his perceived honesry and symparhy for narional issues, emerging Azerbaijani identity . . .tor ",
274 Nora Duduick
Armenia: the nation awakes
P op u I a t i on of N a kh i i e u a n a nd 27S
[;if ,Y;; N a g o r no K
_
a ra b a gtt
" iins;:r'!i{:ti.rnaj and
vis;c'ir broadcasts from,currurar mareria.ls, iack of facirities for receiving telc-
Armenia, ,n. appropriation
t9t4 ".ra of Armeniarr his_
1926 1959 t970 t979 ::;',:lrt#l};11 ""n'"""''n"'its a' .i.;.r,;;;; r.om rh. pa.ry
urttyro),ffr€rlt' " ",ut,
many protesters
Nakhijeuan r"r"t*rr]' were forced ,o t*u. Nagorno-
Armenians 53,700 11,300 g,500 5,800 3,400
Elsewhere in Azerbaijan, wirhotir
even the nominal institutional
Azeris 81,300 93,600 l27,ooo tsgido 229,700
tures of oblasr_based cultural struc-
Nagorno-Karabagb monoethnic villaees, or found "urono_y, Armenians either lived in
*oi)r'rirendi inthe ciry with their Azer_
Armenians 170,000 tlT,ooo 11g,000 t?,l,7oo baijani neighborsl M.orr nor"bt;^
Azeris ;;;;"", rh.y be.am.;;;;;;" erhnically
e,ooo 8,600 r8,1oo zz,,i6o 123,100
37,200 i1T1'-lrrrian-speaking .ri.. *t i.r,l.g"r-d:d irserf, in rhe words of Arme_
ff :, J;Tffi :,';?fi :;;'* il;,., perso n,,
;;'
Source:from Mourad
; ;:*, ",,,*.
":,::';11il",:: :l'-^.T:""' :l:lis-c'
Pressures f;.;;;;;;';,: tj ci tv of Baku.
1e87' Promin.,,r A.m.ninn,
After annexation by Russia in the early
nineteenrh century, Nagorni
such as z".i u"i"il,i,'"ofj';:
;|:Til""
("mounrainous") Karabagh, along *iri2^ngrrur and mosr of present-day sergeiMikoyu.,lror,.orn.,"rr"rrurit;;;:f,'::!^lt.f
Azerbaijan, was incorpoiared in-ro a ffi:;r*:,i:T[X:
,}.j; J:::."jffi .idl:':', ;; ril'":;p
singre province. Despiie Nagorni -,.ga
Kara bagh's I a rger y A rmen i an pop
Iressed op,i*r-,"' rd g n
u t",i on,i'.'."".'r'r*rili"li'.o"a,
i n a
rail lines bound'it ever more tighrry ro Baku, " "a
problem'
day after rt-,. a.-ol-."-t^the-Karabagh oti"f..'ii, ,gsr, ,h.
o.,
and Armenian workers
"iin" ;';:::!r,
r' a' ..
;fii::i,::#, 3::,F*", u.,d Nofo.ni ra.,b"gi *;;['i;"ri-,. rh.iui,,g * "
occurred r! village
the Armenian i1 [,;{ 1?.::' }:',"# l l
rt?ilT 'cf,"ra"f.hlu, ilt'jj
lvhen Armenia and
Azerbaijan became independent repubrics and ro call for Nasorno-Ka.obighk "f oio.n_.n.it lo;r;.;'ii' areruui,un,
Zangezur, Nakhiieva.n, and Nago.ni
rc"r"L"gl, 6.."-;;i;l;;."r,
rn 191g,
or uirr.,
in borh Armenia N"g"r;;fi1.:i1;, signaruresa._."r".,freanwhil.,
".arhis
petirion supporting were gathered on a
contenrion between rhe Armenia-n, Azerbaijani, demand.il8 Th-ese,activjries
and otroman armies. After culminared on Feb_
Sovietization, Nakhijevan ruary 20, 1999, when, afrer.a
N";;;;ii"*U"g,,;;;;;;
""d iesisrance, i"., "f or.r- _..t oi'Jirit a.puri.l^ro,ri.",*"ror'o_
baijan, despite militanr Armenian
and in i923, most of Nagorni
Karabagh was organizedinto rhe Nrgor.,o-t<"rabagh ff:1k*
oblast sovier vored ;.,;;;;r"i", -.r,
N"go.r,o_Karabagh join Arm_
comprising an area of erio"",.o"s obrasr,
.7,70o
square ,iil"r,
i;ir'fi_.ri^ uy
a narrow corridor-lll As "r,d,.p;";;; basis
a resurt of the erirnic-territoriar 1988 and after
federal srructure, rocal currurar of rhe sovier
baijan -i"".iri., ,,r.h the Armenians in Azer_
found rhemserves treated as factualry non-indigenous,
", News of the even
from republic-based culrural d.;;;;;;;.1,,
Resistance never complerely died in
and excruded
l
a r a Februa I l,.-.",,j#
!"j* :;,i:"I; : T:;,:T;
tion of a new chemic"'i'pl.;;-,;;"irij.
