STERA3D Technical Manual PDF

STERA 3D
STructural Earthquake Response Analysis 3D
Technical Manual
Version 6.4
Dr. Taiki SAITO
TOYOHOSHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (TUT), JAPAN
1
UPDATE HISTORY
2008/07/08 STERA_3D Technical Manual Ver.2.0 is uploaded.

Masonry element is installed.
Viscous damper element is installed.
Chapter 7 and Chapter 8 are added.
Chapter 9 and Chapter 10 are added.
The definition of shear deformation for passive damper is added.
Explanation of floor element is added.
Connection panel is installed.
The freedom of walls in case they are connected in series is explained in Chapter 4.
The error for calculating yield rotation of nonlinear spring is fixed..
New definition of mass distribution is added in Chapter 5.
Element model for wall panel is added.
The equation of shear strength of wall element is modified.
Chapter for the release of unbalance force is added.
Missing part (2.10 Connection Panel) is supplemented. Appendix for Degrading
Tri-linear Slip Model and Modified Bi-linear Model are added.
Definition of effective slab width is added. Also, the Appendix for Degrading Tri-linear
Slip Model is modified. Operator splitting method is added for numerical integration
method.
Modified Bilinear Model for HDRB (High Damping Rubber Bearing) is added for
isolation devices.
2
Steel elements are added.
Column element with direct input is added.
K-brace (Chevron brace) is added.
SRC members are added for beam, column and wall.
For some isolation devices, strength reduction by dissipated energy is considered.
Hysteresis of Bouc-Wen Model is added for isolator and damper
Definition of External Spring is extended in three directions.
“5.5 Modal analysis”, “7.4 Calculation of ground displacement” are added.
Formulation of initial stiffness of nonlinear spring is fixed (Eqs. (3-1-34), (3-1-51))
“5.5 Modal analysis” is modified including participation factor, effective mass, etc.
“7.4 Calculation of ground displacement” is modified changing band-pass filter.
Ground springs are added.
“4.6 Mass matrix corresponding to independent degrees of freedom” is added.
2019/05/20 Radiation damping for ground springs is added.
2019/07/25 External force by Wind is added.
2019/10/08 Buckling hysteresis of a brace is added.
2020/03/16 Pile foundation is included for ground springs.
Air spring is added for an external spring.
3
INDEX
1. Basic Condition
1.1 Coordinate
2. Constitutive Equation of Elements
2.1 Beam
2.2 Column
2.3 Wall
2.4 Brace
2.5 External Spring
2.6 Base Isolation
2.7 Masonry Wall
2.8 Passive Damper
2.9 Floor Element
2.10 Connection Panel
2.11 Ground Spring
3. Hysteresis Models of Nonlinear Springs
3.1 Beam
3.1.1 RC Beam
3.1.2 Steel Beam
3.1.3 SRC Beam
Appendix: Detail rule of degrading trilinear slip model
3.2 Column
3.2.1 RC Column
3.2.2 Steel Column
3.2.3 SRC Column
3.3 Wall
3.3.1 RC Wall
3.3.2 Steel Wall (Brace)
3.3.3 SRC Wall (Brace)
3.4 External Spring
3.4.1 Lift up spring
3.4.2 Air spring
3.5 Base Isolation
Appendix:
A-1. Hysteresis of LRB (Lead Rubber Bearing)
A-2. Hysteresis of HDRB (High Damping Rubber Bearing)
A-3. Hysteresis of Lead Damper
A-4. Hysteresis of Elastic Sliding Bearing
4
A-5. Hysteresis of Bouc-Wen Model
3.6 Masonry Wall
3.7 Passive Damper
3.8 Ground Spring
3.8.1 Soil structure interaction
3.8.2 Cone model to calculate the static stiffness
3.8.3 Embedded foundation
3.8.4 Radiation damping
3.8.5 Complex stiffness with material damping
3.8.6 Impedance matrix
3.8.7 Pile foundation
3.8.8 Equivalent period and damping factor considering soil structure interaction
4. Freedom Vector
4.1 Node freedom
4.2 Freedom vector
4.3 Dependent freedom
4.4 Transformation matrix of dependent freedom
4.5 Stiffness matrix corresponding to independent degrees of freedom
4.6 Mass matrix corresponding to independent degrees of freedom
5. Equation of Motion
5.1 Mass matrix
5.2 Stiffness matrix
5.3 Modal analysis
5.4 Damping matrix
5.5 Input ground acceleration
5.6 External force by vibrator
5.7 External force by wind
5.8 Numerical integration method
5.9 Energy
6. Nonlinear Static Push-Over Analysis
6. 1 Lateral distribution of earthquake force
6. 2 Capacity Curve
7. Lumped Mass Model
7.1 Decomposition of shear and flexural deformation
7.2 Lumped mass model with shear and flexural stiffness
8. P-D effect
9. Unbalance force correction
10. Calculation of ground displacement
5
1. Basic Condition
1.1 Coordinate
(1) Global Coordinate
The global coordinate is defined as the left-hand coordinate as shown in Figure 1-1-1.
Z 3
6
X 1
4
5
Y
2
Figure 1-1-1 Global coordinate
Z 3 Z Z
6
X 1 7 X X
4
5 8
Y Y Y
2
(a) lateral and rotational displacement (b) shear displacement
Figure 1-1-1 Global coordinate
6
(2) Local Coordinate
The local coordinate is defined for each element. The displacement freedoms and force freedoms are named
with subscripts indicating the coordinate direction and node name. For example, the local coordinate of a
beam element in Figure 1-2 is defined to have its x-axis in the same direction of the element axis. Also the
displacement and force freedoms of a beam element are expressed as shown in Figure 1-1-2.
z
u zA u zB
T yA T yB x
A B
Displacement freedoms
y
Q zA Q zB
Local coordinate
M yA M yB
A B
Force freedoms
Figure 1-1-2 Local coordinate of a beam element
7
2. Constitutive Equation of Elements
2.1 Beam
W ' yA
Gx
M ' yA M ' yB
A B
Nx
W ' yB
elastic element
T ' yA I yA
M ' yA M ' yB M ' yA M ' yB
A B A B
N 'x T ' yB I yB
nonlinear bending springs
l'
T ' yA ½ W ' yA ½ I yA ½ K yA ½ K yA
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° M ' yA M ' yB
®T ' yB ¾ ®W ' yB ¾ ®I yB ¾ ®K yB ¾ A K yB B
°G ' ° °G ' ° ° 0 ° ° 0 °
¯ x¿ ¯ x¿ ¯ ¿ ¯ ¿
nonlinear shear springs
Figure 2-1-1 Element model for beam
Force-displacement relationship for elastic element

The relationship between the displacement vector and force vector of the elastic element in Figure 2-1-1 is
expressed as follows:
ª l' l' º
« 3EI 0 »
6 EI y
W ' yA ½ « y
» M ' yA ½
° ° ° °
« 0 » ®M ' yB ¾
l ' l'
®W ' yB ¾ « 6 EI y »
(2-1-1)
3EI y
°G ' ° « »° N ' °
¯ x¿
« 0 l' »¯ x ¿
0
«¬ EA »¼
where, E , I y , A and l ' are the modulus of elasticity, the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area
along y-axis, the cross-sectional area and the length of the element. The rotational displacement vector of
the nonlinear bending springs is,
I yA ½ ª f yA 0 º M ' yA ½
® ¾ « 0 ® ¾
f yB »¼ ¯M ' yB ¿
(2-1-3)
¯I yB ¿ ¬
where, f yA and f yB are the flexural stiffness of nonlinear bending springs at both ends of the element.
The rotational displacement vector from the shear deformation of the nonlinear shear spring is,
8
ª 1 1 º
K yA ½ « k l' k sz l ' » M ' yA ½
« sz »
® ¾ 1 » ®¯M ' yB ¾¿
(2-1-2)
¯K yB ¿ « 1
«¬ k sz l ' k sz l ' »¼
where, k sz is the shear stiffness of the nonlinear shear spring. Then, the displacement vector of the beam
element is obtained as the sum of the above three displacement vectors.
T ' yA ½ W ' yA ½ I yA ½ K yA ½ M ' yA ½

° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
®T ' yB ¾ ®W ' yB ¾ ®I yB ¾ ®K yB ¾ > f B @°®M ' yB °¾ (2-1-4)
°G ' ° °G ' ° ° 0 ° ° 0 ° ° N' °
¯ x¿ ¯ x¿ ¯ ¿ ¯ ¿ ¯ x ¿
where,
ª l' 1 l' 1 º
« f yA 3EI k l '
6 EI y k sz l '
0 »
« y sz
»
> fB @ «
«
f yB
l'

1
0 »
»
(2-1-5)
3EI y k sz l '
« l' »
« sym. »
«¬ EA »¼
[ f B ] is the flexural stiffness matrix of the beam element. By taking the inverse matrix of [ f B ] , the
constitutive equation of the beam element is obtained as,
M ' yA ½ T ' yA ½ T ' yA ½

° ° ° °
® M ' yB ¾ > fB @ 1
®T ' yB ¾ >k B @°®T ' yB °¾ (2-1-6)
° N' ° °G' ° °G' °
¯ x ¿ ¯ x¿ ¯ x¿
where, [k B ] is the stiffness matrix of the beam element.
Including rigid parts and node movement

Including rigid parts and node movement as shown in Figure 2-1-2, the rotational displacement vector is,
T ' yA ½ T yA W ½ u O B l 'T yB u zA O A l 'T yA

¾, W
zB
® ¾ ®
¯T ' yB ¿ ¯T yB W ¿ l'
u ½
1 1 ½ ª1 1 º ° zA °
°T yA l ' u zA O AT yA l ' u zB O BT yB ° «l' l' 1 OA OB » u
° zB °
® ¾ «1 » ® ¾ (2-1-7)
1 1
°T yB u zA O AT yA u zB O BT yB ° «
1
OA T
1 O B » ° yA °
¯ l' l' ¿ ¬l' l' ¼ °T yB °
¯ ¿
9
T yB
T ' yA T yA W
T yB
T yA W T ' yB
u zB
u zB O B l 'T yB Z
u zA u zA O A l 'T yA
A B X
O Al ' l' OB l '
Figure 2-1-2 Including rigid parts and node movement
From node axial displacements, relative axial displacement is,

G ' x G xB G xA (2-1-8)
Therefore
T ' yA ½ T ' yA ½
T ' yA ½ ª1 0 0 0º ° ° °T ' °
° ° «0 1 0 0» °T ' yB ° >n B @°® yB °¾
®T ' yB ¾ « »® G ¾ (2-1-9)
°G ' ° «¬0 0 1 1»¼ ° xA ° ° G xA °
¯ x¿ °¯ G xB °¿ °¯ G xB °¿
Combining Equations (2-1-7) and (2-1-9),
u ½ u zA ½
ª1 1 º ° zA ° °u °
T ' yA ½ «l' 1 OA OB 0 0» u zB
l' ° ° ° zB °
°T ' ° «1 » °T ° °T °
° yB ° 0» °® yA °¾ >/ B @°® yA °¾
1
® ¾ « O A 1 OB 0 (2-1-10)
° G xA ° «l' l' » T yB °T yB °
°¯ G xB °¿ «0 0 0 0 1 0» °° °° °G xA °
G xA
«0 0
¬ 0 0 0 1»¼ ° ° ° °
°¯G xB °¿ °¯G xB °¿
Out of plane deformation of beam

If we consider out-of-plane deformation of beam in case of flexible floor, as shown in Figure 2-1-4, the
rotational displacement vector is,
T ' zA ½ T zA W ½ u O A l 'T zA u yB O B l 'T zB

¾, W
yA
® ¾ ®
¯T ' zB ¿ ¯T zB W ¿ l'
10
u ½
1 1 ½ ª 1 1 º yA
°T zA l ' u yA O AT zA l ' u yB OBT zB ° « l ' 1 OA OB » °u °
l' ° yB °
® ¾ « 1 » ® ¾ (2-9-7)
O A 1 OB » °T zA °
1 1 1
°T zB u yA O AT zA u yB OBT zB ° «
¯ l' l' ¿ ¬ l' l' ¼ °¯T zB °¿
O Al ' l' OB l'

Y
u yA T zA
T ' zA W u yB
T zB
W T zB T ' zB
T zA
Figure 2-1-4 Beam displacement with rigid connection (X-Y plane)
u ½
ª 1 1 º ° zA °
« l ' 1 OA OB » °u zB °
l'
T ' yA ½ « » °T °
°T ' ° « 1 1
O A 1 OB » ° yA °
° yB ° « l' l' » °T yB °
« »° °
°°T 'zA °° « 1

1
1 OA OB » °®u yA °¾
® ¾ « » °u yB °
°T 'zB ° «
l' l'
»° °
° G xA ° 1 1
» °T zA °
° ° « OA 1 OB
¯° G xB ¿° « l' l' » °T zB °
« 1 »° °
« » G xA
¬ 1¼ ° °
°¯G xB °¿
From global node displacement to element node displacement

Transformation from global node displacements to element node displacements is,
u zA ½
°u °
° zB ° u1 ½
°°T yA °° °u °
® ¾ >TixB @°® 2 °¾ (2-1-11)
°T yB ° °#°
°G xA ° °¯un °¿
° °
°¯G xB °¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TixB ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).
11
From global node displacement to element face displacement
Transformation from the global node displacement to the element face displacement is,
u1 ½ u1 ½
T ' yA ½ °u ° °u °
° °
®T ' yB ¾ >nB @>/ B @>TixB @°® 2 °¾ >TxB @°® 2 °¾ (2-1-12)
°G ' ° °#° °#°
¯ x¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿
In case of Y-direction beam
z Z
y X
x Y
Local coordinate of Y-beam Global coordinate
Figure 2-1-3 Relation between local coordinate and global coordinate
In case of Y-direction beam, the axial direction of the beam element coincides to the Y-axis in the global
coordinate, transformation of the sign of the vector components of the element coordinate is,
x½ ª 0 1 0º X ½
° ° « 1 0 0» ° Y °
® y¾ « »® ¾ (2-1-13)
°z° «¬ 0 0 1»¼ °¯ Z °¿ Global
¯ ¿Y Beam
Therefore
u zA ½ ª1 º u zA ½ u zA ½
°u ° ° ° °u °
° zB °
« 1
« 0 »» °u zB ° ° zB °
°°T yA °° « 1 » °°T xA °° °T °
® ¾ « »® ¾ >s B @°® xA °¾ (2-1-14)
°T yB ° « 1 » °T xB ° °T xB °
°G xA ° « 0 1 » °G yA ° °G yA °
° ° « »° ° ° °
°¯G xB °¿Y Beam «¬ 1»¼ °¯G yB °¿ Global °¯G yB °¿ Global
12
Transformation from the global node displacement to the element node displacement is,
u zA ½
°u °
° zB ° u1 ½
°°T xA °° °u °
® ¾ >T @ ° 2°
® ¾ (2-1-15)
°T xB °
iyB
°#°
°G yA ° °¯u n °¿
° °
¯°G yB ¿°
u1 ½ u1 ½
T ' yA ½ °u ° °u °
° °
®T ' yB ¾ >n B @>/ B @>s B @>TiyB @ ° 2°
® ¾ >T @
yB
° 2°
® ¾ (2-1-16)
°G ' ° °#° °#°
¯ x¿ °¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
Constitutive equation
Finally, the constitutive equation of the X-beam is,
P1 ½ u1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >TxB @T >k B @>TxB @°® 2 °¾ >K xB @°® 2 °¾ (2-1-17)
°#° °#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿
For Y-beam,
P1 ½ u1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ > @ > @
° °
TyB >k B @ TyB ® 2 ¾
T
>K @ yB
° 2°
® ¾ (2-1-18)
°#° °#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿
Transformation matrix for nonlinear spring displacement

