Carburizing: Laser Beam

Gregory Haidemenopoulos
Antonis Katsamas
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece

Abstract
Laser-beam carburizing of steel is a surface treatment aiming to increase surface hardness and enhance
wear resistance of the material. During the process, a laser beam is scanned over the surface, the laser spot
being essentially a moving heat source. Carburizing is achieved either by surface melting and incorpora-
tion of carbon in the melt pool, followed by rapid solidification of the carburized layer (CL), or by solid-
state diffusion of carbon into the surface. Microstructure of laser CLs is characterized by a variety of
transformation products and significant hardness enhancement. Major advantages of laser over conven-
tional carburizing include high-dimensional accuracy, minimal thermal distortion of the workpiece, and
ease of automation. In this entry relevant literature is reviewed, key process parameters are identified,
resulting microstructures and associated properties are described and, finally, future prospects of the
method are discussed.

INTRODUCTION various researchers, in order to understand the mecha-

High-power laser beams constitute a well-established
technology for the modification of the composition, micro-
structure, and properties of steel surfaces. In an effort to
exploit the unique properties of laser irradiation, such
as spatial and dimensional precision of the treated area,
ability to process extremely small areas, potential for
controlled and limited thermal distortions and, finally,
potential for process automation,[1] a variety of surface
treatments that involve the use of laser beams have been
established and experimentally investigated in the past. A
very useful classification of laser surface treatments has
been attempted in Kusinski et al.,[2] which distinguishes
the various treatments depending on the physical mecha-
nism involved. Three fundamental mechanisms can be
considered: simple heating, melting, and vaporization.
Simply heating the surface of a material with a laser beam,
without melting it, is the mechanism by which treatments
such as transformation hardening and annealing are
nisms and determine the parameters, which control the
process. A very recent and comprehensive review of asso-
ciated experimental findings is given in Hoche et al.[3]
As regards laser-beam carburizing of steel, the idea was
originally conceived through the use of graphite coatings
during laser transformation hardening of steels. Graphite
coatings were used in order to increase the coupling of laser
radiation with the steel substrate, which for the case of the
CO2 laser, with a far-infrared wavelength of 10.6 μm, is
extremely low.[4] In some early work in this area, normal-
ized 0.4 wt.% C steel specimens were coated with an
antireflective film of colloidal graphite and then irradiated
with a 10 kW, continuous wave, CO2 laser beam.[5] It was
observed that substantial amounts of carbon could be intro-
duced to steel surfaces in that manner, thus leading to
carburization.
In early investigations, commercially pure iron speci-
mens were coated with various graphite solutions, before
being irradiated with a 2 kW, continuous wave, CO2 laser
beam,[6,7] It was found that surface layers with carbon

performed. On the other hand, when laser irradiation is
high enough to melt the surface of the material, treatments
such as surface alloying, cladding, grain refining, and glaz-
ing can be performed. Finally, when the incident energy of
the laser beam is so high that it can vaporize the surface of
a material, then treatments like ablation, thin-film deposi-
tion, and surface cleaning can be implemented.
From another point of view, laser surface treatments
can also be categorized in terms of whether they modify
the chemical composition of the surface (e.g., surface
alloying, cladding), or they leave it unchanged (e.g., trans-
formation hardening, remelting). Carburizing of steel with
the use of laser-beam irradiation is included in the first
category. Several experimental efforts have been made by
Carburizing—Case Depth
contents of up to 6 wt.% had been produced, exhibiting
fine, white cast-iron microstructures. Solid-state carbon
diffusion was also observed into the substrate, resulting in
the formation of austenite and martensite in the micro-
structure of the initially unalloyed iron.
Ever since, numerous investigations have been reported
in the literature, regarding carburizing of iron and various
steel grades, by employing various types of laser beams.
In Canova and Ramous,[8] the solid-state carbon diffusion
on pure (ARMCO) iron samples, pre-coated with graphite
and then irradiated with a 15 kW, continuous wave, CO2
laser beam, was investigated. Results indicated that cases
with a thickness of 0.2 mm and a bainitic microstructure