j,j,ffi,l?
[r;-j ffi ::1
Stalin's dearh, the Karabagh n.-.r,i".r,
Nagorno-Karabagh, bur afrer
people garhered at the spendrri""-sr"r.'iiearer iil-i;;i;ing day,
sending hundreds
i.g.r, ro proresr more openly,
of letrer{ peritio's,
"*.";..
j:::::::l:l"n of supporr. During ,1,. .ou.r..of the of opera and Barer in a
complained abour the sysremaric economic "nJa".t.g"tion;;;"il;;*. They
underdeveropment and steady
oemonstrarors increased .*po.,..,iiuily week, che number of
when Moscow refused to consider
of culrural righrs in the oblasr. A peririon addressed border changes b."nd'.J ;i;;JJlrrlr."ro., as ..narionarisrs,,
:t":9i
in 1964 details the rrandfer,of local ..,,..Jri, to Khrushchev "exrremists. " The"nd and
srr]d.enrs,,,.u.h..r,- u.,I'lnr.ll..,u*t,
o bra r, ;,h.- ;;;i ;;; ; t ;;.;;;; ";i;;.,il: :;::::'J jl; demonstrarions in rhe 6rsc d"y, ;;;;: up
*.r. ,oo1, loirr.d by blue collar workers rhe
s
"' Three years
s.upplies'r13 l"tei,.an
; H: ffj' :1.. and agricultural workers r."*',t.
Armenian people refers to the "pp""l
," ,Le Soviet authorities and rhe one week ar the
.-oir*r,0.. The crowds dispersed after
"iundreds of requests to the cenrral of Zori
".lilg wirh Go.b";h;;Bai;;; Silva Kapurikian, who
Governmenr in Moscow and to ,t. gou.rr,;enr- returned from discussions "rq Arexander
the harassment, murder, and impril""*.n, of Azerbaijan,, regarding Moscow with guarded and yakovrev in
Karabagh'lla Addirionar protests
of Armenians in Nagorno_ "rru.."r,..,
No one who parricipared in ,r,i, "i "
?"r"*Ule ourcome.
"o*J ,t. unavailability of Armenian the almosc r.uni..nd.r,t"t
n.., i.ll or a.-o"rrorions wirr
forger
-ooj oi'rrfra"r?,r, even elation, that gripped
Armenia: the nation awakes 277
2J6 Nora Duduick
and hypocrisy, pervasive corruption, severe environmental pollution, and
the men and women who stood for hours in the freezing February cold,
the declining srandard of living. Ordinary people in Armenia greered Gor-
listening ro a succession of speakers from Armenia and Nagorno-
bachev's call for reforms with enthusiasm, bur few changes were apparenr
rcarabalh. The memory of these days larer took on an important mobiliz-
by 1988, aside from an increased freedom to express criticism. Demirjian,
ing ,ole1s rhe proof and symbol of Armenians' ability to act in concert.r20
ensconced in a web of corruption, proved more orthodox than Moscow in
Tf,e massiv. J.monrt.ations also provided tangible evidence for the
his resistanc<: to liberalization.l2a
impotence of the aurhorities, who were unable to provide responsive
but unwilling ro suppress rhe movement by brute force. Initially, 1\rmenians believed that if they produced sufficient documenr-
leadership
arion to back their historic claim to Nagorno-Karabagh,r25 the injustice of
its inclusion in Azerbaijan, and the discrimination suffered by the Kara-
Leadership and strategY bagh Armenians, then Moscow would resolve the problem in the spirir of
glasnosr and perestroika. Moscow's sreadfast refusal to consider border
In Nagorno-Karabagh, Party and government leaders played an active
changes, the failure of the Armenian authorities to support national
role in a'rriculating rhi popularion's grievances and in organizing their
demands, sharp attacks from the central press, and silence from the local
resisrance. In Armenia, an informal advisory role was played by prominent
press directed the movement's activities toward a parliamentary struggle.