The nonlinear spring displacement vector is obtained from the element face displacement as,
ª º ª º
I yA ½ « f yA 0 0» M ' yA ½ « f yA 0 0» T ' yA ½ T ' yA ½
« »° « »
° °
®I yB ¾ « 0 f yB 0» ®M ' yB ¾
°
« 0
° °
f yB 0»>k B @®T ' yB ¾ >T @
pB
° °
®T ' yB ¾ (2-1-19)
°K ° « 1 1 »° ° « 1 1 » °G ' ° °G ' °
¯ y¿ « 0» ¯ N ' x ¿ « 0» ¯ x¿ ¯ x¿
¬ k sz l ' k sz l ' ¼ ¬ k sz l ' k sz l ' ¼
where,
13
ª º
« f yA 0 0»
« »
>T @
pB « 0 f yB 0»>k B @ (2-1-20)
« 1 1 »
« 0»
¬ k sz l ' k sz l ' ¼
14
2.2 Column
Element model for column is defined as a line element with nonlinear bending springs at both ends and two
nonlinear shear springs in the middle of the element in x and y directions as shown in Figure 2-2-1.
X-Z plane Y-Z plane
M ' xB M ' xB
M ' yB
M ' yB
B B B
T ' xB
T ' yB
N 'z Z
l' = +
T 'z
T ' yA T ' xA X
A A A
M ' yA Y
M ' yA
M ' xA M ' xA
Figure 2-2-1 Element model for column

In the same way as the beam element, the relationship between the displacement vector and force vector of
the elastic element is,
ª l' l' º
« 3EI
W ' yA ½ 6 EI y » M ' yA ½
® ¾ « y
»
l ' » ®¯M ' yB ¾¿
in X-Z plane (2-2-1)
¯W ' yB ¿ « l '
« 6 EI y 3EI y »¼
¬
ª l' l' º

W ' xA ½ « 3EI 6 EI x » M ' xA ½
« »
® ¾ l ' » ®¯M ' xB ¾¿
x
in Y-Z plane (2-2-2)
¯W ' xB ¿ « l '
«¬ 6 EI x 3EI x »¼
The axial displacement is,
l'
G ' 'z N 'z (2-2-3)
EA
The torsion angle by torque force is,
l'
T 'z T 'z (2-2-4)
GI z
where, G and I z are the shear modulus and the pole moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area.
15
Force-displacement relationship for nonlinear bending springs
Nonlinear interaction M x M y N z is considered in the nonlinear bending springs,
I yA ½ M ' yA ½
N ' zB , H zB
° °
®I xA ¾ >f @
pA
° °
® M ' xA ¾ at end A (2-2-5)
°H ° ° N' ° M ' xB , I xB
¯ zA ¿ ¯ zA ¿
M ' yB , I yB
I yB ½ M ' yB ½
° °
®I xB ¾ >f @
pB
° °
®M ' xB ¾ at end B (2-2-6)
B
°H ° ° N' °
¯ zB ¿ ¯ zB ¿
where, [ f pA ] and [ f pB ] are the flexural

stiffness matrices of the nonlinear bending springs.
Therefore, the force-displacement relationship of A
nonlinear bending springs is,
M ' yA , I yA
I yA ½ M ' yA ½
°I ° °M ' ° M ' xA , I xA
° xA ° ° xA °
°°H zA °° > @
ª f pA 0 º °° N ' zA °°
N ' zA , H zA
® ¾
°I yB °
« 0
¬ > @ ®
f pB »¼ °M ' yB °
¾ (2-2-7)
°I xB ° ° M ' xB ° Figure 2-2-2 Nonlinear bending springs

° ° ° °
°¯H zB °¿ °¯ N ' zB °¿
Rearrange the order of the components of the displacement vector and change the node axial displacements
into the relative axial displacement,
I yA ½ I yA ½
I yA ½ ª1 0 0 0 0º ° °
0 °I °
°I ° I xA
°° yB °°
«0
« 0 1 0 0»» ° °
0 ° xA °
°°H zA °° °°H °°
®I xA ¾ «0 1 0 0 0 0» ® ¾ > @
n p ® zA ¾ (2-2-8)
°I ° « » I yB
0 0 0 1 0» ° ° °I yB °
° xB ° «0 °I xB ° °I xB °
°¯ H z °¿ «¬0 0 1 0 0 1»¼ ° ° ° °
°¯H zB °¿ °¯H zB °¿
The force-displacement relationship in Equation (2-2-7) is then expressed as,
I yA ½ M ' yA ½ M ' yA ½
°I ° °M ' ° °M ' °
>n @ª«> f0 @ > @ > @
°° yB °° 0 º ° yB °° °° yB °°
®I xA ¾ p
pA T °
n ®M ' ¾
f pB »¼ p ° xA °
> @
f p ® M ' xA ¾ (2-2-9)
°I ° ¬ M' °M ' °
° xB ° ° xB ° ° xB °
°¯ H z °¿ °¯ N ' z °¿ °¯ N ' z °¿
16
Force-displacement relationship for nonlinear shear springs
ª 1 1 º
K yA ½ « k l' k sx l ' » M ' yA ½
« sx »
® ¾ 1 » ®¯M ' yB ¾¿
in X-Z plane (2-2-10)
¯K yB ¿ « 1
«¬ k sx l ' k sx l ' »¼
ª 1 1 º
K xA ½ « k l' k sy l ' » M ' xA ½
® ¾ « sy »
1 » ®¯M ' xB ¾¿
in Y-Z plane (2-2-11)
¯K xB ¿ « 1
« k sy l ' k sy l ' »¼
¬
where, k sx and k sy are the shear stiffness of the nonlinear shear springs.
The displacement vector of the column element is obtained as the sum of the displacement vectors of
elastic element, nonlinear shear springs and nonlinear bending springs,
T ' yA ½ W ' yA ½ I yA ½ K yA ½ M ' yA ½

°T ' ° °W ' ° °I ° °K ° °M ' °
° yB ° ° yB ° ° yB ° ° yB ° ° yB °
°°T 'xA °° °°W ' xA °° °°I xA °° °°K °° °M ' °
® ¾ ® ¾ ® ¾ ® xA ¾ > fC @°® xA °¾ (2-2-12)
°T 'xB ° °W ' xB ° °I xB ° °K xB ° ° M ' xB °
° G 'z ° °G ' ' z ° °Hz ° ° 0 ° ° N 'z °
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
¯° T 'z ¿° ¯° T ' z ¿°elastic element °¯ 0 °¿bending spring ¯° 0 ¿° shear spring ¯° T ' z ¿°
The flexural matrix [ f C ] is;
ª l' l' º
« 3EI »
6 EI y
« y
»
« l'
0 »
« 3EI y »
« »
« l' l' »

> fC @ « 3EI x 6 EI x »
« l' »
« »
« 3EI x »
« l' »
« EA »
« l' »
« sym. »
«¬ GI z »¼ elestic element
17
ª f p11 f p12 f p13 f p14 f p15 0º
« f p 22 f p 23 f p 24 f p 25 0»»
«
« f p 33 f p 34 f p 35 0»
« »
« f p 44 f p 45 0»
« f p 55 0»
« »
¬« sym. 0¼» bending spring
ª 1 1 º
« k l' k l' »
« sx sx
»
« 1
0 »
« k sx l ' »
« 1 1 »
« » (2-2-13)
« k sy l ' k sy l ' »
« 1 »
« »
« k sy l ' »
« 0 »
« »
¬ sym. 0¼ shear spring
By taking the inverse matrix of [ f C ] , the constitutive equation of the column element is obtained as,
M ' yA ½ T ' yA ½ T ' yA ½

°M ' ° °T ' ° °T ' °
° yB ° ° yB ° ° yB °
°° M ' xA °° °T ' ° °T ' °
® ¾ > f C @1 °® xA °¾ >k C @°® xA °¾ (2-2-14)
° M ' xB ° °T ' xB ° °T ' xB °
° N 'z ° ° G 'z ° ° G 'z °
° ° ° ° ° °
°¯ T ' z °¿ °¯ T ' z °¿ °¯ T ' z °¿

Change relative axial displacement and torsion displacement into node displacement,
T ' yA ½ T ' yA ½
° ° °T ' °
T ' yA ½ ª1 º °T ' yB ° ° yB °
°T ' ° « 1 0 » °T ' ° °T ' xA °
° yB ° « » ° xA ° ° °
°T ' xA ° « 1 » °T ' xB ° °T ' xB °
® ¾ « »® ¾ >nC @® ¾ (2-2-15)
°T ' xB ° « 1 » ° G zA ° ° G zA °
° G 'z ° « 0 1 1 » ° G zB ° ° G zB °
° ° « »° ° ° °
¯ T 'z ¿ ¬ 1 1¼ ° T zA ° ° T zA °
°¯ T zB °¿ °¯ T zB °¿
Including rigid parts and node movement,
18
u xA ½ u xA ½
ª 1 1 º °u xB ° °u °
« l ' 1 OA OB »° ° ° xB °
T ' yA ½ » °T yA ° °T yA °
l'
« 1
0 » °T yB ° ° °
°T ' ° 1
« OA 1 OB
° yB ° « l' l' »° ° °T yB °
°T ' xA ° « 1

1
1 OA OB » °u yA ° °u yA °
° ° « » °u ° ° °
°T ' xB ° » °® yB °¾ >/ C @°® yB °¾
l' l' u
® ¾ « 1 1
° G zA ° « OA 1 OB » °T xA ° °T xA °
° G zB ° « l' l' » °T ° °T xB °
° ° « 1 » ° xB ° ° °
° T zA ° « 1 » °G zA ° °G zA °
°T ° « »° ° °G °
¯ zB ¿ « 0 1 » °G zB ° ° zB °
« 1»¼ °T zA ° °T zA °
¬
°T ° °T °
¯ zB ¿ ¯ zB ¿
(2-2-16)
B u xB
u yB
OBl'
T yB
T xB T ' yB
l'
T 'xB
T ' yA Z
T 'xA
T yA
O Al ' X
T xA
A u xA
u yA
Y
Figure 2-2-3 Including rigid parts and node movement
19
Transformation from global node displacement to element node displacement is;
u xA ½
°u °
° xB °
°T yA °
° °
°T yB °
°u yA ° u1 ½
° ° °u °
°u yB °
® ¾ >TiC @°® 2 °¾ (2-2-17)
°T xA ° °#°
°T xB ° °¯un °¿
° °
°G zA °
°G zB °
° °
°T zA °
°T °
¯ zB ¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TiC ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).

T ' yA ½
°T ' °
° yB ° u1 ½ u1 ½
°u ° °u °
°°T ' xA °°
® ¾ >nC @>/ C @>TiC @°® 2 °¾ >TC @°® 2 °¾ (2-2-18)
°T ' xB ° °#° °#°
° G 'z ° °¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
° °
°¯ T ' z °¿
Finally, the constitutive equation of the column is;
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K C @°® 2 °¾ (2-2-19)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯un °¿
where,
>K C @ >TC @T >kC @>TC @ (2-2-20)
20
The nonlinear spring displacement vector is obtained from Equations (2-2-7), (2-2-10) and (2-2-11),
ª º
I yA ½
°I °
«
«
>f @
pA 0 »
»
° xA ° « » M ' yA ½ M ' yA ½
°H zA ° « » ° M ' xA ° °M ' °
° ° « »° ° ° xA °
°I yB ° « 0 >f @ » ° N ' zA °
> f pC @°®MN ''zA °¾
® ¾ » M ' yB ¾
®
pA (2-2-21)
«
°IxB ° « »° ° ° yB °
°H zB ° ° ° ° M ' xB °
« 1 0» ° xB °
1 M '
° ° « k sx l '
0 0 0
» N' ° °
°K y ° «
k sx l '
» ¯ zB ¿ ¯ N ' zB ¿
°¯ K x °¿ « 0
1
0 0
1
0»
¬« k sy l ' k sy l ' ¼»
Furthermore, in the same way as Equation (2-2-8),
M ' yA ½ M ' yA ½ M ' yA ½

°M ' ° °M ' ° °M ' °
° xA ° ° yB ° ° yB °
°° N ' zA °°
® ¾ >>n @ p
T
@
°M ' °
^0` °® xA °¾ > @ °° M ' °°
n' p ® xA ¾ (2-2-22)
°M ' yB ° ° M ' xB ° ° M ' xB °
° M ' xB ° ° N 'z ° ° N 'z °
° ° ° ° ° °
°¯ N ' zB °¿ °¯ T ' z °¿ °¯ T ' z °¿
Therefore, the nonlinear spring displacement vector is obtained from the element face displacement as,
I yA ½
°I °
° xA ° M ' yA ½ T ' yA ½ T ' yA ½
°H zA ° °M ' ° °T ' ° °T ' °
° ° ° yB ° ° yB ° ° yB °
°I yB ° °° M ' °° °°T ' °° °°T ' xA °°
® ¾ > f @> @ n' p ® xA ¾ > f @> @ n' p >k C @® xA ¾ >T @ ® ¾ (2-2-23)
°I xB ° °T ' xB ° °T ' xB °
pC pC pC
° M ' xB °
°H zB ° ° N 'z ° ° G 'z ° ° G 'z °
° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
°K y ° °¯ T ' z °¿ °¯ T ' z °¿ °¯ T ' z °¿
°K °
¯ x¿
21
2.3 Wall
Element model for wall is defined as a line element with nonlinear bending springs at both ends and three
nonlinear shear springs; one is in the middle of the wall panel and others are in the side columns as shown
in Figure 2-3-1.
M ' xB1 M ' yBc M ' xB 2
T ' xB T ' xB Z
T ' yB
l' X
T ' xA T ' yA T ' xA
Y
M ' xA1 M ' yAc M ' xA2
Figure 2-3-1 Element model for wall

In the same way as the beam element, the relationship between the displacement vector and force vector of
the elastic element is,
ª l' l' º

W ' yAc ½ « 3EI 6 EI c » M ' yAc ½
« »
® ¾ l ' » ®¯ M ' yBc ¾¿
c
in wall panel (2-3-1)
¯W ' yBc ¿ « l '
«¬ 6 EI c 3EI c »¼
ª l' l' º

W ' xA1 ½ « 3EI 6 EI 1 » M ' xA1 ½
« »
® ¾ l ' » ®¯ M ' xB1 ¾¿
1
in side column 1 (2-3-2)
¯W ' xB1 ¿ « l '
«¬ 6 EI 1 3EI 1 »¼
ª l' l' º

W ' xA2 ½ « 3EI 6 EI 2 » M ' xA2 ½
« »
® ¾ l ' » ®¯ M ' xB 2 ¾¿
2
¯W ' xB 2 ¿ « l '
«¬ 6 EI 2 3EI 2 »¼
The axial displacement is,
l'
G ' ' zc N ' zc (2-3-4)
EA
22
Force-displacement relationship for nonlinear bending springs
Nonlinear interaction M x M y N z is considered in the nonlinear bending springs,
N ' zBc , H zBc

M ' yBc , I yBc
M ' xB1 , IxB1 M ' xB 2 , I xB 2
B
A
M ' xA1 , I xA1 M ' xA2 , I xA2
M ' yAc , I yAc
N zAc , H zAc
Figure 2-3-2 Nonlinear bending springs
I yAc ½ M ' yAc ½

°I ° °M ' °
° xA1 °
® ¾ >f @ ° xA1 °
® ¾ at end A (2-3-5)
°IxA2 °
pA
°M ' xA2 °
°¯H zAc °¿ °¯ N ' zAc °¿
I yBc ½ M ' yBc ½

°I ° °M ' °
° xB1 °
® ¾ >f @ ° xB1 °
® ¾ at end B (2-3-6)
°I xB 2 °
pA
° M ' xB 2 °
°¯H zBc °¿ °¯ N ' zBc °¿
where, [ f pA ] and [ f pB ] are the flexural stiffness matrices of the nonlinear bending springs. Therefore,
the force-displacement relationship of nonlinear bending springs is,
23
I yAc ½ M ' yAc ½
°I ° °M ' °
° xA1 ° ° xA1 °
°I xA2 ° ° M ' xA2 °
°
°H zAc °
°
> @
ª f pA
°
0 º ° N ' zAc °
°
®
°I yBc °
¾ « 0
¬ > @ ® ¾
f pB »¼ ° M ' yBc °
(2-3-7)
°I xB1 ° ° M ' xB1 °