Encyclopedia of Iron, Steel, and Their Alloys DOI: 10.1081/E-EISA-120050642

Copyright © 2015 by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved. 631
 632
had formed, thus exhibiting significant solid-state carburi-
zation of the specimens.
Other investigations reported carburizing of low-car-
bon AISI 1018 steel, using a 400-W Nd:YAG laser
beam.[9] A maximum hardness of about 1050 HV was
obtained in the laser-beam carburized samples, as well as
a wide range of microstructures, including a mixture of
ferrite-cementite eutectic and austenite, considered ideal
for improved wear resistance.
In more recent works, medium-carbon steel coated with
carbon nanotubes was treated by a continuous wave, CO2
laser beam,[10,11] It was observed that a remelted layer on
the surface of the specimens formed hypoeutectic, eutec-
tic, and hypereutectic microstructures, depending on the
distance from the outer surface. Results also indicated that
carbon nanotubes decomposed and dissolved inside the
molten surface, thus producing significant carburization.
Microhardness in the order of 900–1000 HV was also
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measured.
An investigation on laser-beam carburizing of case-
hardening 16MnCrS5 steel was reported in Grünenwald
et al.[12] Tungsten carbide and carbon were introduced into
the molten surface of the specimens, to improve hardness
and wear resistance. It was found that the strengthening
mechanism was strongly dependent upon the type and
amount of the alloying elements used. In the case of
alloying with carbon, the increase in hardness and wear
resistance was attributed to the formation of martensite,
whereas in the case of alloying with tungsten carbide, the
enhancement of properties was attributed to both martens-
itic transformation and the precipitation of carbides.
A similar investigation on laser-beam carburizing of
another case-hardening steel grade (15CrNi6) is reported in
Katsamas and Haidemenopoulos.[13] More details about this
work are presented in the following sections of this entry.
A different approach was used in the work reported in
Kulka and Pertek,[14] which also experimented on case-
hardening 15CrNi6 steel specimens. The material was
first conventionally carburized, by remaining in a con-
trolled carburizing atmosphere at 930
C. Subsequently,
the carburized specimens were subjected to gas boriding
at 950
C. After this boro-carburizing treatment, the spec-
Carburizing—Case Depth
imens were irradiated with a 2.6-kW CO2 laser beam. It
was found that the final microstructure of the specimens
consisted of iron borides (FeB and Fe2B), a carburized
layer (CL) with a heat-affected zone (HAZ) consisting of
martensite and alloyed cementite, a CL without any heat
effect from laser irradiation and the substrate, consisting
of ferrite and pearlite. It was also observed that the sur-
face after boro-carburizing and laser-beam irradiation
had a high microhardness due to the presence of iron
borides, thus reducing the hardness gradient between the
treated layer and the substrate in comparison to the solely
borided layer.
More recent work has focused on laser-beam carburiz-
ing of austenitic stainless steels. In the work of Khalfallah
Carburizing: Laser Beam
et al.,[15] AISI 316 stainless-steel specimens were irradi-
ated with 2- and 4-kW continuous wave, CO2 laser beams.
The specimens were pre-coated with graphite powder and
laser-melted. It was found that the microstructure of the
laser-carburized surface consisted of austenitic dendrites,
surrounded by a network of austenite-carbide eutectic. A
significant increase in microhardness, from 200 to 500
HV, was associated with this modification of the micro-
structure. Improvements in corrosion resistance of the
treated specimens were also observed, which were attrib-
uted to the fine and homogeneous dendritic microstruc-
tures obtained.
In another research,[16] a different process for laser-
beam carburizing was proposed, in order to strengthen
ultra-low-carbon steel sheet, by employing gaseous hydro-
carbons as the carbon source. The process involved laser
surface melting, while simultaneously blowing methane
gas (CH4) in the melt pool, in order to carburize the sur-
face. The effect of CH4 concentration and various laser-
irradiation parameters were investigated. Results indicated
that microhardness values exceeding 400 HV were
obtained and that hardening was determined by CH4 con-
centration, laser-beam power and scanning rate and focal
point position.
The improvement in tribological behavior of automo-
tive rings subjected to laser carburizing is reported in de
Oliveira et al.[17] In that work, automotive rings initially
covered with carbon-black slurry were subsequently irra-
diated with a CO2 laser beam, in order to improve the
friction rate and the ring lifetime. Scanning electron
microscopy observations showed that case depths close to
0.12 mm were achieved, with microhardness values in the
area of 950 HV0,05. Energy-dispersive spectroscopy exam-
ination, performed across the irradiated cross-section,
revealed considerable carbon diffusion into the metallic
substrate.
The tribological properties of the surface of AISI 52100
steel specimens, pre-coated with carbon and subsequently
treated with a CO2 laser beam were also studied in Da
Silva et al.[18] Tribological tests without external lubrica-
tion confirmed an effective increase in hardness and a
reduction in friction. It was found that laser-treated speci-
mens presented a friction coefficient of 0.3, whereas
untreated, reference specimens had a friction coefficient
on the order of 0.7.
Comparing carburizing of steel by conventional
methods—like gas or pack carburizing—to laser-beam