intellectuals, many with personal or familial origins in Karabagh' Strategy
and ractics were formulated by whar came to be known as the "Karabagh
By spring, 1990, ANM-sponsored candidares had been elected to the Ar-
menian parliament, and Levon Ter-Petrosian, one of the Karabagh Commir-
committee," an informally organized, fluid group of writers, teachers, and
ree members, was elected president of the Parliament. This marked rhe end
scientists, mainly consisting of men in their thirties and forties, few with
Party affiliations. of Communist Party power in Armenia.
*hil. d"*onsrrarions in Yerevan came to a remporary halt in March,
1988. a network of committees sPrang uP at industrial enterprises, insti- Violence in Azerbaiian
tutes, university departments, and schools to disseminate accurate infor-
During demonstrations in Yerevan, in February 1988, Armenian rioting
marion and to organize collecrive acrions if necessary. The Karabagh com-
broke out in the depressed industrial city of Sumgait (not far from Baku),
I mittee achieved .no.mous credibility with the popularion during their
frequenr "informational" meetings which resumed a few months later' and
home to 15,000 Armenians out of a total population of 250,000. Of the
also received de facto recognition from local Party aurhorities, with whom
rhirry-two people killed, twenty-six were Armenians, hundreds of Arme-
they held periodic negotiations. nians were injured, and many apartments were sacked and burnt.l25 This
in the immediate aftermath of rhe disastrous earthquake of December 7, shocking event provided additional impetus for political organization in
lggg,ru r as the Karabagh commitree was organizing relief efforrs, eleven Armenia. In November 1988, new outbreaks of anti-Armenian violence
members were arrested and transferrgd to prisons in Moscow by the Ar- occurred in Azerbaijani cities and towns as local authorities offered little
menian aurhoriries, now headed by {irst secretary Suren Harutiunian,l22 in prorection. This set off a two-way flood of refugees, as Armenians fled
I a ldst-ditch effort to retrieve their own crumbling legitimacy.la For the next
from Azerbaijan, and Armenia's 160,000-strong rural Azeri population fled
six monrhs, rhe most salient asPect of political life in Armenia was their to Azerbaijan. 'While acknowledged incidents of harassment and violence
detention, which itself triggered further protests and political organization. occurred in Armenia, their extent remains a contentious issue.t27 A year
They were released wirhout charges six months later, in May, 1989, later, with a new outburst of violence in Baku, Azerbaijan's remaining
I virtually sanctified in the eyes of most Armenians. Under their leadership, Armenian community (outside Nagorno-Karabagh) fled the republic and
the dozens of groups, parties, and political activists who had entered the Baku was occupied by Soviet troops.128
political scene since February, 1988, came together in autumn, 1989' to $Tithin Azerbaiian, the Karabagh question became the symbol of chal-
I form the Armenian National Movement (ANM)'
In Armenia, the Armenian National Movement brought together three
lenge to Azerbaijan's terrirorial integrity and sovereignty. Armenian acti-
vism triggered formation of an Azerbaif ani Popular Front, which put forth
groups with distincr, bur overlapping agendas: those interested in demo- a plarform calling for democratic reforms along with reassertion of conrrol
f.adc reforms in an all-Union context, those exclusively concerned with in Nagorno-Karabagh. Faced by lack of grass-roots support, and the rigid
I rhe Karabagh issue, and a broad, middle groupr interested in all political refusal of the Communist Party to engage in even limired discussion, the
Front adopted an increasingly nationalistic, anti-Armenian programl2e In
and cultural issues affecting the "nation." The movement also mobilized a
vasr reservoir of discontent among a population fed up with official cant 1989, hoping to crush Armenian activism, it organized a rail blockade of