° ° ° °
°I xB 2 ° °M ' xB 2 °
°H ° ° N' °
¯ zBc ¿ ¯ zBc ¿
Rearrange the order of the components of the displacement vector and change the node axial displacements
into the relative axial displacement,
I yAc ½ I yAc ½
I yAc ½ ª1 º°
°I ° « » ° IxA1 °° °I °
° xA1 °
° yBc ° « 1 » °I ° °IxA2 °
°IxA1 ° « 1 » ° xA2 ° ° °
» °H zAc ° °H zAc °
°
®IxB1 ¾
° «
« 1 » ®I ¾ > @np ® ¾ (2-3-8)
°I ° « 1 » ° yBc ° °I yBc °
° xA2 ° « » °IxB1 ° °IxB1 °
°IxB 2 ° « 1 »° ° ° °
° ° « » °IxB 2 ° °IxB 2 °
¯ H zc ¿ ¬ 1 1¼ ° ° °H °
¯H zBc ¿ ¯ zBc ¿
The force-displacement relationship in Equation (2-3-7) is then expressed as,
I yAc ½ M ' yAc ½ M ' yAc ½

°I ° °M ' ° °M ' °
° yBc ° ° yBc ° ° yBc °
°I xA1 ° ° M ' xA1 ° ° M ' xA1 °
°
®I xB1 ¾
°
>n @ª«> f0 @ > @ > @
p
pA 0 º
»
f pB ¼
T °
n p ® M ' xB1 ¾
°
> @ ° °
f p ® M ' xB1 ¾ (2-3-9)
°I ° ¬ °M ' ° °M ' °
° xA2 ° ° xA2 ° ° xA2 °
°I xB 2 ° °M ' xB 2 ° °M ' xB 2 °
° ° ° N' ° ° N' °
¯ H zc ¿ ¯ zc ¿ ¯ zc ¿
Force-displacement relationship for nonlinear shear springs

ª 1 1 º
K yAc ½ « k l' kscl ' » M ' yAc ½
« sc »
® ¾ 1 » ®¯M ' yBc ¾¿
in wall panel (2-3-10)
¯K yBc ¿ « 1
«¬ k scl ' kscl ' »¼
ª 1 1 º
K xA1 ½ « k l' k s1l ' » M 'xA1 ½
« s1 »
® ¾ 1 » ®¯M 'xB1 ¾¿
¯K xB1 ¿ « 1
«¬ k s1l ' k s1l ' »¼
24
ª 1 1 º
K xA2 ½ « k l' k s 2l ' » M ' xA2 ½
« s2 »
® ¾ 1 » ®¯M ' xB 2 ¾¿
¯K xB 2 ¿ « 1
«¬ k s 2l ' k s 2l ' »¼
where, k sc , k s1 and k s 2 are the shear stiffness of the nonlinear shear springs.
The displacement vector of the column element is obtained as the sum of the displacement vectors of
elastic element, nonlinear shear springs and nonlinear bending springs,
T ' yAc ½ W ' yAc ½ I yAc ½ K yAc ½ M ' yAc ½

°T ' ° °W ' ° °I ° °K ° °M ' °
° yBc ° ° yBc ° ° yBc ° ° yBc ° ° yBc °
°T ' xA1 ° °W ' xA1 ° °I xA1 ° °K xA1 ° ° M ' xA1 °
° ° ° ° ° °
®T ' xB1 ¾ ®W ' xB1 ¾ ®I xB1 ¾
°
®K xB1 ¾
°
> fW @°® M 'xB1 °¾ (2-3-13)
°T ' ° °W ' ° °I ° °K ° °M ' °
° xA2 ° ° xA2 ° ° xA2 ° ° xA2 ° ° xA2 °
°T ' xB 2 ° °W ' xB 2 ° °I xB 2 ° °K xB 2 ° °M ' xB 2 °
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
¯ G ' zc ¿ ¯G ' ' zc ¿elastic element ¯ H zc ¿bending spring ¯ 0 ¿shear spring ¯ N ' zc ¿
The flexural matrix [ f W ] is;
ª l' l' º
« 3EI »
6 EI c
« c
»
« l' »
« 3EI c »
« l' l' »
« »
« 3EI 1 6 EI 1 »
« l' »
> fW @ « »
« 3EI 1 »
« l'

l' »
« 3EI 2 6 EI 2 »
« l' »
« sym. »
« 3EI 2 »
« l' »
« »
¬ EAc ¼ elestic element
ª f p11 " f p17 º

« »
« # # »
« f p 71 " f p 77 »¼
¬ bending spring
25
ª 1 1 º
« k l' k scl ' »
« sc »
« 1 »
« k scl ' »
« 1 1 »
« »
« k s1l ' k s1l ' »
« 1 » (2-3-14)
« k s1l ' »
« »
« 1 1 »
« k s 2l ' k s 2l ' »
« 1 »
« sym. »
« k s 2l ' »
«¬ 0»¼ shear spring
By taking the inverse matrix of [ fW ] , the constitutive equation of the column element is obtained as,
M ' yAc ½ T ' yAc ½ T ' yAc ½

°M ' ° °T ' ° °T ' °
° yBc ° ° yBc ° ° yBc °
° M ' xA1 ° °T ' xA1 ° °T ' xA1 °
° ° 1 °
® M ' xB1 ¾ > fW @ ®T ' xB1 °¾ >kW @°®T ' xB1 °¾ (2-3-15)
°M ' ° °T ' ° °T ' °
° xA 2 ° ° xA2 ° ° xA2 °
°M ' xB 2 ° °T ' xB 2 ° °T ' xB 2 °
° ° ° ° ° °
¯ N ' zc ¿ ¯ G ' zc ¿ ¯ G ' zc ¿

Change relative axial displacement and torsion displacement into node displacement,
T ' yAc ½ T ' yAc ½

T ' yAc ½ ª1 º° ° °T ' °
°T ' ° « 1 » °T ' yBc ° ° yBc °
° yBc ° « » °T ' ° °T ' xA1 °
°T ' xA1 ° « 1 » ° xA1 ° ° °
° ° « » °T ' xB1 ° °T ' xB1 °
®T ' xB1 ¾ « 1 » ®T ' ¾ >nW @® ¾ (2-3-16)
°T ' ° « 1 » ° xA 2 ° °T ' xA 2 °
° xA2 ° « » °T ' xB 2 ° °T ' xB 2 °
°T ' xB 2 ° « 1 »° ° ° °
° ° « °G ' ° °G ' zAc °
¯ G ' zc ¿ ¬ 1 1»¼ ° zAc
° °G ' °
¯G ' zBc ¿ ¯ zBc ¿
Including rigid parts and node movement,
26
u xAc ½ u xAc ½
°u ° °u °
ª 1 1 º ° xBc ° ° xBc °
« l ' 1 OA OB » °T yAc ° °T yAc °
l'
« 1 »° ° ° °
T ' yAc ½ «
1
OA 1 OB » °T yBc ° °T yBc °
°T ' ° « l' l' » ° u yA1 ° ° u yA1 °
° yBc ° « 1 1 »° ° ° °
°T ' xA1 ° « 1 OA OB » ° u yB1 ° ° u yB1 °
° ° l' l'
°T ' xB1 ° « » °°T °° °T °
>/ W @°® xA1 °¾
1 1
® ¾ « OA 1 OB » ® xA1 ¾
°T ' xA 2 ° « l' l' » °T xB1 ° °T xB1 °
°T ' xB 2 ° « 1

1
1 OA OB » °u ° °u yA2 °
° ° « l' l' » ° yA2 ° ° °
°G ' zAc ° « 1 1 » °u yB 2 ° °u yB 2 °
°G ' ° « OA 1 OB »° ° °T °
¯ zBc ¿ « l' l' » T xA2 ° xA2 °
« 1 » °T °
° xB 2 ° °T xB 2 °
«
¬ 1»¼ °G ° °G °
° zAc ° ° zAc °
°¯G zBc °¿ °¯G zBc °¿
(2-3-17)
Transformation from the center displacements to the node displacements is,
T yc
G z 2 G z1
T yc
G z1 G zc G z2 w
G z1 G z 2
G zc
2
w
Figure 2-3-3 Relationship between center and node displacements
ª1 º
u xAc ½ « » u xA1 ½ u xA1 ½
°u ° «
1
» ° G zA1 ° °G °
° xBc ° « 1 1 »° ° ° zA1 °
°T yAc ° « w w G
» zA2 °
° °G zA 2 °
° ° « »°u ° ° °
°T yBc °
1 1
« » ° xB1 ° ° u xB1 °
° u yA1 ° « w w » °G zB1 ° °G zB1 °
° ° « 1 » °G ° ° °
°u yB1 ° « 1 » ° zB 2 ° °G zB 2 °
°°T °° « » °° u yA1 °° °u °
®
xA1
¾ « 1 »® ¾ >DW @°® yA1 °¾
T
° xB1 ° « » ° u yB1 ° °u yB1 °
1
°u yA2 ° « » °T xA1 ° °T xA1 °
° ° « 1 »° ° ° °
°u yB 2 ° « » °T xB1 ° °T xB1 °
1
°T ° « » °u ° °u °
° xA2 ° « 1 » ° yA2 ° ° yA2 °
°T xB 2 ° « » °u ° °u yB 2 °
°G ° « 1» ° yB 2 ° °T °
T
° zAc ° « 0.5 0.5 » ° xA2 ° ° xA2 °
¯°G zBc ¿° « » ¯°T xB 2 ¿° ¯°T xB 2 ¿°
¬ 0.5 0.5 ¼ (2-3-18)
27
Transformation from the global node displacements to the element node displacements is;
u xA1 ½
°G °
° zA1 °
°G zA2 °
° °
° u xB1 °
°G zB1 °
° °
°G zB 2 ° u1 ½
°° u °° °u °
®
yA1
¾ >TixW @°® 2 °¾ (2-3-19)
u
° yB1 ° °#°
°T xA1 ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°T xB1 °
°u °
° yA2 °
°u yB 2 °
°T °
° xA2 °
°¯T xB 2 °¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TixW ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).

T ' yAc ½
°T ' °
° yBc ° u1 ½ u1 ½
°T ' xA1 ° °u ° °u °
° °
®T ' xB1 ¾ >nW @>/ W @>DW @>TixW @°® 2 °¾ >TxW @°® 2 °¾ (2-3-20)
°T ' ° °#° °#°
° xA2 ° °¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
°T ' xB 2 °
° °
¯ G ' zc ¿
In case of Y-direction wall
z Z
y X
x Y
Local coordinate of Y-wall Global coordinate
28
In case of Y-direction wall, the wall panel direction coincides to the Y-axis in the global coordinate,
transformation of the sign of the vector components of the element coordinate is,
x½ ª 0 1 0º X ½
° ° « 1 0 0» ° Y °
® y¾ « »® ¾ (2-3-21)
°z° «¬ 0 0 1»¼ °¯ Z °¿ Global
¯ ¿Y Wall
Therefore
u xA1 ½ ª1 º u yA1 ½ u yA1 ½
°G ° « 1 » °G ° °G °
° zA1 ° « » ° zA1 ° ° zA1 °
°G zA2 ° « 1 » °G zA2 ° °G zA2 °
° ° « »° ° ° °
° u xB1 ° « 1 » °u yB1 ° °u yB1 °
°G zB1 ° « 1 » °G zB1 ° °G zB1 °
° ° « »° ° ° °
°G zB 2 ° « 1 » °G zB 2 ° °G zB 2 °
°° u °° « 1 » °° u xA1 °° °u °
®
yA1
¾ « »® ¾ >H W @°® xA1 °¾
°u yB1 ° « 1 » °u xB1 ° ° u xB1 °
°T xA1 ° « 1 » °T ° °T yA1 °
° ° « » ° yA1 ° ° °
°T xB1 ° « 1 » °T yB1 ° °T yB1 °
°u ° « » °u ° °u xA2 °
« 1 » ° xA2 °
° yA2 ° ° °
°u yB 2 ° « 1 » °u xB 2 ° °u xB 2 °
°T ° « » °T °
« 1 » °T yA2 °
° xA2 ° ° ° ° yA2 °
°¯T xB 2 °¿ Y Wall « » °T °¿ Global °¯T yB 2 °¿ Global
¬ 1 ¼¯ yB 2
(2-3-22)
Transformation from the global node displacement to the element node displacement is;
u yA1 ½
°G °
° zA1 °
°G zA2 °
° °
°u yB1 °
°G zB1 °
° °
°G zB 2 ° u1 ½
°u ° °u °
° xA1 °
® ¾ >T @ iyW
° 2°
® ¾ (2-3-23)
° u xB1 ° °#°
°T yA1 ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°T yB1 °
°u xA2 °
° °
°u xB 2 °
°T °
° yA2 °
°¯T yB 2 °¿
29
T ' yAc ½
°T ' °
° yBc ° u1 ½ u1 ½
°T ' xA1 ° °u ° °u °
°
®T ' xB1 ¾
°
>nW @>/ W @>DW @>H W @>TixW @°® 2 °¾ >T @
yW
° 2°
® ¾ (2-3-24)
°T ' ° °#° °#°
° xA2 ° °¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
°T ' xB 2 °
° °
¯ G ' zc ¿
Finally, the constitutive equation of the wall is;
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K xW @°® 2 °¾ (2-3-25)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K xW @ >TxW @T >kW @>TxW @ (2-3-26)
For Y-wall,
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K @yW
° 2°
® ¾ (2-3-27)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K @ >T @ >k @>T @

yW yW
T
W yW (2-3-28)

The nonlinear spring displacement vector is obtained from Equations (2-3-7), (2-3-10)~(2-3-12),
30
ª º
I yAc ½
«
« >f @
pA 0 »
»
°I ° « »
° xA1 ° « » M ' yAc ½ M ' yAc ½
°I xA2 ° « »° ° °M ' °
° ° « » ° M ' xA1 ° ° xA1 °
°H zAc ° « » ° M ' xA2 ° ° M ' xA2 °
°I yBc ° « 0 >f @
pA »° ° ° °
° °
®I xB1 ¾
«
«
» ° N ' zAc °
» ® M ' yBc ¾
>f @
pW
° N ' zAc °
® ¾
°I ° « »° ° ° M ' yBc °
° xB 2 ° « 1 1 » ° M ' ° ° M ' xB1 °
°H zBc ° » M' °
° ° °
xB1
«
° ° « k sc l ' k sc l ' » ° xB 2 ° °M ' xB 2 °
° K yc ° « 1 1 » °¯ N ' zBc °¿ ° N' °
° K x1 ° ¯ zBc ¿
« k s1l ' k s1l ' »
° ° « »
¯K x 2 ¿ « 1 1 »
«¬ k s 2l ' k s 2l ' »¼
(2-3-29)
Furthermore, in the same way as Equation (2-3-8),
M ' yAc ½
°M ' ° M ' yAc ½
° xA1 ° °M ' °
° M ' xA2 ° ° yBc °
° ° ° M ' xA1 °
° N ' zAc °
® ¾ > @ T °
n p ® M ' xB1 ¾
°
(2-3-30)
° M ' yBc ° °M ' °
° M ' xB1 ° ° xA2 °
° ° °M ' xB 2 °
°M ' xB 2 ° ° N' °
° N' ° ¯ zc ¿
¯ zBc ¿
Therefore, the nonlinear spring displacement vector is obtained from the element face displacement as,
I yAc ½
°I °
° xA1 °
°I xA2 ° M ' yAc ½ T ' yAc ½ T ' yAc ½
° ° °M ' ° °T ' ° °T ' °
°H zAc ° ° yBc ° ° yBc ° ° yBc °
°I yBc ° ° M ' xA1 ° °T ' xA1 ° °T ' xA1 °
° °
®I xB1 ¾ > f @> @
pW
T °
n p ® M ' xB1 ¾
°
> f @> @
pW
°
n p >kW @®T ' xB1 ¾
T °
>T @
pW
°
®T ' xB1 ¾
°
(2-3-31)
°I ° °M ' ° °T ' ° °T ' °
° xB 2 ° ° xA2 ° ° xA2 ° ° xA2 °
°H zBc ° °M ' xB 2 ° °T ' xB 2 ° °T ' xB 2 °
° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
° K yc ° ¯ N ' zc ¿ ¯ G ' zc ¿ ¯ G ' zc ¿
° K x1 °
° °
¯K x 2 ¿
31
In case of direct input wall
Direct input wall model is defined as a line element with a nonlinear shear spring and a nonlinear bending
spring in the middle of the element as shown in Figure 2-3-1.
M ' yBc
kn Z
ks h X
kb
Y
M ' yAc
This model can be used as an alternative model so called the lumped mass model representing the restoring
force characteristics of each layer in the analysis of high-rise building as shown below. The detail of the
model is described in Chapter 7.1
32
STERA_3D adopts the formulation to have nonlinear shear and bending springs at the middle of the
element.
G sx
B u xBc
Z
T yBc ks
h I yb T yAc X
u xAc kb Y
A
Force-displacement relationship
The relationship between the displacement and force of the springs is,
Q xs ½ ªks 0 0 º G xs ½ G xs ½
° ° «0 » °I ° ° °
® M yb ¾ « kb 0 » ® yb ¾ > kW @ ®I yb ¾ (2-3-32)
°N ° k n ¼» °¯ H zn °¿ °H °
¯ zn ¿ ¬« 0 0 ¯ zn ¿
where, k s : the stiffness of the nonlinear shear spring

kb : the stiffness of the nonlinear bending spring
kn : the stiffness of the linear axial spring
Including node movement