carburizing, both similarities and differences can be iden-
tified. The main similarity, characterizing all carburizing
methods, is the necessity for an external source of carbon
potential, i.e., a source to provide the necessary quantity of
carbon to be introduced in the steel surface. The second
common feature of all carburizing methods is the require-
ment for a heat source for the activation of various pro-
cesses, such as surface melting or solid-state diffusion. On
the other hand, the major difference between conventional
 Carburizing: Laser Beam
and laser-beam carburizing regards the scale of heating of
the workpiece. In most conventional methods, in order for
carburizing to be achieved, the entire volume of the work-
piece must be heated to the carburizing temperature.
In contrast, laser-beam carburizing involves only local
heating, concentrated specifically on the surface of the
workpiece. It is exactly this local heating effect which
makes laser-beam carburizing a potential alternative tech-
nique, especially in applications with strict requirements
on dimensional precision and minimum thermal effect on
the material.
In this entry, an effort is made to present an overview
of the application of laser beams as means to achieve
carburizing of steel surfaces. First, a short review of the
related literature is presented, which is nevertheless not
very extensive. After this, the properties of laser beam as
a heat source when interacting with solid materials are
described, since it is the thermal effect of the laser beam,
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which is utilized in carburizing. Subsequently, the differ-
ent mechanisms by which laser-beam carburizing of steels
can be achieved are described and the parameters, which
affect the process performance, are analyzed. One of the
most significant effects of the process regards the micro-
structures obtained on steel surfaces by laser-beam carbu-
rizing. Thus, the variety of the carburized microstructures
is examined, with reference to the corresponding carburiz-
ing mechanism involved. Changes in microstructure cause
changes in mechanical properties. And when speaking of
carburizing, the main mechanical property of steel, which
is to be improved, is the hardness and, thus, the wear
resistance. Therefore, an overview of surface hardness
enhancement due to laser-beam carburizing is also given.
Finally, the potential future prospects of laser-beam car-
burizing are discussed.
THE LASER BEAM AS A HEAT SOURCE ON
SOLID SURFACES
When a laser beam is directed on the surface of a solid
body, a fraction of the incident radiation is absorbed by
surface layers of the material, whereas the rest is reflected
back and scattered. In order for laser materials processing
to be feasible, the absorbed electromagnetic energy of the
beam has to be transformed into thermal energy inside the
material. The amount of energy transformed is determined
by the light absorption mechanisms of the material itself.
It is the absorbed energy, rather than the laser beam itself,
that is available for heating the material and producing the
desired effect.[19]
Laser absorption in metallic materials depends on a
number of different parameters, regarding both the laser
source and the material. Laser parameters of importance
are the wavelength of the particular laser source (e.g., 10.6
μm for CO2 lasers, 1.06 μm for Nd:YAG lasers), the beam
angle of incidence on the surface of the material, as well
633
as the beam polarization, which in turn depends on the
orientation of the electric field inside the beam.
On the other hand, the major material-dependent param-
eter determining the amount of absorbed energy is the
chemical composition of the material, whether it is a pure
element or an alloy. Regardless of composition, the inci-
dent laser beam always interacts solely with the electrons
on the surface of the material, since a laser beam is an
electromagnetic wave and electric and magnetic fields
interact exclusively with charged matter. The electrons will
be accelerated by the electric field and through various
collisions with the other constituents of the material, energy
is transferred to the crystal lattice in the form of heat.
Fig. 1 depicts a schematic of a laser beam scanning the
surface of a solid material. The beam is considered to have
a circular cross-section of diameter (do) on the level of the
material’s surface and moves in the direction of the x-axis
with velocity (u). Any random point (xo,yo) on the surface
of the material, which lies on the path of the moving beam,
will experience a variation of its temperature with time, as
soon as the beam passes over it. This temporal variation of
temperature is called thermal cycle. The typical form of
thermal cycle undergone by any point on the surface of the
material, when the moving laser beam passes over it, is
depicted in Fig. 2.
Temperature increases rapidly from room temperature
(To), as the laser beam approaches the point under consid-
eration and quickly reaches a maximum value (Tmax).
Subsequently, as the beam moves away, heat transfers
rapidly by conduction into the interior of the material
resulting in a high cooling rate. The latter cooling process
is usually referred to as self-quenching.
It is important to note that the characteristics of the
thermal cycle, such as the heating rate, the cooling rate
and the maximum temperature achieved, are determined
by both process conditions and thermal properties of the
irradiated material. Process conditions mainly include the
Carburizing—Case Depth
Fig. 1 A laser beam of circular cross-section with diameter
(do), moving on the surface of a solid material with velocity (u).
 634 Carburizing: Laser Beam