I
278 Nora Dttdwick
Armenia: the nation auakes 279
Nagorno-Karabagh and Armenia. The blockade failed
to co.nrer Arme-
ni;rn demancis, but seriousry disrupted reconsrructi.n i' diasPoran Politicai
ravaged regro.s of
che earti.rcluake
and p.t Nagornr>-Krrabagrr and acl jaceiit
i?l;l;, jf '*ise' parties have esrablished rhemselves
in
.Arrnenia,
Armenian-populated disrricts in a virtual srare of siege. Tf,e The new power arignments have caused
blockade con_ tensions, however, as tradi-
tinued on-and-off rhrough 1990 and r991, wirh Armenians rional diasporan agendas come into .o.,Ri.,
occasionally wirh rhe req;;;;;,, of srare-
insriruring "counrerblockades" of Nakhiievan. building. Fricrion a;o:e, for .*"_p1., *nen
rhe governmenr decided ro
In Nagorno-Karabagh, Armenians conrinued work sroppages seek diplomatic and commerciar rerations
and pro_ Armenia's border with Turkey ...onlitJ
*itn
-iu.t Lf .'-ii;"' reality of
resrs. In January, 1989, ,\,roscow repraced the locar mosr locar Armenians ro chis
org"nl'oi'gou...,.n"n, srrategy' but some-secrions of the diaspora
with a "special Administrarion Committee" headed iy err.JJy accused the government of
vorsky;
although inirially welcomed by rhe Armenian population,
failed ro halr rensions in rhe oblasr. Moscow replaced ir
the Commirree
less rhan a year
[TilX,il: T.}1:, ::'3ff .: *"r'l- v-"
" " a roca r p" -i-" i'a i
",po,*
later with a military adminisrrarion which Armenians ,.I How Armenia defines her responsibiriries
accused of supporr- for the..narion,, wilr affect the
ing Azerbaijan's arrempr ro reassert control of the oblas.. role she plays in rhe Karabagh'.".fli;;:-i;
e, inr..-.tt ni. q nr*"ni", ,orn. p."or. viewed
violence conrinued, groups of volunteers from n.rn."ir -."-. rhe governmenr's cauriour
defend villages in Nagorno Karabagh,rro but rhe uiol.n..
,o rr.tp Ti "p!."J-i^n r"
Karabagh. t13 In facr, rhe popurarion', -o,rn, ro abandonirrg N"go..o-
series of arracks, ambushes, and the taking of hosrag.r-;; "r."irr.a
in Armenians are heroes ",,iiud"in i,their
.;;;;, "*u-i""ii".,'riri rc"r"u"rr,
sides. In" ..fronr,,,
as chey
;;;
April, 1991, specially-appoinred Azerbaijani miriria, Jia.a uy ioui., "i1"1L
but those who volunrariry tJave
villages ar the
ar-y compromise are criricized for
rroops' began violendy deporting Armenians froo, ih.i, riri;g;; "ar"."r.
berraying rhe common homeland-".tvtr.,f
Rr*.nians fear that iiAzerbaijan
pretexr of searching for armed Armenian milirants. under rhe succeeds in driving Armenians f.o- N"gorno-Karabagh,
a.*..,1"ir-.oncruded artack Zangezur' However, others priuut.'ry they wi, next
rhat sovier rroops were supporring the Azerbaijanis in,.;;n quesrion *hether iolding on
promise to sign the proposed u'ion treaty. rn 1ggr, severar
for their to Nagorno-Karabagh is worrh the'sacrifice of
negoriare rhe conflicr failed, and in rhe first nronths
arremprs ro has caused in Armenia. yer, che idears
lir,., ;il;l;;uption ir
"J core
of 1992, Nagorno- andvarues ar the of Armenian
Karabagh remained a site of vircuar war, wirh an escalaring i identity, such as martyrdorn i" rh. def.r,r.
;;;;. of casu- limits on
of nation
";
strategic options available ro rhe government.
;;i;, ;;ert subrle
alties reported weekly as Armenians recorded milirary ,ul..rr.r.-' I
I
reinforced.rhe
ar rhe pubric funerars in yerevan honoring This ideal is
l:,1
Nagorno-Karabagh, where..speakers compare the men kiiled in
,i rheir deaths to rhe mar-
Nation and state tyrdom of St. Vardan Mamikonian. ----t
t,j
By aurumn, 1991, Armenians had made up their minds I Since 1988, Armenian language and
on the question culrure. are experiencing a revival,
of independence' In th-eir seprember 2r, 1.99r referendu-, ,h.f
I
I to the poinr where som. Rirsri-un-speaking Armenians feer
voted in Dozens of new journals discomfort.
favor of wirhdrawing from tire sovier Union. when rhe ,,e*rpr.pa* t,"u. appeared in Armenian,
union .ottrpr.d, I
"nd
Ar.menian-language educarion and
however, Armenia joined the new commonwearth of
r.,d.p.r,d*r srates.