The relationship between the shear spring displacement and nodal displacement is,
G xs u xBc u xAc hT yBc

I yb T yBc T yAc (2-3-33)
H zn G zBc G zAc
In a matrix form
u xAc ½ u xAc ½
°u ° °u °
G xs ½ ª 1 1 0 h 0 0 º ° xBc ° ° xBc °
° ° «0 °°T °° °°T yAc °°
®I yb ¾ « 0 1 1 0 0 »» ® yAc ¾ > / W @ ®T ¾ (2-3-34)
°H ° T
¯ zn ¿ ¬« 0 0 0 0 1 1 ¼» ° yBc ° ° yBc °
° G zAc ° ° G zAc °
° ° ° °
°¯ G zBc °¿ °¯ G zBc °¿
33
Transformation from the center displacements to the node displacements is,
T yc
G z 2 G z1
T yc
G z1 G zc G z2 w
G z1 G z 2
G zc
2
w
Figure 2-3-3 Relationship between center and node displacements
ª1 º
uxAc ½ « 1 » u xA1 ½ u xA1 ½
° ° « »° ° °G °
°uxBc ° « 1 1 » ° G zA1 ° ° zA1 °
°°T yAc °° « » °°G °° °G °
® ¾ « w w » ® zA2 ¾ > DW @ ®° uzA2 ¾° (2-3-35)
°T yBc ° «
1 1 » ° u xB1 ° ° xB1 °
°G zAc ° « w w » °G zB1 ° °G zB1 °
° ° « »° ° ° °
°¯G zBc °¿ « 0.5 0.5 » °¯G zB 2 °¿ °¯G zB 2 °¿
«¬ 0.5 0.5»¼
Transformation from the global node displacements to the element node displacements is;
u xA1 ½
°G °
° zA1 ° u1 ½
°°G zA2 °° ° °
°u 2 °
® ¾ >TixW @ ® # ¾ (2-3-36)
° u xB1 ° ° °
°G zB1 ° °¯un °¿
° °
°¯G zB 2 °¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TixW ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).

Transformation from the global node displacement to the spring displacement is,
u1 ½ u1 ½
G xs ½ ° ° °u °
° ° °u 2 °
®I yb ¾ > /W @> DW @>TixW @ ® # ¾ >TxW @ °® #2 °¾ (2-3-37)
°H ° ° ° ° °
¯ zn ¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿
34
z Z
y X
x Y
x½ ª 0 1 0º X ½
° ° « 1 0 0» ° Y °
® y¾ « »® ¾ (2-3-38)
°z° «¬ 0 0 1»¼ °¯ Z °¿ Global
¯ ¿Y Wall
Therefore
u xA1 ½ ª1 º u yA1 ½ u yA1 ½

°G ° « 1 » °G ° °G °
° zA1 ° « » ° zA1 ° ° zA1 °
°°G zA 2 °° « » °°G zA 2 °° °G °
>HW @ °®uzA2 °¾
1 (2-3-39)
® ¾ « »® ¾
° u xB1 ° « 1 » °u yB1 ° ° yB1 °
°G zB1 ° « 1 » °G zB1 ° °G zB1 °
° ° « »° ° ° °
¯°G zB 2 ¿°Y Wall ¬ 1¼ ¯°G zB 2 ¿°Global ¯°G zB 2 ¿°Global
u yA1 ½
°G °
° zA1 ° u1 ½
° °
°°G zA 2 °° °u 2 °
® ª º
¾ ¬ iyW ¼ ® ¾
T (2-3-40)
°u yB1 ° °#°
°G zB1 ° °¯un °¿
° °
¯°G zB 2 ¿°
u1 ½ u1 ½ u1 ½
G ys ½ ° ° ° ° ° °
° ° °u 2 ° °u 2 ° °u 2 °
®Ixb ¾ > /W @> DW @>HW @>TixW @ ® # ¾ > /W @> DW @>TixW @ ® # ¾ ¬ªTyW ¼º ® # ¾ (2-3-41)
°H ° ° ° ° ° ° °
¯ zn ¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿
35
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K xW @°® 2 °¾ (2-3-42)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K xW @ >TxW @T >kW @>TxW @ (2-3-43)
For Y-wall,
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K @yW
° 2°
® ¾ (2-3-44)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K @ >T @ >k @>T @

yW yW
T
W yW (2-3-45)
36
2.4 Brace
Element model for Brace is defined as a truss element with a nonlinear axial spring and pin-supported at
both ends as shown in Figure 2-6-1.
3 B 4
N', G '
Z
h
1 2 X
A
w Y
Figure 2-4-1 Element model for brace
~ ~ ~ ~
f x4 , u x4 f x3 , u x3
4 3
N1 , G 1
x N2, G2
y x
~ ~ y ~ ~
f x1 , u x1 f x2 , u x2
1 2
(Brace 1) (Brace 2)
Figure 2-4-2 Local coordinate
The relationship between axial deformation and axial force of the truss element is,
N1 k1G 1 (2-4-1)
N2 k 2G 2 (2-4-2)
Replacing with the nodal force and displacement in local coordinate along the element,
~ ~
N1 f 1x f 4 x , G 1 u~4 x u~1x (2-4-3)
~ ~
N2 f 2x f 3x , G1 u~3 x u~2 x (2-4-4)
37
In a matrix form,
u~1x ½
°u~ °
° 1y °
u~1x ½ °u~2 x °
° ° °~ °
G 1 ½ ª 1 0 0 1º °u~2 x ° ª 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0º °u 2 y °
® ¾ « 0 1 1 0» ®u~ ¾ « 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0» ®u~ ¾ >nb @û~` (2-4-5)
¯G 2 ¿ ¬ ¼° 3x ° ¬ ¼° 3x °
°¯u~4 x °¿ °u~3 y °
°~ °
°u 4 x °
°u~4 y °
¯ ¿
~
f x1 ½ ª 1 0 º
°~ ° «0
° f z1 ° « 0 »»
~f 1x ½ ª 1 0 º °~f ° « 0 1»
°~ ° « 0 1» N ° ~x 2 ° « »
° f 2x °
®~ ¾ «
«0
» ® 1 ½¾ o ~
1 »¯N 2 ¿
f ^` ° f z2 °
®~ ¾
«0
«0
0 » N1 ½
® ¾
1 »¯N 2 ¿
>nb @T ®
N1 ½
¾ (2-4-6)
° f 3x ° ° f x3 ° ¯N 2 ¿
« » « »
°~ ° ¬1 0¼ °~f ° «0 0»
¯ f 4x ¿ ° ~z 3 ° «1 0»
° f x4 ° « »
°~ ° «¬ 0 0 »¼
¯ f z4 ¿
From Figure 2-4-3, the relation between the nodal forces in local coordinate and those of global coordinate
is,
~
f x1 f x1 cos T f z1 sin T
~ for Brace 1 (2-4-7)
f y1 f x1 sin T f z1 cos T
and
~
f x2 f x 2 cos T f z 2 sin T
~ for Brace 2 (2-4-8)
f y2 f x 2 sin T f z 2 cos T
Eq. (2-4-8) can be also obtained from the Eq. (2-4-7) by replacing T by S T and using the
formulas sin S T sin T , cosS T cos T .
38
f z4 ~ ~ f z3
f x4 f x3
4 3
f x4 f x3
h
l w2 h 2
f z1 ~ f z2
~ f 2x
f x1
1 2
f x2
f x1
f z1 f z2
f z1 cos T f z1 sin T
T f x1 cos T f z 2 sin T T
f z 2 cos T
f x 2 cos T
T f x1 T
f x2
f x1 sin T f x 2 sin T
(Brace 1) (Brace 2)
Figure 2-4-3 Coordinate transformation
In a matrix form,
~
f x1 ½ ªc s º f x1 ½ f x1 ½
°~ ° « s c »° f ° °f °
° f z1 ° « » ° z1 ° ° z1 °
°~f ° « c s »° f x2 ° ° f x2 °
° ~x 2 ° « »° ° ° °
° f z2 ° s c »° f z 2 ° >Cb @°® z 2 °¾
« f
®~ ¾ « » ® f x3 ¾
(2-4-9)
° f x3 ° c s ° f x3 °
« »° °
°~f ° « s c »° f z3 ° ° f z3 °
° ~z 3 ° « ° ° ° °
° f x4 ° c s»° f x4 ° ° f x4 °
« »
°~ ° s c ¼» °¯ f z 4 °¿Global °f °
¯ f z 4 ¿ Local ¬« ¯ z4 ¿
where
w h
c cos T , s sin T
l l
Since >C b @>C b @

T
I, >Cb @ is an orthogonal matrix, therefore,
>Cb @1 >Cb @T (2-4-10)
39
In a similar manner, from Figure 2-4-4, the relation between the nodal displacements in local coordinate
and those of global coordinate can be obtained as,
u x1 u~x1 cos T u~z1 sin T
for Brace 1 (2-4-11)
u z1 u~ sin T u~ cos T
x1 z1
and
u x2 u~x 2 cos T u~z 2 sin T
for Brace 2 (2-4-12)
uz2 u~ sin T u~ cos T
x2 z2
Eq. (2-4-12) can be also obtained from the Eq. (2-4-11) by replacing T by S T and using the
formulas sin S T sin T , cosS T cos T .
u z4 u z3
u~4 u~3
4 3
u x4 u x3
h
l w2 h 2
u~2 uz2
u z1 u~1
1 u x2
u x1 2
w
uz2 u~x 2 sin T u~z 2 cos T
u~x 2
u z1 u~x1 sin T u~z1 cos T
u x2 u~x 2 cos T u~z 2 sin T T

u~x1
u~z1
T u~z 2
u x1 u~x1 cos T u~z1 sin T
Figure 2-4-4 Coordinate transformation
In a matrix form,
u x1 ½ ªc s º u~x1 ½ u~x1 ½
°u ° «s c » ° u~ ° ° u~ °
° z1 ° « » ° z1 ° ° z1 °
°u x 2 ° « c s » °u~x 2 ° °u~x 2 °
° ° « »°~ ° °~ °
°u z 2 ° « s c » °u z 2 ° T °u z 2 °
® ¾ « » ®u~x 3 ¾
>Cb @ ® ~ ¾
°u x 3 ° c s °u x 3 °
« »°~ °
°u z 3 ° « s c » °u z 3 ° °u~z 3 °
° ° « ° ° °~ °
°u x 4 ° c s » °u~x 4 ° °u x 4 °
« »
°u ° «¬ s c »¼ °¯u~z 4 °¿ Global °u~ °
¯ z 4 ¿ Local ¯ z4 ¿
40
The stiffness matrix of brace element is,
N1 ½
® ¾
ª k1
«0
0 º G 1 ½
® ¾
k 2 »¼ ¯G 2 ¿
or ^N ` >k~@^G ` (2-4-13)
¯N 2 ¿ ¬
Where
^G ` >nb @û~` >nb @> Cb @T û` >nb @>Cb @û`

1
(2-4-14)
^ f ` >Cb @1 ^~f ` >Cb @T >nb @T ^N ` (2-4-15)

u1 ½
°u °
û` >TixBr @°® 2 °¾ (2-4-18)
°#°
°¯u n °¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TixBr ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).

u1 ½ u1 ½
°u ° °u °
^G ` >nb @>Cb @û` >nb @>Cb @>TixBr @°® 2 °¾ >TxBr @°® 2 °¾ (2-4-19)
°#° °#°
°¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
Finally, the constitutive equation of the brace is;
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K xBr @°® 2 °¾ (2-4-20)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K xBr @ >TxBr @T >k Br @>TxBr @ (2-4-21)
41
In case of Y-direction brace
z Z
y X
x Y
In case of Y-direction brace, transformation of the sign of the vector components of the element coordinate
is,
x½ ª 0 1 0º X ½
° ° « 1 0 0» ° Y °
® y¾ « »® ¾ (2-4-20)
°z° «¬ 0 0 1»¼ °¯ Z °¿ Global
¯ ¿Y Beam
Therefore
u x1 ½ ª1 º u y1 ½ u y1 ½
°u ° « 1 »°u ° °u °
° z1 ° « » ° z1 ° ° z1 °
°u x 2 ° « 1 » °u y 2 ° °u y 2 °
° ° « »° ° ° °
°u z 2 ° « 1 » °u z 2 ° °u z 2 °
® ¾ « » ®u y 3 ¾ ® ¾ (2-4-21)
°u x 3 ° «
1
»° ° °u y 3 °
°u z 3 ° « 1 » °u z 3 ° °u z 3 °
° ° ° ° ° °
°u x 4 °
« 1 » °u y 4 ° °u y 4 °
« »
°u ° «¬ 1»¼ °¯u z 4 °¿ Global °u °
¯ z 4 ¿Y Brace ¯ z 4 ¿ Global
u1 ½
°u °
û` >T @
iyBr
° 2°
® ¾ (2-4-22)
°#°
°¯u n °¿
u1 ½
°u °
^G ` >T @
yBr
° 2°
® ¾, >T @ >n @>C @>T @
yBr b b iyBr (2-4-23)
°#°
°¯u n °¿
42
The constitutive equation of the Y-direction brace is;
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K @
yBr
° 2°
® ¾ (2-4-21)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K @ >T @ >k @>T @

yBr yBr
T
Br yBr (2-4-22)
43
In case of K-brace (or Cheveron brace)
3 6 4
1 5 2
3 6 6 4
l'
2
§ w·
¨ ¸ h
2
l'
©2¹
1 5 5 2
For the left half part, as we defined before for the ordinary brace, the stiffness equation of brace element is,
^ f `L >k @L û`L >k @L >Cb @T >nb @T >k~ @L >nb @>Cb @ (2-4-15)
where
^ f `L ^ f x1 f z1 f x5 f z5 f x3 f z3 f x6 f z6 `
T
û`L û x1 u z1 u x 5 u z5 u x3 uz3 u x6 uz6 `