900.0
1.5 KW, 5 mm,
75 mm/sec
800.0

m
m
0
m
z=

m
700.0

1
0.
Temperature (°C)

mm
600.0

0 .2
500.0

400.0

300.0 m
1m
200.0
Fig. 2 Typical thermal cycle experienced by the surface of a
laser-irradiated material. 100.0

power, cross-sectional area, and scanning speed of the 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
beam, whereas thermal properties mainly regard thermal Time (sec)
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 13:18 12 August 2016

diffusivity, thermal conductivity, the specific heat capac-

ity, and the density of the material.[20]
For a given material, increasing laser-beam power will
generally lead to higher values of the maximum tempera-
ture, whereas increasing scanning speed will result in
higher heating rate, but also to lower values of maximum
temperature. Similarly, for given process conditions, the
thermal cycle in a material with low thermal diffusivity
will be in general characterized by higher heating rate and
maximum temperature, in comparison to a material with
relatively higher thermal diffusivity. However, it is not
just the very surface of the material that experiences the
thermal cycle, due to the travel of a laser beam. As heat is
conducted away from the surface toward the interior of the
material, subsurface layers will also experience their indi-
vidual thermal cycles. Fig. 3 depicts calculated thermal
cycles at different depths below the surface of a 0.60 wt.
% C plain-carbon steel specimen, irradiated with a 1.5-kW
CO2 laser beam of 5 mm in diameter, scanning the surface
at a speed of 75 mm/sec.[21] As shown in Fig. 3, subsurface
layers of the material experience thermal cycles of similar
form with the irradiated surface. However, the quantitative
characteristics of the cycle and its thermal effect on the
material vary. Maximum temperature experienced by the
Carburizing—Case Depth
Fig. 3 Calculated thermal cycles at various depths below the
surface of a 0.60 wt.% C plain-carbon steel specimen (1.5 kW,
5 mm diameter, 75 mm/sec).
conducted in the material, as the laser beam moves along
a specific path on the irradiated surface.
It is exactly the heat input, as well as the qualitative
characteristics of heat conduction inside a material, which
are utilized in laser materials processing technologies such
as cutting, welding, forming and, of course, surface mod-
ification treatments, like laser carburizing.
MECHANISMS OF LASER-BEAM CARBURIZING
Laser-beam carburizing of steels can be achieved by two
fundamentally different mechanisms: 1) laser surface
alloying, which involves melting of the surface layers of
the material and incorporation of carbon in the resulting
liquid phase and, 2) solid-state diffusion of carbon in the
surface of the material, activated by appropriate heating of
the surface by the laser beam.
Laser-surface alloying has been carried out experimen-