I
h", b..r, ,,'"a.'_r"l;;;;' i;;rmenian
The Armenian leadership must now creare a funcrionar'gou.;r,-.nr"t ,i children'.Aided by gifts from.the al^rp".",'ii. Armenian Apostolic Church
structure' a narional ideology abre ro mobirize people's
l
is expanding irs activiries:it h", ,.op.r,.J
e'f.gies for rhe
difficulr period ahead, and a itrategy for coping wirh rhe fur"bieh
I
and organized parish youth g_ro.,pr. "iu..h.r, o.aririJ n.i p.i"rrr,
RJ.onr*ucring rhe nation also
and the republic's acure economiclroble65.'ri
conflicr .',,'i .
involves erasing the signs of rhe-sovilt p.rioa,
.,] monumenrs of Russian and
Armenian leaders also speak abour the importance of crearing Armenian Communists have been ,._or,.d,
a feeling
.rl
:":;l
has replaced their names on streers and
,,.*
"nd "and r.n""i;;; reform
of "starehood" among rheir people. As a sovereign ,tut", Arrn-..,Ia 'rii squares, in cities, towns and
musr villages rhroughour the republic. tt i, i'i.rJrring
now rethink its relarion wirh the diaspora. ThJ Karabagh ,,,i
ro specurare as ro how rhe
Mo.n..r,.r,, I Armenia of rhe future will reshape irs pasr.
described itself as a pan-Armenian mouement with ..1.;;;.;-;, ,ii:l
Lorn toc"l Concepts of democracy, social
and diaspora Armenians. The new leadership has called lurrle, human righrs, ecology, and cul_
iirrp"r"
"p""irt. .ihe
for assisrance in bqilding a new state, bur ieels rhar *.rir."rif
iri
tural regeneration are rerms which ngu.. i"
core
,11
l:-u a pubric discourse where vi-
sions of Armenia's future vie f"r d".ri.,"ni..
(e.g., independent Armenia) will be assisting the
Armenia", rl," disper_
sl
4l ri,. poririon-..p*r""r.a uy
the president and his crose adviso.r ,"R*irir,;;;;;;i"*i';:#;:;"
sion."l32 Diasporan Armenians have been-invited ro parricipar."i in tt.
&f
.."_
economic and polirical restructuring; several now hord ,:, ception of her "civilizing mission." This
high jou.rn*".,, Armenia is 6rmly orr.ii.J ro,""ra
i
#
:';{fl
280 Nora Duduick Armenia: tbe nation au.takes ZBI
national ideology constructed around the defense of Armenian society, 10 Suny, "Nores," p. 5.
biologically conceived as an organism which must be protected from 11 The dating of Elishe's hisrory of Vartan is conrroversial. soviet Armenra
degradarion by avoiding contact with alien influences.l3a This is an ideol- scholars co.sider him a contemporary of Vardan, while Robert W. Thompson
ogy of cultural isolation and of the subordination of individual rights to places his acrcount toward the end of rhe sixth cenrury. see his commenrary in
the welfare of an abstract whole. Thompson (translator), Elishe. History of Vardan and tbe Armenran ,War
(Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 1-53.
Now that Armenians are constructing a state, the national ideology
which prevails will help de6ne the character of her external relations and 12 cyril roumanoff, studies in cbristian Caucasian History (washington: Geor-
getown University Press, 1963).
the political rights available to her own'citizenry. The prevailing ideology
13 Valker, Arntenia, p. 21.
will influence Armenia's abiliry to integrate the tens of thousands of Khayig Tol6lyan, "The Role of the Armenian Apostolic Church in the Dia-
Russian speaking, "Turki6ed" ^Armenian refugees from Azerbaijan, and spora," Armenian Reuiew, vol. 41, no. 1-151, Spring 1988, p. 56.
the extent to which the culrural development of ethnic minorities will be 15 lbid., p. 57.
protected and encouraged. Uldmately, the guiding philosophy of the new l6 According to Armenian Patriarchate 6gures of 1882, there were 2,660,O00 Arm-
state will interact with the practical exigencies of political and economic enians in the Ottoman Empire, of whom 1,530,000 lived in the six easrern
restructuring to determine rhe extent to which cultural variation and diver- vilayets. According to walker, these estimates are probably too high. Neverthe-
sity find encouragement in Armenian society. Iess, most sources agree rhat Armenians formed about a third of the population
of Eastern Anatolia by the end of the nineteenrh cenrury, although in many
Notes regions they were rhe largest single minoriry. Walker, Artnenia, pp. 95-96.