T
>k~@
L
ªk1, L
« 0
0 º
k 2,L »¼
, >nb @ ª 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0º
« 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0»
¬ ¬ ¼
ªc s º
« s c »
« »
« c s »
« »
>Cb @ « s c », c cosT
w / 2 , s sin T
h
« c s » l' l'
« »
« s c »
« c s»
« »
¬« s c »¼
44
For the right half part, in the same way, the stiffness equation of brace element is,
^ f `R >k @R û`R >k @R >Cb @T >nb @T >k~ @R >nb @>Cb @ (2-4-15)
where
^ f `R ^ f x 5 f z5 f x2 f z2 f x6 f z6 f x4 f z4`
T
û`R û x5 uz5 ux2 uz2 u x6 uz6 ux4 uz4`

T
We can express the nodal displacement vector as,
u x1 ½ u x1 ½
°u ° °u °
° z1 ° ° z1 °
u x1 ½ °u x 2 ° °u x 2 °
°u ° ° ° ° °
° z1 ° °u z 2 ° °u z 2 °
°u x 5 ° ª[1] º °u x 3 ° °u x 3 °
° ° « » °u ° ° °
°u z 5 ° » °® z 3 °¾ >DL @°® z 3 °¾
[1] u
û`L ® ¾ «
°u x 3 ° « [1] » °u x 4 ° °u x 4 °
°u z 3 ° « »
¬ [1]¼ °u z 4 ° °u z 4 °
° ° ° ° ° °
°u x 6 ° °u x 5 ° °u x 5 °
°u ° °u ° °u °
¯ z6 ¿ ° z5 ° ° z5 °
°u x 6 ° °u x 6 °
°u ° °u °
¯ z6 ¿ ¯ z6 ¿
u x1 ½ u x1 ½
°u ° °u °
° z1 ° ° z1 °
u x 5 ½ °u x 2 ° °u x 2 °
°u ° ° ° ° °
° z5 ° °u z 2 ° °u z 2 °
°u x 2 ° ª [1] º °u x 3 ° °u x 3 °
° ° « » °u ° ° °
°u z 2 ° » °® z 3 °¾ >DR @°® z 3 °¾
[1] u
û`R ® ¾ «
°u x 6 ° « [1]» °u x 4 ° °u x 4 °
°u z 6 ° « »° ° °u z 4 °
¬ [1] ¼ uz4
° ° ° ° ° °
°u x 4 ° °u x 5 ° °u x 5 °
°u ° °u ° °u °
¯ z4 ¿ ° z5 ° ° z5 °
°u x 6 ° °u x 6 °
°u ° °u °
¯ z6 ¿ ¯ z6 ¿
45
We assume the displacements of intermediate nodes, 5 and 6, are calculated from those of end nodes as
follows,
u z 2, 4
u z 5, 6
u x5
1
u x1 u x 2 , u z 5 1
u z1 u z 2 u z1,3 u x 2, 4
2 2 2,4
u x 5, 6
u x6
1
u x3 u x 4 , u z 6 1
u z 3 u z 4 u x1,3
5,6
2 2
1,3
In a matrix form
u x1 ½ u x1 ½
°u ° °u °
° z1 ° ° z1 °
u x 5 ½ ª1 / 2 0 1 / 2 0 0 0 0 0 º °u x 2 ° °u x 2 °
°u ° « 0 1/ 2 0 1/ 2 0 ° ° ° °
° z5 ° 0 »» °u z 2 °
>hCh @°® z 2 °¾
« 0 0 u
® ¾ ® ¾
°u x 6 ° « 0 0 0 0 1 / 2 0 1 / 2 0 » °u x 3 ° °u x 3 °
°¯u z 6 °¿ « »
¬ 0 0 0 0 0 1 / 2 0 1 / 2¼ °u z 3 ° °u z 3 °
Local
° ° ° °
°u x 4 ° °u x 4 °
°u ° °u °
¯ z 4 ¿ Local ¯ z 4 ¿ Local
Therefore,
u x1 ½
°u °
° z1 °
°u x 2 ° u x1 ½ u x1 ½
° ° °u ° °u °
°u z 2 ° ° z1 ° ° z1 °
°u x 3 ° °u x 2 ° °u x 2 °
° ° ° ° ° °
ª >I @ º °u z 2 °
°u z 3 °
>TCh @°® z 2 °¾
u
® ¾ «>h @» ®u ¾
°u x 4 ° ¬ Ch ¼ ° x 3 ° °u x 3 °
°u z 4 ° °u z 3 ° °u z 3 °
° ° ° ° ° °
°u x 5 ° °u x 4 ° °u x 4 °
°u ° °u ° °u °
° z5 ° ¯ z 4 ¿ Local ¯ z 4 ¿ Local
°u x 6 °
°u °
¯ z6 ¿
46
Therefore,
u x1 ½ u x1 ½
°u ° °u °
° z1 ° ° z1 °
u x1 ½ °u x 2 ° u x1 ½ u x 5 ½ °u x 2 ° u x1 ½
°u ° ° ° °u ° °u ° ° ° °u °
° z1 ° °u z 2 ° ° z1 ° ° z5 ° °u z 2 ° ° z1 °
°u x 5 ° °u x 3 ° °u x 2 ° °u x 2 ° °u x 3 ° °u x 2 °
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
°u z 5 ° °u z 2 °
>DL @°® z 3 °¾ >DL @>TCh @°® z 2 °¾ , >DR @°® z 3 °¾ >DR @>TCh @°® z 2 °¾
u u u u
û`L ® ¾ û`R ® ¾
°u x 3 ° °u x 4 ° °u x 3 ° °u x 6 ° °u x 4 ° °u x 3 °
°u z 3 ° °u z 4 ° °u z 3 ° °u z 6 ° °u z 4 ° °u z 3 °
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
°u x 6 ° °u x 5 ° °u x 4 ° °u x 4 ° °u x 5 ° °u x 4 °
°u ° °u ° °u ° °u ° °u ° °u °
¯ z6 ¿ ° z5 ° ¯ z 4 ¿ Local ¯ z4 ¿ ° z5 ° ¯ z 4 ¿ Local
°u x 6 ° °u x 6 °
°u ° °u °
¯ z6 ¿ ¯ z6 ¿
Finally the force-displacement relationship of Cheveron brace is,
>k @L >Cb @T >nb @T >k~ @L >nb @>Cb @
f x1 ½ u x1 ½
°f ° °u °
° z1 ° ° z1 °
° f x2 ° °u x 2 °
° ° ° °
° f z2 °
® ¾ T T T T

>TCh @ >DL @ >k @L >DL @>TCh @ >TCh @ >DR @ >k @R >DR @>TCh @ °® z 2 °¾
u
° f x3 ° °u x 3 °
° f z3 ° °u z 3 °
° ° ° °
° f x4 ° °u x 4 °
°f ° °u °
¯ z 4 ¿ Local ¯ z4 ¿
47
2.5 External Spring
G zB
G yA Z
B
A B A
G xA G xB X
B
Y
G yB A
G zA
Figure 2-5-1 Element model for external spring
Force-displacement relationship for the element

The relationship between the displacement vector and force vector of the elastic element in Figure 2-5-1 is
expressed as follows:
^N 'i ` >k E @^G 'i `, i x, y , z (2-5-1)
G ' x u xB u xA
G ' y u yB u yA (2-5-2)
G ' z G zB G zA
Therefore
u xA ½ u xA ½
°u ° °u °
° xB ° ° xB °
°u ° °u °
^G ' x ` > 1 1 0 0 0 0@°® yA °¾ >n xE @°® yA °¾ (2-5-3)
°u yB ° °u yB °
°G zA ° °G zA °
° ° ° °
°¯G zB °¿ °¯G zB °¿
u xA ½ u xA ½
°u ° °u °
° xB ° ° xB °
°u ° °°u yA °°
^G ' `
y >0 0 1 1 0 0@°® yA °¾ >n @
yE ® ¾ (2-5-4)
°u yB ° °u yB °
°G zA ° °G zA °
° ° ° °
°¯G zB °¿ °¯G zB °¿
48
u xA ½ u xA ½
°u ° °u °
° xB ° ° xB °
°u ° °u °
^G ' z ` >0 0 0 0 1 1@°® yA °¾ >n zE @°® yA °¾ (2-5-5)
°u yB ° °u yB °
°G zA ° °G zA °
° ° ° °
°¯G zB °¿ °¯G zB °¿
u xA ½
°u °
° xB ° u1 ½
°°u yA °° °u °
® ¾ >TiE @°® 2 °¾ (2-5-6)
°u yB ° °#°
°G zA ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°¯G zB °¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TiE ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).

u1 ½ u1 ½
°u ° °u °
^G 'i ` >niE @>TiE @°® 2 °¾ >TE @°® 2 °¾, i x, y , z (2-5-7)
°#° °#°
°¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
The constitutive equation of the external spring is;
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K E @°® 2 °¾ (2-5-3)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K E @ >TE @T >k E @>TE @ (2-5-4)
49
2.6 Base Isolation
G zB
B Z
u xB
u yB
l X
A u xB
Y
u yA
G zA
Figure 2-6-1 Element model for base isolation

The relationship between the displacement vector and force vector of the element is expressed as follows:
Q' x ½
® ¾ >k @®GG '' ½¾
pBI
x
(2-6-1)
¯Q' y ¿ ¯ y ¿
Including the axial stiffness,
Q 'x ½
° °
>
ª k pBI @ 0 º G 'x ½ G 'x ½
®Q ' y ¾ « EA » °® G ' y °¾ >k BI @°® G ' y °¾ (2-6-2)
°G ' ° « 0 »°
¯ z¿ ¬ l' ¼ ¯ G ' z °¿ °G ' °
¯ z¿
From node displacements, relative displacements are;
G ' x u xB u xA
G ' y u yB u yA (2-6-3)
G ' z G zB G zA
Therefore
u xA ½ u xA ½
°u ° °u °
G ' x ½ ª 1 1 º° °
xB ° xB °
° ° » ° yA °°
° °u °
« >n BI @°® yA °¾
u
®G ' y ¾ « 1 1 » ®u ¾ (2-6-4)
°G ' ° «¬ 1 1»¼ ° yB ° °u yB °
¯ z¿ °G zA ° °G zA °
° ° ° °
°¯G zB °¿ °¯G zB °¿
50
u xA ½
°u °
° xB ° u1 ½
°°u yA °° °u °
® ¾ >TiBI @°® 2 °¾ (2-6-5)
°u yB ° °#°
°G zA ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°¯G zB °¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TiBI ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).

u1 ½ u1 ½
G ' x ½ °u ° °u °
° °
®G ' y ¾ >n BI @>TiBI @°® 2 °¾ >TBI @°® 2 °¾ (2-6-6)
°G ' ° °#° °#°
¯ z¿ °¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
The constitutive equation of the Base isolation is;
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K BI @°® 2 °¾ (2-6-7)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K BI @ >TBI @T >k BI @>TBI @ (2-6-8)
51
2.7 Masonry Wall
Element model for Masonry wall is defined as a line element with a nonlinear shear spring and a vertical
spring in the middle of the wall panel as shown in Figure 2-6-1.
B1 B B2
N ' z1 , H ' z1 N 'z 2 , H 'z 2

l
Q' xc , J ' xc
A1 A2
A
Figure 2-7-1 Element model for masonry wall
The relationship between the shear deformation and shear force of the nonlinear shear spring is,
Q' xc k sx J ' xc (2-7-1)
For axial spring,

N ' z1 k z H ' z 1 , N ' z 2 k zH ' z 2 (2-7-2)
In a matrix form,
Q' xc ½ ªk sx 0 0 º J ' xc ½ J ' xc ½

° °
® N ' z1 ¾
«0
« kz
°
0 »» ®H ' z1 ¾
°
>k N @°®H ' z1 °¾ (2-7-3)
°N ' ° «¬ 0 k z »¼ °¯H ' z 2 °¿ °H ' °
¯ z2 ¿ 0 ¯ z2 ¿

The shear angle of the frame with four nodes, A1, A2, B1, B2, is defined as,
wG z wu x
W (2-7-4)
wx wz
where,
wG z 1 § G zA2 G zA1 G zB 2 G zB1 ·

| ¨ ¸ (2-7-5)
wx 2© w w ¹
52
wu z 1 § u xB1 u xA1 u xB 2 u xA2 ·
| ¨ ¸ (2-7-6)
wz 2© l l ¹
The shear deformation, J ' xc , is then,
J ' xc W l
l
G zA2 G zA1 G zB 2 G zB1 1 u xB1 u xA1 u xB 2 u xA2 (2-7-7)
2w 2
The axial deformation, H ' z1 , H ' z 2 , is,
H ' z1 G zB1 G zA1 , H 'z 2 G zB 2 G zA2 (2-7-8)
In a matrix form,
u xA1 ½ u xA1 ½
°G ° °G °
° zA1 ° ° zA1 °
ª l l l l º °u xA2 ° °u xA2 °
J ' xc ½ « 0 .5 0 .5 w 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0 .5 0 .5 » °
w °G °° ° °
° ° w w G
® H ' z1 ¾
« 0
«
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 » ® zA 2 ¾
» u
>DN @°® zA2 °¾
°H ' ° « 0 1 1 » ° xB1 ° °u xB1 °
¯ z2 ¿ 0 0 0 0 0
° ° °G zB1 °
¬« ¼» °G zB1 ° ° °
°u xB 2 ° °u xB 2 °
°G ° °G °
¯ zB 2 ¿ ¯ zB 2 ¿
(2-7-9)
u xA1 ½
°G °
° zA1 °
°u xA2 ° u1 ½
° ° °u °
°G zA 2 °
® ¾ >TixN @°® 2 °¾ (2-7-10)
°u xB1 ° °#°
°G zB1 ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°u xB 2 °
°G °
¯ zB 2 ¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TixN ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).