corresponding layer of the material decreases, as the dis-
tance from the surface increases. This is reasonable, since
less heat is available for increasing the temperature of the
material at greater depths below the surface.
In the general case, the heating effect produced by
the impingement of a moving laser beam on the surface
of a material is a three-dimensional heat-transfer problem.
The moving incident laser beam produces a transient ther-
mal field inside the irradiated material. Fig. 4 depicts cal-
culated isothermal contours in a 15CrNi6 case-hardening
steel block, irradiated with a 0.75-kW laser beam of 7 mm
in diameter, moving at a speed of 0.20 m/min. This calcu-
lation has been implemented using a finite elements model
and gives a very good insight of how heat is being
tally for a variety of substrates and alloying elements.[22]
According to this mechanism surface melting occurs rap-
idly, while the bulk of the material is not heated and practi-
cally serves as a heat sink. Due to the development of large
temperature differences between the molten surface and the
cold interior, rapid self-quenching and resolidification of
the surface occurs. Cooling rates as high as 1011 K/sec have
been observed, leading to high solidification rates, in the
order of 20 m/sec. Through the employment of laser surface
alloying, a wide variety of chemical and microstructural
states can be produced on the surface of the irradiated
material. The types of microstructures achieved in this way
range from extended solid solutions and metastable crystal-
line phases to amorphous metallic glasses.
 Carburizing: Laser Beam
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Fig. 4 Isothermal contours in a 15CrNi6 case-hardening steel block, as calculated with a 3-D finite elements model (0.75 kW, 7 mm
diameter, 0.20 m/min) for times (A) 2.39 sec, (B) 3.89 sec, (C) 5.41 sec, and (D) 10 sec.
Laser surface alloying is employed in order to selec-
tively modify the chemical composition of the surface, by
adding a desired alloying element into the melt pool.
There are several ways of introducing the desired alloying
element into a thin, surface layer, melted by a laser beam.
For example, there can be direct injection of the alloying
element into the melt pool during the treatment, in which
case the alloying element is provided in the form of pow-
der, gas, or wire. An alternative method is to apply an
adherent or non-adherent coating prior to laser irradiation,
in the form of paste or slurry, containing the desired
alloying element. Subsequently, as the laser beam inter-
acts with the specimen’s surface, the preplaced coating
and/or the substrate melt and mix intensively. A new
desirable surface alloy has formed following the resolidi-
fication of the molten pool.
Homogeneous distribution of the alloying elements
is desirable and it largely depends on the type of convec-
tive flow within the melt pool, which in turn depends
on the corresponding temperature gradients. In general,
temperature gradients get steeper as laser-beam power
increases, thus causing more efficient mixing of the
alloying elements.
635
Laser-beam carburizing of steels by the surface-melting
mechanism may lead to the formation of a variety of
microstructures in the CLs, which mainly depend on the
amount of carbon introduced and on process parameters.
The carbon introduced via this mechanism can be very
high, reaching hypereutectic compositions, in the CLs
of the surface. However, high resolidification rates of the
surface combined with the brittle nature of the involved
phases in the microstructure may readily cause the for-
Carburizing—Case Depth
mation of cracks, which is a significant disadvantage of
the technique. Another drawback of the surface-melting
mechanism is the formation of gas porosity in the resolidified
surface layers.
In contrast to the surface-melting mechanism, rela-
tively limited attention has been given to the second
mechanism for laser-beam carburizing, which involves
austenitization of the substrate and subsequent solid-state
diffusion of carbon in austenite. This mechanism exhibits
similarities with conventional, gas and pack carburizing
methods. However, a significant question arises regarding
the potential to obtain carburized cases in solid state with
the use of laser irradiation, due to the short interaction
times for the process to occur.
 636
As mentioned previously, the steel has to be first
austenitized before any substantial introduction of carbon
in the crystal structure can be achieved, due to the much
higher solubility of carbon in austenite than in ferrite.
However, austenitization of steels takes place only above
a critical temperature (Ac3), which is a function of the
chemical composition of the steel, as well as of the heating
rate. In addition, austenitization is a metallurgical phase
transformation, which requires time in order to be com-
pleted. Inevitably, a question arises whether the short ther-
mal cycles imposed to the material by laser-beam
irradiation can provide adequate heating and time, for both
austenitization and carbon diffusion to take place. Further-
more, carbon diffusion in austenite is considerably more
sluggish than in ferrite, due to the close-packed, face cen-
tered cubic (fcc) crystal structure of austenite.
Fig. 5 depicts a typical thermal cycle as before, this
time with the superposition of critical temperatures Ac1
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 13:18 12 August 2016
and Ac3, denoted by the two horizontal, dashed lines on
the diagram. Critical temperature Ac1 is that characteristic
temperature, above which austenite begins to form in the
microstructure of the steel, whereas critical temperature
Ac3 is that characteristic temperature, above which the
entire microstructure consists of austenite. However, this
phase transformation does not take place instantaneously
once the Ac3 temperature is reached or exceeded. The
material has to spend some time above the Ac3 tempera-
ture, in order for austenitization to begin and complete,
due to the diffusive nature of the transformation.
The time available for both austenitization and carburi-
zation of the steel surface during the thermal cycle is
denoted by the arrows and is equal to the time interval
where the temperature of the surface exceeds the critical
temperature Ac3. This time interval is usually referred to
as “dwell time” and is a significant process parameter.
Due to the characteristics of the laser-induced thermal
0.75 KW, 7 mm, 0.2 m/min,
specimen: steel 15CrNi6,
depth = 0 mm (surface)
1000
Carburizing—Case Depth
800
Temperature (˚C)
600
400
200
Carburizing
period
0 ature exceeds critical Ac3 temperature is
0 2 4 6
Time (sec)
Carburizing: Laser Beam
cycles, which were described in previous paragraphs,
dwell times observed in laser surface treatments of steel
typically range from a few tenths of milliseconds to a few
seconds, depending on process parameters (beam power,
cross-sectional area, and scanning speed) and on the mate-
rial’s thermal properties.
MICROSTRUCTURE OF LASER-BEAM
CARBURIZED SURFACES
The typical morphology of the surface of a laser-irradi-
ated specimen is shown in the micrograph of Fig. 6,
which actually depicts a transverse section of the speci-
men, taken perpendicularly to the direction of move-
ment of the laser beam. In the general case, three
characteristic zones form on the surface of the material,
as a result of the process. The top, thin, and lightly
etched zone constitutes the CL, i.e., that part of the
surface, which has been melted, enriched in carbon and
subsequently resolidified. This zone is immediately
followed by a thicker, darkly etched HAZ. The chemical
composition of the HAZ has not been altered by the
treatment. However, the temperature within this zone
during laser treatment has been adequately high to
cause changes to the microstructure. Finally, at larger
depths below the surface, the thermal effect of the treat-
ment has not been significant enough, in order to cause
any changes to the material. This area is usually termed
as the base metal (BM), which has been unaffected
by the process.
A wide variety of microstructures can be obtained on
the surface of laser-treated specimens, depending mainly
on process parameters, which in turn determine the mech-
anism involved for carburizing, i.e., surface-melting or
solid-state diffusion.
A3
A1
Fig. 5 The time during which the temper-
8 10 12
considered to be the useful time for
carburizing.
 Carburizing: Laser Beam 637

1.3 KW, 10 mm, 0.08 m/min,

specimen: steel 15CrNi6,
commercial graphite-spray coating 256 µm
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 13:18 12 August 2016

Fig. 6 Typical transverse section of a laser-treated specimen, showing the CL, the HAZ, and the BM.