17 Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780 (Cambridge: Cambridge
I would like to thank rhe International Research & Exchanges Board for rheir University Press, 1990), p. 12.
research support, and Aram Nigogosian and Asia Lerner for their crirical com- 18 Henry Jewel Sarkiss, "The Armenian Renaissance, 1500-1863," The
Journal of
ments on an earlier draft of this chapter. Modern History, vol. 9, no. 4, December 7937, pp. 437438.
1 The speech is translated and reprinted in Gerard J. Libaridian, ed., Armenia at 19 lbid., p. 441.
the Crossroads: Democracy and Nationhood in tbe Post-Souiet Era (Water, 20 Gerard J. Libaridian, "Narion and Fatherland in Nineteenth Century Arme-
town, MA: Blue Crane Books, 1991), p. 115. nian Political Thought," Armenian Reuieu, vol. 35, no. 3, Autumn 1983,
2 Benedict Anderson, lmagined Communities: Reflections on tbe Origin and pp.71-90.
Spread of Nationalisn, revised 2nd edn (New York; Verso, 1991), p. 1,95" 2r lbid., p.71.
3 tbid., p. 196. 22 Quoted from the liberal Armenian newspaper, Hayastan, published in Con-
4 Ronald Suny, "Some Notes on rhe National Character, Religion, and Way of stantinople, ibid., p. 76.
Life of the Armenians," unpublished paper presented at the Lelio Basso Foun- 23 Until the emergence of a liberal middle class, the mi!Let was dominared by an
dation conference, Venice, October '1,8-20,7985, p. 3. oligarchy of bankers, rich merchanrs, and governmenr of6cials known as the
5 Christopher J. Valker, Armenia: Tbe Suruiual of a Nation, revised 2nd edn amira class.
(New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990), p. 20. This is a good, overall intro- 24 Lit>aridian, "Narion and Fatherland," p.78.
duction to Armenian history, 1800-1900. This revised edition also includes a 25 Suny, "Notes," p. 4.
brief discussion of the Karabagh movemenr. 26 Libaridian, "Nation and Fatherland," o.87.
5 Herodotus, Strabo, and Xenophon describe Armenia's wealth of flocks, natural 27 lbid., p.79.
products, metals, precious stones, and the fame ofher soldiers. For a discussion 28 Walker, Armenia.
of classical references to Armenia, see Robert W. Thompson, "The Armenian 29 Ronald suny, "The Formation of the Armenian parrioric Intelligentsia in
Image in Classical Texts," in Richard C, Hovannisian, ed., The Armenian Russia: The First Generations," Armenian Reuietu, vol. 35, .no. 3, Autumn
lmage in History and Literature (Malibu, CA: Undena Publications, 1981), 1,983, p.25.
pp.9-25. See also David Marshall Lang, Tbe Armenians: A People in Exile, 30 This paragraph is based on Louise Nalbandian's The Armenian Reuolutionary
(London: Unwin Paperbacks, 1988, new edn), pp.39-48. Mouement: Tbe Deuelopment of Armenian Political parties througb tbe Nine-
7 The Urartian fortress, Erebuni, iusr outside Yerevan, gives the city its name. teenth Century (Berkeley: Universiry of Califorr-ria press, 1967), one of the de6-
8 The philologist, Raphael Ishkhanian, known in Yerevan for his efforts ro nitive works on the Armenian revolutionary movement. See also Anaide Ter
increase the use of Armenian in the public domain and ourlaw Russian- Minassian, Nationalism and Socialism in the Armenian Reuolutionary Moue-
language schooling for Armenian children, has published a number of arricles ment (Cambridge MA: -fhe Zoryan Instirute, 1984); this short monograph
on this theme. covers the period 1885-1914.
9 Ronald Suny, Armenia in tbe Twentietb Century (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 31 Exact mortaliry figures are dif6cult to determine because of uncertainties in the
1983), p. 4. pre-l915 census figures for Armenians in rhe Ortoman Empire. For a rhoughrful