53
u1 ½ u1 ½
J ' xc ½ °u ° °u °
° °
® H ' z1 ¾ >D N @>TixN @°® 2 °¾ >TxN @°® 2 °¾ (2-7-11)
°H ' ° °#° °#°
¯ z2 ¿ °¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
z Z
y X
x Y
x½ ª 0 1 0º X ½
° ° « 1 0 0» ° Y °
® y¾ « »® ¾ (2-7-12)
°z°
¯ ¿Y Beam «¬ 0 0 1»¼ °¯ Z °¿ Global
Therefore
u xA1 ½ ª1 º u yA1 ½ u yA1 ½

°G ° « 1 » °G ° °G °
° zA1 ° « » ° zA1 ° ° zA1 °
°u xA2 ° « 1 » °u yA2 ° °u yA2 °
° ° « »° ° ° °
°G zA 2 ° « 1 » °G zA2 ° °G zA 2 °
® ¾ « » ®u yB1 ¾ ® ¾ (2-7-13)
° u xB1 ° «
1
»° ° °u yB1 °
°G zB1 ° « 1 °
» zB1 °
G °G zB1 °
° ° « ° ° ° °
°u xB 2 ° 1 » °u yB 2 ° °u yB 2 °
« »
°G ° «¬ 1»¼ °¯G zB 2 °¿ Global °G °
¯ zB 2 ¿Y Wall ¯ zB 2 ¿ Global
54
u yA1 ½
°G °
° zA1 °
°u yA2 ° u1 ½
° ° °u °
°G zA2 °
® ¾ >T @
iyN
° 2°
® ¾ (2-7-14)
°u yB1 ° °#°
°G zB1 ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°u yB 2 °
°G °
¯ zB 2 ¿
u1 ½ u1 ½
J ' xc ½ °u ° °u °
° °
® H ' z1 ¾ >D N @>TiyN @ ° 2°
® ¾ >T @
yN
° 2°
® ¾ (2-7-15)
°H ' ° °#° °#°
¯ z2 ¿ °¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K xN @°® 2 °¾ (2-7-16)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K xN @ >TxN @T >k N @>TxN @ (2-7-17)
For Y-wall,
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K @yN
° 2°
® ¾ (2-7-18)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K @ >T @ >k @>T @

yN yN
T
N yN (2-7-19)
55
2.8 Passive Damper
Element model for passive damper with a shear spring is defined as a line element with a nonlinear shear
spring as shown in Figure 2-8-1.
B1 B B2
l
Q' xc , J ' xc
A1 A2
A
Figure 2-8-1 Element model for passive damper
The relationship between the shear deformation and shear force of the nonlinear shear spring is,
Q' xc k sx J ' xc (2-8-1)

The shear angle of the frame with four nodes, A1, A2, B1, B2, is defined as,
wG z wu x
W (2-8-2)
wx wz
where,
wG z 1 § G zA2 G zA1 G zB 2 G zB1 ·

| ¨ ¸ (2-8-3)
wx 2© w w ¹
wu z 1 § u xB1 u xA1 u xB 2 u xA2 ·

| ¨ ¸ (2-8-4)
wz 2© l l ¹
The shear deformation, J ' xc , is then,
J ' xc W l
l
G zA2 G zA1 G zB 2 G zB1 1 u xB1 u xA1 u xB 2 u xA2 (2-8-5)
2w 2
56
The axial deformation, H ' z1 , H ' z 2 , is,
H ' z1 G zB1 G zA1 , H 'z 2 G zB 2 G zA2 (2-8-6)
In a matrix form,
u xA1 ½ u xA1 ½
°G ° °G °
° zA1 ° ° zA1 °
ª l l l l º °u ° °u xA2 °
J ' xc ½ « 0.5 0.5 w 0 .5 0 .5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 » ° xA2 °
w °G zA2 ° ° °
° ° w w °G zA2 °
® H ' z1 ¾
« 0
«
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 »®
» u xB1 ¾
>DD @® ¾
°H ' ° « 0 1 1 »° ° °u xB1 °
¯ z2 ¿ 0 0 0 0 0
«¬ »¼ °G zB1 ° °G zB1 °
° ° ° °
°u xB 2 ° °u xB 2 °
°G ° °G °
¯ zB 2 ¿ ¯ zB 2 ¿
(2-8-7)
u xA1 ½
°G °
° zA1 °
°u xA2 ° u1 ½
° ° °u °
°G zA 2 °
® ¾ >TixD @°® 2 °¾ (2-8-8)
°u xB1 ° °#°
°G zB1 ° °¯un °¿
° °
°u xB 2 °
°G °
¯ zB 2 ¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TixD ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).

u1 ½ u1 ½
J ' xc ½ °u ° °u °
° °
® H ' z1 ¾ >DD @>TixD @°® 2 °¾ >TxD @°® 2 °¾ (2-8-9)
°H ' ° °#° °#°
¯ z2 ¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿
57
In case of Y-direction damper
z Z
y X
x Y
In case of Y-direction damper, the damper direction coincides to the Y-axis in the global coordinate,
x½ ª 0 1 0º X ½
° ° « 1 0 0» ° Y °
® y¾ « »® ¾ (2-8-10)
°z°
¯ ¿Y Beam «¬ 0 0 1»¼ °¯ Z °¿ Global
Therefore
u xA1 ½ ª1 º u yA1 ½ u yA1 ½

°G ° « 1 » °G ° °G °
° zA1 ° « » ° zA1 ° ° zA1 °
°u xA2 ° « 1 » °u yA2 ° °u yA2 °
° ° « »° ° ° °
°G zA 2 ° « 1 » °G zA2 ° °G zA 2 °
® ¾ « » ®u yB1 ¾ ® ¾ (2-8-11)
° u xB1 ° «
1
»° ° °u yB1 °
°G zB1 ° « 1 °
» zB1 °
G °G zB1 °
° ° « ° ° ° °
°u xB 2 ° 1 » °u yB 2 ° °u yB 2 °
« »
°G ° «¬ 1»¼ °¯G zB 2 °¿ Global °G °
¯ zB 2 ¿Y Wall ¯ zB 2 ¿ Global
u yA1 ½
°G °
° zA1 °
°u yA2 ° u1 ½
° ° °u °
°G zA 2 °
® ¾ >T @
iyD
° 2°
® ¾ (2-8-12)
°u yB1 ° °#°
°G zB1 ° °¯un °¿
° °
°u yB 2 °
°G °
¯ zB 2 ¿
58
u1 ½ u1 ½
J ' xc ½ °u ° °u °
° °
® H ' z1 ¾ >DD @>TiyD @ ° 2°
® ¾ >T @
yD
° 2°
® ¾ (2-8-13)
°H ' ° °#° °#°
¯ z2 ¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿
Finally, the constitutive equation of the damper is;
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K xD @°® 2 °¾ (2-8-14)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯un °¿
where,
>K xD @ >TxD @T >kD @>TxD @ (2-8-15)
For Y-damper,
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K @
yD
° 2°
® ¾ (2-8-16)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯un °¿
where,
>K @ >T @ >k @>T @

yD yD
T
D yD (2-8-17)
59
Appendix : Calculation of shear component
For “Masonry Wall” and “Passive Damper”, the shear deformation is defined as follows:
1) Shear deformation in one direction
Shear strain is Ĳ = ǻl / l §ș
2) Shear deformation in two directions
Shear strain is Ĳ = ș1 + ș2 = ǻlx / lｙ+ǻly / lx
wu x wu y
If we discuss small element W Æ Eq. (2-7-4) and Eq. (2-8-2)
wy wx
60
This definition is necessary to remove rotational component. To explain this, suppose there is only
rotational (or bending) deformation,
-ș
From the above definition, shear angle will be

Ĳ= ș + (- ș) = 0
For example, in the upper story of the building under horizontal deformation, the bending
component is dominant and the shear component is small. Therefore, the brace damper
doesn’t work in the upper story.
61
3) In case of damper element
We define the shear angle in one direction as follows:
ș1 ș2
We adopt the average angle,
ș = 1/2 ( ș1 + ș2 ) Æ Eq. (2-7-5) and Eq. (2-8-3)
In the same way, the shear angle in another direction is
ș'2
ș'1
ș’ = 1/2 ( ș’1 + ș’2 ) Æ Eq. (2-7-6) and Eq. (2-8-4)
62
2.9 Floor Element
In the default setting, STERA 3D adopts “rigid floor”. However, elastic deformation of a floor diaphragm
in-plane can be considered by the option menu selecting “flexible floor”. The stiffness matrix of the floor
element is constructed using a two dimensional isoparametric element.
Figure 2-9-1 4-nodes isoparametric element
The stiffness matrix with 4-nodes isoparametric is expressed as,
P1 ½ u1 ½
°Q ° °v °
° 1° ° 1°
° P2 ° °u 2 °
° ° ° °
°Q2 °
>K F @°® 2 °¾
v
® ¾
° P3 ° °u 3 °
°Q3 ° ° v3 °
° ° ° °
° P4 ° °u 4 °
°Q ° °v °
¯ 4¿ ¯ 4¿
F =K u (2-9-1)
The coordinate transfer function {x, y} is expressed using the interpolation functions as follows:
4
1 1 1 1
x (r , s ) ¦ h (r , s ) x
i 1
i i
4
(1 r )(1 s ) x1 (1 r )(1 s ) x 2 (1 r )(1 s ) x3 (1 r )(1 s ) x 4
4 4 4
4
1 1 1 1
y (r , s ) ¦ h (r , s ) y
i 1
i i
4
(1 r )(1 s ) y1 (1 r )(1 s ) y 2 (1 r )(1 s ) y 3 (1 r )(1 s ) y 4
4 4 4
(2-9-2)
63
The deformation function {u, v} is also expressed using the same interpolation functions.
4
1 1 1 1
u (r , s ) ¦ h (r , s)u
i 1
i i
4
(1 r )(1 s )u1 (1 r )(1 s )u 2 (1 r )(1 s )u 3 (1 r )(1 s )u 4
4 4 4
4
1 1 1 1
v(r , s ) ¦ h ( r , s )v
i 1
i i
4
(1 r )(1 s )v1 (1 r )(1 s )v 2 (1 r )(1 s )v 3 (1 r )(1 s )v 4
4 4 4
(2-9-3)
Stiffness matrix can be obtained from the “Principle of Virtual Work Method,” which is expressed in the
following form:
³H V dv u T F
T
(2-9-4)
V
where, H is a virtual strain vector, V is a stress vector, u is a virtual displacement vector and F is a
load vector, respectively.
In case of the plane problem, the strain H vector is defined as,

§ wu ·
¨ ¸
§ Hx · ¨ wx ¸
¨ ¸ ¨ wv ¸
¨Hy ¸ ¨ wy ¸ (2-9-5)
¨J ¸ ¨ ¸
© xy ¹ ¨ wu wv ¸
¨ wy wx ¸
© ¹
Substituting equation (2-9-3) into equation (2-9-5), the strain vector is calculated from the nodal
displacement vector as,
§ wu · § 4
whi ·
¨
¨ wx ¸
¸ ¨
¨
¦
i 1 wx
ui ¸
¸
§ Hx ·
¨ ¸ ¨ wv ¸ ¨ 4
whi ¸
¨Hy ¸ ¨ wy ¸ ¨ ¦
i 1 wy
vi ¸
¨J ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ 4 ¸
© xy ¹ ¨ wu wv ¸ ¨ whi u whi v ¸
4
¨ wy wx ¸ ¨ ¦ wy i ¦ wx i ¸
© ¹ ©i1 i 1 ¹
§ u1 ·
¨ ¸
§ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 ·¨ v1 ¸
¨ 0 0 0 0 ¸¨ u ¸
¨ wx wx wx wx ¸¨ 2 ¸
¨ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 ¸¨ v 2 ¸
¨ 0 0 0 0 ¸¨ u ¸
¨ wy wy wy wy ¸¨ 3 ¸
¨ wh1 wh1 wh2 wh2 wh3 wh3 wh4 wh4 ¸¨ v3 ¸
¨ wy wx wy wx wy wx wy wx ¸¨ ¸
© ¹ u4
¨ ¸
¨v ¸
© 4¹
İ= B u (2-9-6)
64
In the plane stress problem, the stress-strain relationship is expressed as,
§V x · § ·§ ·
¨ ¸ ¨1 Q 0 ¸¨ H x ¸
E ¨ ¸¨ H ¸
¨V y ¸ Q 1 0 (2-9-7)
¨W ¸ 1 Q ¨ 1 Q ¸¨ y ¸
© xy ¹ ¨0 0 ¸© J xy ¹
© 2 ¹
ı= C İ
Substituting equation (2-9-6) into equation (2-9-7),
ı= C B u (2-9-8)
From the Principle of Virtual Work Method,
§ ·
³ Bu CBu dv u T ¨ ³ B T CBdxdy ¸u
T
uTF (2-9-9)
¨ ¸
V © V ( x, y ) ¹
Therefore, the stiffness equation is obtained as,
³B
T
F Ku , K CBdv (2-9-10)
V
If we assume the constant thickness of the plate (= t), using the relation dv tdxdy ,
³B
T
K t CBdxdy (2-9-11)
V ( x, y )
Since this integration is defined in x-y coordinate, we must transfer the coordinate into r-s coordinate to use
the numerical integration method. Introducing the Jacobian matrix,
§ wx wy ·
¨ ¸
J ¨ wr wr ¸ ; Jacobian Matrix (2-9-12)
¨ wx wy ¸
¨ ¸
© ws ws ¹
the above integration is expressed in r-s coordinate as,
w ( x, y )
1 1
t ³ ³ B xr , s , y r , s CB xr , s , y r , s
T
K drds (2-9-13)
1 1
w (r , s )
where
wx wy
w ( x, y ) wr wr
det J (2-9-14)
w(r , s) wx wy
ws ws
65
Evaluation of Jacobian Matrix
§ wx wy · § 4 whi 4
whi
·
¨ ¸ ¨¦ xi ¦ wr yi ¸
J ¨ wr wr ¸ ¨ i 1 wr i 1 ¸ (2-9-15)
¨ wx wy ¸ ¨ 4 whi whi ¸
4
¨
© ws
¸
ws ¹ ¨ ¦ ws xi ¦ yi ¸
©i1 i 1 ws ¹
Evaluation of the matrix B
§ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 ·

¨ 0 0 0 0 ¸
¨ wx wx wx wx ¸
¨ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 ¸
B ¨ 0 0 0 0 ¸ (2-9-16)
¨ wy wy wy wy ¸
¨ wh1 wh1 wh2 wh2 wh3 wh3 wh4 wh4 ¸
¨ wy wx wy wx wy wx wy wx ¸¹
©
wh1 wh wh wh
The derivatives , ", 4 , 1 ,", 4 are calculated as,
wx wx wy wy
wh1 wh1 wr wh1 ws wh wh4 wr wh4 ws
, " , 4 ,
wx wr wx ws wx wx wr wx ws wx
wh1 wh1 wr wh1 ws w h wh4 wr wh4 ws
, " , 4
wy wr wy ws wy wy wr wy ws wy
In a matrix form,
§ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 · § wr ws ·§ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 ·

¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸
¨ wx wx wx wx ¸ ¨ wx wx ¸¨ wr wr wr wr ¸
¨ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 ¸ ¨ wr ws ¸¨ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 ¸
¨ wy
© wy wy wy ¸
¹
¨ wy
© wy ¸¹¨© ws ws ws ws
¸
¹
§ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 ·

¨ ¸
J 1 ¨ wr wr wr wr ¸ (2-9-17)
¨ wh1 wh2 wh3 wh4 ¸
¨ ¸
© ws ws ws ws ¹
Evaluation of partial derivatives of the interpolation functions
wh1 1 wh1 1
(1 s ) (1 r )
wr 4 ws 4
wh2 1 wh2 1
(1 s ) (1 r )
wr 4 ws 4
, (2-9-18)
wh3 1 wh3 1
(1 s ) (1 r )
wr 4 ws 4
wh4 1 wh4 1
(1 s ) (1 s )
wr 4 ws 4
66
The 3 points Gauss Integration Formula is defined as:
³ f (t )dt
1
0.5556 f (0.7746) 0.8889 f (0) 0.5556 f (0.7746)
(2-9-19)
D 1 f (t1 ) D 2 f (t 2 ) D 3 f (t 3 )
where, D1 0.5556, D 2 0.8889, D 3 0.5556

t1 0.7746, t 2 0, t 3 0.7746
f(0.7746)
f(t)
f(-0.7746)
f(0)
t
-1 -0.7746 0 +0.7746 +1
The stiffness matrix is then calculated numerically as follows:
w ( x, y )
1 1
t ³ ³ B xr , s , y r , s CB xr , s , y r , s
T
K drds
1 1
w (r , s )
1 1
t ³ ³ F (r , s )drds (2-9-20)
1 1
3 3
t ¦¦ D iD j F (ri , s j )
i 1 j 1
where
w ( x, y )
B xr , s , y r , s CB xr , s , y r , s
T
F (r , s)
w (r , s)
D1 0.5556, D 2 0.8889, D 3 0.5556

r1 s1 0.7746, r2 s 2 0, r3 s3 0.7746
67
Transformation from global node displacements to element node displacements is,
u1 ½
°v °
° 1°
°u 2 ° u1 ½
° ° °u °
°v 2 °
® ¾ >TiF @°® 2 °¾ (2-9-21)
°u 3 ° °#°
° v3 ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°u 4 °
°v °
¯ 4¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TiF ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).
68
2.10 Connection Panel
1) General case
In the default setting, STERA3D assumes the rigid connection zone between column and beam. You can
consider shear deformation of the connection area (we call “connection panel”) by the “Connection
member” menu.
Figure 2-10-1 Connection area
Shear deformation of the connection panel, Ȗ, is defined as shown in Figure 2-10-2.
uC= -0.5ȖAh șC= -0.5ȖA
C C
h
0.5ȖA 0.5ȖA
A B șB= 0.5ȖA A 0.5ȖA

h B vB= -0.5ȖAw
w w
Figure 2-10-2 Definition of shear deformation
Differences of displacement at node B and C are;
'u B ½ 0 ½ 'u C ½ 0.5J A h½

° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Node B: ® 'v B ¾ | ® 0.5J A w¾ , Node C: ® 'vC ¾ | ® 0 ¾ (2-10-1)
°'T ° ° 0.5J ° °'T ° ° 0.5J °
¯ B¿ ¯ A ¿ ¯ C¿ ¯ A ¿
69
First we consider nodal movement without shear deformation of the connection panel. As shown in Figure
2-10-3, the displacement at node B and node C will be;
u B ½ u A ½ u C ½ u A T A h½
° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Node B: ®v B ¾ | ®v A T A w¾ , Node C: ®vC ¾ | ® v A ¾ (2-10-2)
°T ° ° T ° °T ° ° T °
¯ B¿ ¯ A ¿ ¯ C¿ ¯ A ¿
Then, we consider shear deformation of the connection as shown in Figure 2-10-4. By adding Equation
(2-10-1) to (2-10-2), the displacement at node B and node C will be;
T Ah
h
T Aw
TA
C w
vA
uA
A B
Figure 2-10-2 Nodal movement without shear deformation of the panel
A B
Figure 2-10-4 Nodal movement with shear deformation of the panel
70
Node B:
u ½
u B ½ u A ½ 0 ½ uA ½ ª1 0 0 0 º° A °
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° «0 1 w 0.5w» °v A °
®v B ¾ | ®v A T A w¾ ® 0.5J A w¾ ®v A T A w 0.5J A w¾ « » ®T ¾
°T ° ° T ° ° 0.5J ° ° T 0.5J ° «¬0 0 1 0.5 »¼ ° A °
¯ B¿ ¯ A ¿ ¯ A ¿ ¯ A A ¿ °¯J A °¿
(2-10-3)
Node C:
u A ½
u C ½ u A T A h½ 0.5J A h½ u A T A h 0.5J A h½ ª1 0 h 0.5hº ° °
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° «0 1 0 » °v A °
® vC ¾ | ® v A ¾ ® 0 ¾ ® vA ¾ « 0 » ®T ¾
°T ° ° T ° ° 0.5J ° ° T 0.5J ° «¬0 0 1 0.5 »¼ ° A °
¯ C¿ ¯ A ¿ ¯ A ¿ ¯ A A ¿ °¯J A °¿
(2-10-4)
2) Beam element
In case of rigid connection, as described in Equation (2-1-7), the nodal displacement is expressed as,
T ' yA ½ T yA W ½ u O B l 'T yB u zA O A l 'T yA

¾, W
zB
® ¾ ®
¯T ' yB ¿ ¯T yB W ¿ l'
u ½
1 1 ½ ª1 1 º zA
°T u O T u zB O BT yB ° «l' 1 OA O B » °u °
yA
l'
zA A yA
l' l' ° zB °
® 1 1 ¾ «1 1 » ®T ¾ (2-10-5)
°T yB u zA O AT yA u zB O BT yB ° « OA 1 O B » ° yA °
¯ l' l' ¿ ¬l' l' ¼ °T yB °
¯ ¿
T yB
T ' yA T yA W
T yB
T yA W T ' yB
u zB
u zB O B l 'T yB Z
u zA u zA O A l 'T yA
A B X
O Al ' l' OB l '
Figure 2-10-5 Beam displacement with rigid connection
71
If we consider shear deformation of connection panel, from Figure 2-10-6,
T ' yA ½ T yA 0.5J yA W ½ u zB OB l ' T yB 0.5J yB u zA O Al ' T yA 0.5J yA

® ¾ ® ¾, W
¯T ' yB ¿ ¯T yB 0.5J yB W ¿ l'
1 1 ½
°T yA l ' u zA O AT yA l ' u zB O BT yB 0.5J yA 0.5O AJ yA 0.5O B J yB °
® 1 1 ¾
°T yB u zA O AT yA u zB O BT yB 0.5J yB 0.5O AJ yA 0.5O B J yB °
¯ l' l' ¿
u zA ½
°u °
ª1 1 º ° zB °
«l' 1 OA OB 0.5 0.5O A 0.5O B » °T °
l' ° yA °
«1 1 » ®T ¾ (2-10-6)
« O A 1 OB 0.5O A 0.5 0.5OB » ° yB °
¬l' l' ¼ °J yA °
° °
°¯J yB °¿
T yB
W
T ' yA T yA 0.5J yA
T yB 0.5J yB T ' yB
W
T yA u zB
u zB O B l ' T yB 0.5J yB
u zA u zA O Al ' T yA 0.5J yA
A B
Z
O Al ' l' OB l '

X
Figure 2-10-6 Beam displacement with shear deformation of connection panel
72
The transformation matrices for beam element are;
Including connection panel and node movement
u zA ½ u zA ½
°u ° °u °
ª1 1 º ° zB ° ° zB °
T ' yA ½ «l' l' 1 OA OB 0.5 0.5O A 0.5O B » °T yA ° °T yA °
°T ' ° «1 » °T ° ° °
T
° yB ° » °® yB °¾ >/ B @°® yB °¾
1
® ¾ « OA 1 OB 0.5O A 0.5 0.5O B
° G xA ° «l' l' » J yA
1 » °° °° °J yA °
°¯ G xB °¿ « J yB °J yB °
«
¬ 1»¼ ° ° ° °
°G xA ° °G xA °
°G ° °G °
¯ xB ¿ ¯ xB ¿
(2-10-10)
u zA ½
°u °
° zB °
°T yA ° u1 ½
° ° °u °
°T yB °
® ¾ >TixB @°® 2 °¾ (2-10-11)
°J yA ° °#°
°J yB ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°G xA °
°G °
¯ xB ¿

u1 ½ u1 ½
T ' yA ½ °u ° °u °
° °
®T ' yB ¾ >nB @>/ B @>TixB @°® 2 °¾ >TxB @°® 2 °¾ (2-10-12)
°G ' ° °#° °#°
¯ x¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿
73
In case of Y-direction beam
x½ ª 0 1 0º X ½
° ° « 1 0 0» ° Y °
® y¾ « »® ¾ (2-10-13)
°z°
¯ ¿Y Beam «¬ 0 0 1»¼ °¯ Z °¿ Global
u zA ½ ª1 º u zA ½ u zA ½
°u ° « 1 » °u ° °u °
° zB ° « » ° zB ° ° zB °
°T yA ° « 1 » °T xA ° °T xA °
° ° « »° ° ° °
°T yB ° » °T xB ° T
>s B @°® xB °¾
« 1
® ¾ » ®J xA ¾
(2-10-14)
«
°J yA ° «
1
»° ° °J xA °
°J yB ° « 1 » °J xB ° °J xB °
° ° ° ° ° °
°G xA °
« 1 » °G yA ° °G yA °
« »
°G ° 1»¼ °¯G yB °¿ Global °G yB °
¯ xB ¿Y Beam ¬« ¯ ¿ Global
u zA ½
°u °
° zB °
°T xA ° u1 ½
° ° °u °
°T xB °
® ¾ >T @ ° 2°
® ¾ (2-10-15)
°J xA °
iyB
°#°
°J xB ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°G yA °
°G yB °
¯ ¿
u1 ½ u1 ½
T ' yA ½ °u ° °u °
° °
®T ' yB ¾ >n B @>/ B @>s B @>TiyB @
° 2°
® ¾ >T @
yB
° 2°
® ¾ (2-10-16)
°G ' ° °#° °#°
¯ x¿ °¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
74
3) Column element
In case of rigid connection, as described in Equation (2-2-16), the nodal displacement in X-Z plane is
expressed as,
T ' yA ½ T yA W ½ u O A l 'T yA u xB O B l 'T yB

¾, W
xA
® ¾ ®
¯T ' yB ¿ ¯T yB W ¿ l'
u ½
1 1 ½ ª 1 1 º xA
°T u O T u xB O BT yB ° « l ' 1 OA O B » °u °
yA
l'
xA A yA
l' l' ° xB °
® ¾ « 1 » ® ¾ (2-10-17)
O A 1 O B » °T yA °
1 1 1
°T yB u xA O AT yA u xB O BT yB ° «
¯ l' l' ¿ ¬ l' l' ¼ °T yB °
¯ ¿
B u xB
OBl ' T yB
u xB O B l 'T yB T ' yB
T yB
W
l' Z
W
T yA
u xA O A l 'T yA T ' yA X
T yA
O Al '
Y
A u xA
Figure 2-9-7 Column displacement with rigid connection (X-Z plane)
75
T ' yA ½ T yA 0.5J yA W ½ u xA O Al ' T yA 0.5J yA u xB OB l ' T yB 0.5J yB

® ¾ ® ¾, W
¯T ' yB ¿ ¯T yB 0.5J yB W ¿ l'
1 1 ½
°T yA l ' u xA O AT yA l ' u xB O BT yB 0.5J yA 0.5O AJ yA 0.5O B J yB °
® 1 1 ¾
°T yB u xA O AT yA u xB O BT yB 0.5J yB 0.5O AJ yA 0.5O B J yB °
¯ l' l' ¿
u xA ½
°u °
ª 1 1 º ° xB °
« l ' 1 OA OB 0.5 0.5O A 0.5O B » °°T yA °°
l'
« 1 1 » ®T ¾ (2-10-18)
« O A 1 OB 0.5O A 0.5 0.5O B » ° yB °
¬ l' l' ¼ °J yA °
° °
°¯J yB °¿
B u xB
OB l ' T yB
u xB O B l ' T yB 0.5J yB
T ' yB
Z T yB 0.5J yB
W
l'
X
W
T yA 0.5J yA
T ' yA
u xA O Al ' T yA 0.5J yA
T yA
O Al '
u xA
A
Figure 2-9-8 Column displacement with shear deformation of connection panel (X-Z plane)
76
In the same manner, assuming rigid connection, the nodal displacement of column in Y-Z plane is
expressed as,
T ' xA ½ T xA W ½ u O A l 'T xB u yA O A l 'T xA

¾, W
yB
® ¾ ®
¯T ' xB ¿ ¯T xB W ¿ l'
º ° yA ½°
u
1 1 ½ ª1 1
°T xA l ' u yA O AT xA l ' u yB O BT xB ° «l' l' 1 OA OB » u
° yB °
® ¾ «1 » ® ¾ (2-10-19)
O A 1 OB » °T xA °
1 1 1
°T xB u yA O AT xA u yB O BT xB ° «
¯ l' l' ¿ ¬l' l' ¼ °¯T xB °¿
OBl ' u yB
u yB O B l 'T xB
T xB
T 'xB
l' T xB
W Z
W
T xA u yA O Al 'T xA
X
T 'xA
O Al '
T xA A Y
u yA
Figure 2-9-9 Column displacement with rigid connection (Y-Z plane)
77
T ' xA ½ T xA 0.5J xA W ½ u yB OB l ' T xB 0.5J xB u yA O Al ' T xA 0.5J xA

® ¾ ® ¾, W
¯T ' xB ¿ ¯T xB 0.5J xB W ¿ l'
1 1 ½
°T xA u yA O AT xA
l'
u yB O BT xB 0.5J xA 0.5O AJ xA 0.5O B J xB °
l'
® 1 1 ¾
°T xB u yA O AT xA u yB O BT xB 0.5J xB 0.5O AJ xA 0.5O B J xB °
¯ l' l' ¿
u yA ½
°u °
ª1 1 º ° yB °
«l' 1 OA OB 0.5 0.5O A 0.5O B » °°T xA °°
l'
«1 »® ¾ (2-10-20)
0.5 0.5O B » °T xB °
1
« OA 1 OB 0.5O A
¬l' l' ¼ °J xA °
° °
°¯J xB °¿
u yB B
T xB OBl '
u yB O B l ' T xB 0.5J xB
T ' xB
W T xB 0.5J xB
Z
l'
W
Y
T xA 0.5J xA
T ' xA
u yA O Al ' T xA 0.5J xA
T xA
O Al '
u yA
A
Figure 2-9-10 Column displacement with shear deformation of connection panel (Y-Z plane)
78
The transformation matrices for column element are;
Including connection panel and node movement
u xA ½
°u °
° xB °
°T yA °
ª 1 1 1 OA OB º °T yB °
« l ' 1 OA OB »° °
T ' yA ½ » °J yA °
l' 2 2 2
« 1 OA 1 OB
» °J °
°T ' ° 1
« O A 1 OB
° yB ° « l' l' 2 2 2 » ° yB °
°T ' xA ° « 1 1
1 OA OB
1 OA OB » °u yA °
° ° « » °u °
°T 'xB ° «
l' l' 2 2 2
» °® yB °¾
® ¾ 1 1 OA 1 OB
° G zA ° « O A 1 OB » °T xA °
° G zB ° « l' l' 2 2 2 »° °
° ° « 1 » °T xB °
° T zA ° « 1 » °J xA °
°T ° « »° °
¯ zB ¿ « 1 » °J xB °
«
¬ 1»¼ °G zA °
°G °
° zB °
°T zA °
° °
¯T zB ¿
u xA ½
°u °
° xB °
°T yA °
° °
°T yB °
°J yA °
° °
°J yB °
°u °
° yA °
>/ C @°® yB °¾
u
T
° xA °
°T xB °
° °
°J xA °
°J °
° xB °
°G zA °
°G °
° zB °
°T zA ° (2-10-21)
° °
¯T zB ¿
79
u xA ½
°u °
° xB °
°T yA °
° °
°T yB °
°J yA °
° °
°J yB °
°u ° u1 ½
° yA ° °u °
°u yB °
® ¾ >TiC @°® 2 °¾
°T xA ° °#°
°T xB ° °¯u n °¿
° °
°J xA °
°J °
° xB °
°G zA °
°G °
° zB °
°T zA °
° ° (2-10-22)
¯T zB ¿

T ' yA ½
°T ' °
° yB ° u1 ½ u1 ½
°u ° °u °
°°T ' xA °°
® ¾ >nC @>/ C @>TiC @°® 2 °¾ >TC @°® 2 °¾ (2-10-23)
°T ' xB ° °#° °#°
° G 'z ° °¯u n °¿ °¯u n °¿
° °
°¯ T ' z °¿
80
4) Force-displacement relationship for the connection
Jx
Jy
Figure 2-9-11 Shear deformation of connection area
The relationship between the displacement vector and force vector of the element is expressed as follows:
M Px ½ ªk Px 0 º J x ½
® ¾ « 0 ® ¾
k Py »¼ ¯J y ¿
(2-10-24)
¯M Py ¿ ¬
where, initial stiffness of connection area is,
k Px k Py GV (2-10-25)
where, G is the shear modulus and V is the volume of the connection.

u1 ½
J x ½ °u °
® ¾ >TP @°® 2 °¾ (2-10-26)
¯J y ¿ °#°
°¯u n °¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TP ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).
The constitutive equation of the external spring is;
P1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ >K P @°® 2 °¾ (2-10-27)
°#° °#°
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯u n °¿
where,
>K P @ >TP @T >k P @>TP @ (2-10-28)
81
2.11 Ground Spring
Foundation
K Hx M yG , T yG
PxG , u xG
G
CSx K Ry CRy
Foundation
K Hy
CSy
M xG , T xG
G
CRx Z
PyG , u yG
K Rx
X
Figure 2-11-1 Element model for ground spring

The relationship between the displacement vector and force vector of the ground springs attached at the
center of gravity of the foundation in Figure 2-11-1 is expressed as follows:
Sway and rocking in X-direction
PxG ½ ª K Hx 0 º u xG ½ ªCHx 0 º u xG ½

® ¾ « ® ¾ ® ¾
K Ry ¼» ¯T yG ¿ ¬« 0 CRy ¼» ¯TyG ¿
(2-11-1)
¯ M yG ¿ ¬ 0
Sway and rocking in Y-direction
PyG ½ ª K Hy 0 º u yG ½ ªCHy 0 º u yG ½

® ¾ « ® ¾ ® ¾
K Rx ¼» ¯T xG ¿ ¬« 0 CRx ¼» ¯TxG ¿
(2-11-2)
¯ M xG ¿ ¬ 0
82
Therefore
PxG ½ ª K Hx 0 º u xG ½ ªCHx 0 º u xG ½

°P ° « » °u ° « » °u °
° yG ° « K Hy » ®° yG ¾° « CHy » ®° yG ¾°
® ¾
° M yG ° « K Ry » °T yG ° « CRy » °TyG °
« » « »
°¯ M xG °¿ ¬ 0 K Rx ¼ °¯T xG °¿ ¬ 0 CRx ¼ °¯TxG °¿
(2-11-3
u xG ½ u xG ½
°u ° °u °
> kG @ ®T ¾ >cG @ °®TyG °¾
° yG °
° yG ° ° yG °
°¯T xG °¿ °¯TxG °¿
u xG ½ u1 ½
°u ° °u °
° yG °
® ¾ >TG @ °® #2 °¾ (2-11-4)
°T yG ° ° °
°¯T xG °¿ °¯un °¿
The component of the transformation matrix, [TG ] , is discussed in Chapter 4 (Freedom Vector).
The constitutive equation of the ground spring is;
P1 ½ u1 ½ u1 ½
°P ° °u ° °u °
° 2°
® ¾ > KG @ °® #2 °¾ >CG @ °® #2 °¾ (2-11-5)
°#° ° ° ° °
°¯ Pn °¿ °¯un °¿ °¯un °¿
where,
> KG @ >TG @ > kG @>TG @ , >CG @ >TG @ >cG @>TG @

T T
(2-11-6)
83
3. Hysteresis model of nonlinear springs
Notation
at : Area of rebar in the tension side of the section
As : Total area of rebar in the section
Vy : Strength of rebar
VB : Compression strength of concrete
V wy : Strength of shear reinforcement
D : Depth of the section
d : Effective depth of the section.
b : Width of the beam
j : Distance between the centers of stress in the section ( 7 / 8d ).