The optical micrograph of Fig. 7 depicts a characteris-
tic microstructure inside the CL of a surface-melted
15CrNi6 case-hardening steel specimen.[13] This micro-
structure consists of primary carbide dendrites in a eutec-
tic matrix. The lightly etched ribbon in the CL/HAZ
interface and the martensitic plates in the lower part is a
typical feature of carburized structures exposed to high-
carbon potentials. This kind of hypereutectic microstruc-
ture indicates the high-carbon enrichment that can be
achieved on a steel surface by laser-beam carburizing.
Lower carbon potentials and multiple passes of the
laser beam may lead to microstructures like the one shown
in the optical micrograph of Fig. 8. In this case, the upper
part of the CL consists mainly of lath martensite with a
dispersion of a few martensite plates, while the lower part
exhibits dendritic morphology. Fig. 9 shows these den-
drites in a greater magnification. They also consist of lath
martensite, while the interdendritic, lightly etched phase is
resolidification of the surface, which cannot accommodate
the induced strains. This effect becomes even more pro-
nounced in the case of laser-beam carburizing, due to the
high cooling and solidification rates encountered.
Another potential flaw can be gas porosity. The optical
micrograph of Fig. 11 depicts a large, spherical gas pore,
located in the resolidified CL of a laser-treated specimen.
Gas porosity of this kind is attributed to gases entrapped in
the melt pool as it solidifies. The main sources of these
trapped gases are usually surface contamination of the
material (e.g., grease, oil, water vapor, etc.), the inert
protective gas used during laser processing, as well as

Carburizing—Case Depth
an austenite-carbide eutectic, corresponding to the liquid
that solidified last. Dendrite formation in the specimens
treated with multiple passes is attributed to the fact that
each individual pass of the laser beam induces a
preheating to the material with respect to the following
pass. This lowers temperature gradients in the liquid
phase, thus favoring the formation of dendrites.
As mentioned earleir, a likely disadvantage of the sur-
face-melting mechanism for laser-beam carburizing is
associated with a high probability for crack formation, as
well as for gas porosity. Fig. 10 shows a crack within the
CL of a specimen, which consists of lath martensite. Fig. 7 Primary carbide dendrites in the CL of a specimen. The
Cracking of the carburized surface may occur as a result lightly etched ribbon in the CL/HAZ interface indicates exces-
of the brittle nature of the phases forming during sive carbon potential.
 638
Fig. 8 The CL of a specimen treated with multiple passes of the
laser beam.
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dissolved gases emerging from the base material, like
oxygen and nitrogen.
Depending on the combination of process parameters
employed, the heat input provided by the laser beam to the
specimen is sometimes not sufficient to melt the surface.
In such cases, it is still possible to achieve carburization of
the surface, if the heating conditions are adequate to acti-
vate solid-state diffusion of carbon. In the work reported
in Katsamas and Haidemenopoulos,[13] a few specimens
of case-hardening 15CrNi6 steel, which were irradiated
with low laser-beam power (750 W), low scanning speed
(0.2–0.4 m/min), and multiple passes of the beam, were
carburized without surface melting. The optical micro-
graph of Fig. 12 depicts the microstructure in the CL of
such a specimen. The darkly etched, top layer in the pic-
ture consists of martensite plates (black) and a network of
acicular, proeutectoid cementite (white). Below this layer
extends a gray etched region, which is shown in greater
magnification in the optical micrograph of Fig. 13. The
Carburizing—Case Depth
Fig. 9 Dendrites in the CL of a laser-treated specimen,
consisting of lath martensite, while the interdendritic phase is
the austenite-M3C eutectic.
Carburizing: Laser Beam
Fig. 10 A crack in the CL of a laser-treated specimen. The
matrix consists of lath martensite.
microstructure in that area consists of plate martensite
(dark plates) dispersed in a matrix of retained austenite
(white).
Solid-state carbon diffusion on the surface of com-
mercially pure iron, coated with a graphite solution in
alcohol and heated by a continuous wave, CO2 laser
beam, has also been reported in Canova and Ramous.[8]
In this entry, relatively low laser-beam power densities
(i.e., incident laser power divided by the cross-sectional
area of the beam) were employed (3–4.5 W/mm2), as
well as low scanning speeds, leading to relatively high
interaction time of the laser beam with the surface
(20 sec). Under such irradiation conditions, heating of
the surface was not adequate to cause melting. Neverthe-
less, CLs with a maximum thickness of about 0.2 mm
were obtained, whereas the microstructure within these
layers was recognized to be bainitic, thus indicating the
introduction of carbon in the surface of the material dur-
ing the process.
Fig. 11 Gas pore in the resolidified surface of a laser-treated
specimen.
 Carburizing: Laser Beam 639

HARDNESS ENHANCEMENT

Regardless of the specific method applied, conventional or

not, the main purpose of every carburizing process is to
increase the surface hardness and the wear resistance of
steels, as well as to enhance their fatigue behavior. Work-
ing material is usually low-carbon or low-alloyed steel, for
which it is intended to produce a hard surface, without,
however, affecting their core toughness and ductility.
Indeed, carburizing causes a pronounced hardening effect,
which is limited only on the surface layers of the
workpiece.
Laser-beam carburizing has proven to fulfill this objec-
tive, as shown by the various relevant experimental stud-
ies on a variety of steel grades. In the case of a low-carbon Fig. 12 Martensite plates (black) and a network of acicular,
steel (AISI 1018), a maximum microhardness of 1050 HV proeutectoid cementite (white) in the CL of a specimen carbu-
was reported in laser-beam carburized samples,[8] when rized in solid state.
the hardness of this steel in the normalized condition is
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 13:18 12 August 2016

only about 130 HV. Experiments of laser-beam carburiz-
ing on medium-carbon steel (0.45 wt.% C), implemented
in the investigation of Yao et al.,[10] displayed similar
results. In that work, steel specimens were coated with a
slurry of carbon nanotubes dissolved in alcohol and then
irradiated with a CO2 laser beam. Subsequent measure-
ments on the laser-treated specimens showed a maximum
microhardness of 1000–1050 HV inside the CL, whereas
the microhardness of the BM was only approximately
300 HV.
In Katsamas and Haidemenopoulos,[13] laser-beam car-
burizing of 15CrNi6 case-hardening steel specimens also
showed substantial increase of surface hardness.
Microhardness values up to 900 HV were achieved, with
the original hardness of the material being equal to just
200 HV, i.e., more than a fourfold increase of surface
hardness was obtained. It is interesting to note here that
simple laser transformation-hardening experiments (i.e.,
without carburizing) in the same steel produced maximum
surface microhardness of 470–500 HV, a hardening effect
which corresponds to the nominal carbon content of this
particular steel grade (0.15 wt.%).[23]
Laser-beam carburizing of AISI 316 stainless-steel
specimens also produced a more than twofold increase of
have to be involved, which mainly regard the thermody-
namics and kinetics of the metallurgical processes occur-
ring during the process.
An example of the use of computational methods for
analyzing laser carburizing is presented in Katsamas and
Haidemenopoulos.[13] In that work, the possibility to
achieve solid-state carburizing during the short heating
periods imposed by the laser beam was examined, by
employing computational kinetics simulation of the pro-
cess. The simulation was performed by creating a simple
model for the laser-beam carburizing process, which was
then solved with the use of DICTRA (Diffusion-Con-
trolled TRAnsformations) software package.[24]
The first step toward such simulation involves determi-
nation of the surface temperature as a function of time. For
this purpose, a three-dimensional finite elements model
was developed and the thermal cycles were calculated. In
the heat-transfer model, convection and radiation losses
were ignored, whereas the laser beam was simulated as a
moving heat source.

Carburizing—Case Depth
surface hardness.[15] Maximum microhardness values of
500 HV were measured on the surface of carburized
specimens, while the hardness of the BM was 200 HV.

FUTURE PROSPECTS

As with many other metallurgical and material processes

in general, the main future prospect of laser-beam carbu-
rizing is associated with the development and application
of computational design techniques, which will enable the
a priori determination of process conditions, in order to
obtain desired case dimensions and surface hardness. Fig. 13 Plate martensite and retained austenite in the CL of the
Toward this direction, the appropriate computational tools specimen of Fig. 12.
 640 Carburizing: Laser Beam

For the kinetics model, a very simple concept was

adopted, by assuming a planar, one-dimensional geomet-
rical model. The system was considered to consist of a
one-phase austenitic region. Austenitization was assumed
to take place between the Ac1 and Ac3 critical tempera-
tures. The useful time period for carburizing, which is
taken into account by the kinetics model, was considered
to be the time above the Ac3 temperature.
The diffusion of a species k in austenite is determined
by the conservation of mass:

›ck ›J k
¼ (1)
›t ›x

The fluxes Jk are given by Onsager’s extension of

Fick’s first law, which is valid for diffusion in
multicomponent (n components) systems:

X
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 13:18 12 August 2016

n1
›cj
Jk ¼  Dnkj (2)
j¼1
›x
Details on the calculation of the reduced diffusion coef-
ficient matrix Dnkj can be found in Ågren and
Andersson.[25] This kind of calculation requires both ther-
modynamic and kinetic data and leads to concentration-
dependent diffusion coefficients. Numerical solution of
Eq. 1 gives the concentration profiles at every time step
of the simulation. Both the diffusion coefficient and mass
conservation equation calculations are implemented in
DICTRA software.
The boundary condition for carbon on the surface was
set as a constant concentration, corresponding to the satu-
ration concentration of carbon in austenite (2 wt.%):
Fig. 14 Calculated carbon concentration profiles, after carbu-
rizing for 0.2, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 sec.
The rate of carbon enrichment is very high and depends
strongly, as expected, on the distance from the surface.
Fig. 15 shows the calculated wt.% C as a function of time
for various distances from the surface. It can be realized
that carbon diffusion is very rapid. For example, at a
distance of 1 μm from the surface, the steel incorporates
approximately 1.6 wt.% C per sec. This rate reduces down
to approximately 0.2 wt.% C per sec at a distance of 10 μm
from the surface.
Another interesting result of the simulation is shown in
Fig. 16, where the variation of the flux of carbon atoms

cc ð0; tÞ ¼ csat
c (3)

The boundary conditions for Cr and Ni correspond to

zero-flux boundary conditions and were set, respectively, as:


›cCr 
¼0 (4)
›x x¼0
Carburizing—Case Depth


›cNi 
¼0 (5)
›x x¼0

The initial condition chosen corresponded to homoge-

neous austenite with composition 0.15C–1.65Cr–1.51Ni
(wt.%), which is the nominal composition of the steel.
Fig. 14 shows the evolution of carbon concentration
profiles at various times (0.2, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 sec). Despite
the very short carburizing time, a significant increase of
carbon content seems to take place, up to approximately
15 μm below the surface, due to solid-state carbon diffu- Fig. 15 The variation of carbon concentration with time, at
sion in austenite. different distances from the surface.
 Carburizing: Laser Beam
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Fig. 16 The flux of carbon atoms as a function of carburizing
time, at various distances from the surface.
with respect to time, at various depths below the surface,
is depicted. It is evident that the flux follows the rapid
temperature rise, and very quickly reaches a maximum
value. Then, as the temperature begins to fall, the flux of
carbon atoms also begins to decrease.
The most significant conclusion from such kind
of simulation is that it can serve as a powerful tool
for the design and/or optimization of the process. The
effect of process parameters can be readily evaluated
through the simulation, therefore making the identification
of the appropriate process conditions to achieve solid-state
laser carburizing in an efficient and cost-effective way.
CONCLUSIONS
The main features of the work presented earlier can be
summarized as follows:
 Laser-beam carburizing has been successfully applied
for the carburizing of steel surfaces. The relevant liter-
ature has been reviewed and the key process parame-
ters and mechanisms have been identified.
 The major advantages of the method over conventional
carburizing are the high-dimensional accuracy, mini-
mal thermal distortion, and ease of automation.

Laser carburizing can be performed by 1) surface melt-
ing and incorporation of carbon in the melt pool and, 2)
incorporation of carbon by solid-state diffusion.
 Laser CLs in steel are characterized by a wide variety
of microstructures, depending on laser-beam condi-
tions (beam power and cross-sectional area, scanning
speed, number of passes) and the concentration of
641
carbon introduced in the steel substrate. Most com-
monly, carburized microstructures obtained by melt-
ing and resolidification of the substrate consist of
primary dendrites in a eutectic matrix. Primary den-
drites consist of either austenite or carbide, depending
on whether a hypoeutectic or hypereutectic C-content
has been achieved in the substrate, respectively.
 Significant hardness enhancement of steel surfaces can
be achieved by laser-beam carburizing, closely associ-
ated with the obtained microstructures. Surface
microhardness ranging from 500 to 1100 HV has been
achieved in a wide variety of laser-irradiated steel
grades, leading to at least a twofold hardness increase,
compared to reference material.
 Computational tools can be used for the simulation of
the process with a significant prospect for process
design and optimization. Preliminary calculations
evince the potentiality to achieve significant carburiz-
ing of steel substrates, even without the need to melt
the surface and despite the very short thermal cycles
associated with the process.
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