Ze : Section modulus including the slab effect.
n : Ratio of Young’s modulus (= E s / Ec )
pt : Tensile reinforcement ratio
pw : Shear reinforcement ratio
Ie : Moment of inertia of section considering the slab effect
Mc : Crack moment
My : Yield moment
M/(QD) : Shear span-to-depth ratio
Tc : Crack rotation of the beam end
Ty : Yield rotation of the beam end
Ic : Crack rotation of the nonlinear bending spring
Iy : Yield rotation of the nonlinear bending spring
k0 : Initial stiffness
ky : Tangential stiffness at the yield point
k y2 : Stiffness after the yield point in the nonlinear bending spring
k y3 : Stiffness after the ultimate point in the nonlinear shear spring
Dy : Stiffness degradation factor at the yield point
Qc : Crack shear force
Qy : Yield shear force
Qu : Ultimate shear force
xs : Distance between the corner springs in the Multi-spring model
84
Jc : Crack shear deformation
Jy : Yield shear deformation
Ju : Ultimate shear deformation
85
3.1.1 Beam
3.1.1 RC Beam
a) Section properties
S
as
d1
t d1
a1
D
d2 a2 d2
B
B : Width of beam,
D : Height of beam,
S : Effective width of slab,
t : Thickness of slab
d1 : Distance to the center of top main rebars,
d2 : Distance to the center of bottom main rebars,
a1 : Area of top main rebars,
a2 : Area of bottom main rebars
as : Area of rebars in slab
Figure 3-1-1 RC Beam Section
Area of section to calculate axial deformation
AN BD S B t n E 1a1 a 2 a S (3-1-1)
where,
nE E s / Ec : Ratio of Young’s modulus between steel (Es) and concrete (Ec)
Area of section to calculate shear deformation
AS BD (3-1-2)
Moment of inertia around the center of the section
2 2
BD 3 ( S B )t 3 § D· § ·
BD¨ g ¸ S B t ¨ D g ¸
t
Ie
12 12 © 2¹ © 2 ¹
2
§ ·
n E 1a1 d 1 g n E 1a 2 D d 2 g n E 1a S ¨ D g ¸
2 2 t
(3-1-3)
© 2 ¹
where, g is the center of beam section calculated by
BD 2 / 2 S B t D t / 2 nE 1 â2 d 2 a1 D d1 aS D t / 2 `
g (3-1-4)
AN
86
b) Nonlinear bending spring
WA
Gx
MA MB
A B
WB
Nx
elastic element
TA IA
MA MB MA MB
A B A B
Nx TB IB

l
T A ½ W A ½ I A ½ K A ½ KA
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° MA MB
®T B ¾ ®W B ¾ ®IB ¾ ®K B ¾ A KB B
°G ° °G ° ° 0 ° ° 0 °
¯ x¿ ¯ x¿ ¯ ¿ ¯ ¿
Hysteresis model of a nonlinear bending spring is defined as the moment-rotation relationship under the
anti-symmetry loading in Figure 3-1-3. The initial stiffness of the nonlinear spring is supposed to be infinite,
however, in numerical calculation, a large enough value is used for the stiffness.
I T
M W W M
A B
T I
Moment distribution
M M M
My My
6 EI = +
Mc k0 Mc
l
k 0 D y k0 k0 kp | f
Tc Ty T W Ic I y I
Elastic element Nonlinear bending spring
Figure 3-1-3 Moment – rotation relationship at bending spring
87
Crack moment force
For reinforced concrete elements, the crack moment, M c is calculated as,
M c1 0.56 V B Z e1 , Z e1 Ie / g when tension in top main rebars (3-1-5)
M c2 0.56 V B Z e 2 , Z e 2 I e / D g when tension in bottom main rebars (3-1-6)
where,
VB : Compression strength of concrete (N/mm2)
Z e1 , Z e 2 : Section modulus
Yield moment force

The yield moment, M y is calculated as,
M y1 0.9a1V y D d1 0.9a S V y D t / 2 when tension in top main rebars (3-1-7)
M y2 0.9a 2V y D d 2 when tension in bottom main rebars (3-1-8)
where,
Vy : Strength of rebar (N/mm2)
Yield rotation
The tangential stiffness at the yield point, k y , is obtained from the following equation,:
6 Ec I e
k y D y k0 , k0 (3-1-9)
l
where,
D y is the stiffness degradation factor at the yield point, which is obtained from the following
empirical formulas:
Dy 0.043 1.63npt 0.043a / D d / D 2 , a / D d 2 (3-1-10)
Dy 0.0836 0.159a / D d / D 2 , a / D ! 2 (3-1-11)

where,

pt a1 aS / BD (when tension in top main rebars)
pt as / BD (when tension in bottom main rebars)
a/D : §6KHDUVSDQ-to-depth ratio (= l /( 2 D ) )
d : Effective depth
d D d1 (when tension in top main rebars)
d D d2 (when tension in bottom main rebars)
88
D y is modified in case of tension in top main rebars as
I
D y ' D y e0 (3-1-12)
Ie
BD 3
where I e0 : the moment of inertia of square section without slab
12
The yield rotation of the nonlinear bending beam, I y , is then obtained from,
§ 1 ·M
I y ¨¨ 1¸¸ y (3-1-13)
©Dy ¹ k0
In general, the relation between the rotation of bending spring and that of nonlinear bending spring is
My
I T (3-1-14)
k0
Crack rotation
From Figure 3-1-2, the crack rotation of the nonlinear bending beam, I c , is supposed to be zero value,
however, in STERA_3D program, it is assumed as,
I c 0.001 I y (3-1-15)
89
Effective width of slab
Ls
B Lb
Sb
Sb B
Figure 3-1-4 Effective slab area for flexural capacity of beam
In general, effective width of slab for the flexural behavior of a beam is assumed as,
Sb 0.1 Lb | D (3-1-16)
where, Lb : Length of beam

D : Height of beam
However, recent studies suggest the contribution of full length of slab to the flexural capacity, M y , of a
beam. Therefore, STERA3D adopts two types of effective widths:
1) For calculating section are and moment of inertia

Sb 0.1 Lb | D
2) For calculating the yield moment, M y , in Equation (3-1-8),
Sb K s Ls (3-1-17)
where, Ls : Length of span

Ks : Effective slab ratio 0.1 ~ 0.5 , the default value is 0.1.
90
Hysteresis model
To consider the difference of the flexural capacity between positive and negative side of the beam, a
degrading tri-linear slip model is developed based on the Takeda Model for the hysteresis model of the
bending springs of the beam.
M M
kp
My My
Mc Mc
ks kr
I I
Ix Iy Im
D E
§M · §My · Iy § Mm · Iy
kp K ¨¨ y ¸
¸
kr ¨
Ï
¸
¸I
ks ¨¨ ¸¸ (3-1-18)
© Iy ¹ © y ¹ m © Im I x ¹ Im
Figure 3-1-5 Degrading Tri-linear Slip Model

(Į=0.5, ȕ=0.0 and Ș=0.001 as default values)
The strength degradation under cyclic loading is considered by elongating the target displacement, I m , to
be I ' m as shown in the following Figure:
M
kp
Mm
My
ks kr
I
n Im n Iy I Iy Im I 'm
x
§ I ·
I 'm ¨1 J n y ¸I m
¨ ¸ (3-1-19)
© n Im ¹
Figure 3-1-6 Introducing strength degradation (Ȗ=0.0 as default value)
91
Relationship between curvature and rotation
Hc
T EI
M M
A B
T M
D
I
l
Figure 3-1-7 Rotation angle and curvature at beam ends
Let’s think about the relationship between curvature and rotation at the end of a beam.
In the above loading condition, the relationship between moment and rotation is
6 EI
M T (3-1-20)
l
On the other hand, the relationship between moment and curvature is
M
I (3-1-21)
EI
Therefore,
6
I T (3-1-22)
l
Assuming the neutral axis is in the middle of the section, the relationship between curvature and
compression strain at the section end is
Hc
I (3-1-23)
D/2
Therefore, the relationship between rotation and compressive strain is
l l
T I Hc (3-1-24)
6 3D
l
Assuming D | , then
9
T 3H c (3-1-25)
If H c reaches 0.003, T is around 0.01 (=1/100).

It corresponds to the yielding rotation of a beam.
92
c) Nonlinear shear spring
Hysteresis model of nonlinear shear spring is defined as the shear force – shear rotation relationship using
an origin-oriented poly-linear model.
KA
MA MA MB
MB Q
A KB B l
KA KB Jl
l
Q Q
k y3 0.001k 0
Qy
k y3
Qu
J
Qc
k0 GA
k0
Jc Jy Ju J
Figure 3-1-8 Force–deformation relationship of shear spring
Yield shear force
The yield shear force, Q y is calculated as,
° 0.053 pt 0.23 (V B 18) ½°

Qy ® 0.85 p w V wy ¾b j (3-1-26)
°̄ M /(QD) 0.12 °¿
where,

Crack shear force

The crack shear force is, Qc , is assumed as,
Qy
Qc (3-1-27)
3
93
Ultimate shear force
The ultimate shear force is, Qu , is assumed as,
Qu Qc (3-1-28)
Crack shear deformation

The crack shear deformation is obtained as,
Qc
Jc (3-1-29)
GA
Yield shear displacement
The yield shear deformation is assumed as,
1
Jy (3-1-30)
250
Ultimate shear displacement
The ultimate shear deformation is assumed as,
1
Ju (3-1-31)
100
NOTE)
In STERA_3D, the stiffness after yielding is temporary assumed to be positive to avoid instability in
numerical analysis.
Q
Qu
Qy
k y3 0.001k 0
Qc
k0 GA
Jc Jy Ju J
Figure 3-1-9 Stiffness after yielding
94
d) Modification of initial stiffness of nonlinear springs
In numerical calculation, a large dummy value is used for the initial stiffness of the nonlinear spring to
represent rigid condition. This large stiffness may cause an error for estimating the force from the
displacement. One possible way to solve the problem is to reduce the initial stiffness of the nonlinear spring
to be a certain value reasonable for calculation, and on the other hand, increase the stiffness of the elastic
element so that the total initial stiffness of the beam element does not change from the original one. This
idea is proposed by K-N Li (2004) for MS model.
I T
M W W M
A B
T I

M M M
My My
6 EI = +
Mc k0 Mc
l
k 0 D y k0 k0 kp | f
Tc Ty T W Ic I y I
My My § 1 ·M
Ty = W + Iy ¨ 1¸ y
D y k0 k0 ¨D ¸ k
© y ¹ 0
Increase Reduce
stiffness stiffness
M M
My
+ Mc
k *
0 k0 / J 1 k *p EI / p1
W* I c* I y* I*
My J 1M y § 1 ·M
Ty = W* + I y* ¨ J1 ¸ y
D y k0 k0 ¨D ¸ k
© y ¹ 0
Figure 3-1-10 Modification of moment – rotation relationship
95
The idea is realized using flexibility reduction factors, J 1 1, J 2 1 , in the relationship between the
displacement vector and force vector of the elastic element in Equation (2-1-1) as,
ª l' l' º
«J 1 3EI
6 EI y
0 »
W ' yA ½ « y » M ' yA ½
° ° « l' ° °
0 » ®M ' yB ¾
l'
®W ' yB ¾ « 6 EI
J2 » (3-1-32)
°G ' ° 3EI y
¯ x¿ « y
»° N ' °
« 0 l' »¯ x ¿
0
«¬ EA »¼
l' l' l' l'

It must be J1 ! or J 1 ! 0.5 and. J 2 ! or J 2 ! 0.5 .
3EI y 6 EI y 3EI y 6 EI y
Also the initial flexibility matrix of the nonlinear spring can be expressed as follows, introducing the
parameters, p1 , p 2 to increase the initial flexibility.
I yA ½ ª p1 EI 0 º M ' yA ½
® ¾ « ® ¾
EI »¼ ¯M ' yB ¿
(3-1-33)
¯I yB ¿ ¬ 0 p2
When p1 o 0, p 2 o 0 , it represents the infinite stiffness for rigid condition. Accordingly, the crack and
yield rotation will be modified as,
Mc § 1 ·M
I c* p1 , Iy
* ¨ J1 ¸ y (3-1-34)
EI ¨D ¸ k
© y ¹ 0
My
I T J1 (3-1-35)
k0
Making the modified flexibility matrix to be identical to the original one,
ª l' l' º ª p1 l' l' º

« 3EI
6 EI y
0 » « EI J 1 3EI
6 EI y
0 »
« y » « y »
« « »
0 »
l' p2 l'
« J2 0 » (3-1-36)
« 3EI y » EI 3EI y
« » « »
« sym. l' » « sym.
l' »
«¬ EA »¼ original «¬ EA »¼ mod ified
This gives the flexivility reduction factors as:

3 3
J1 1 p1 , J 2 1 p2 (3-1-37)
l' l'
From the conditions J 1 ! 0.5 and J 2 ! 0.5 ,
l' l'
p1 , p2 (3-1-38)
6 6
l'
K-N Li (2004) calls these parameters, p1 , p 2 , as “plastic zones” and recommends to be p1 p2 .
10
Them the reduction factors will be J 1 J2 0.7 .
96
e) Modification of stiffness degradation factor at the yield point
(The following modification of the stiffness degradation factor, D y , is suggested by Prof. Okano at Chiba
University.)
From Equations (3-1-32) and (3-1-34), the yield rotation of the member T y under anti-symmetric loading
condition, M A MB M y , is calculated as,
2J 1M y § 1 ·M § 1 ·M
Ty ¨ J ¸ y ¨ J 1¸ y (3-1-39)
k0 ¨D ¸ k ¨D ¸ k
© y ¹ 0 © y ¹ 0
where J1 J2 J.
The yield rotation T y in Equation (3-1-39) is different from the formula in Figure 3-1-10 since the factor
J is multiplied to only diagonal elements of flexural matrix in Equation (3-1-32).
The stiffness degradation factor is then obtained as,
1 § 1 ·
¨ J 1¸ (3-1-40)
D 'y ¨D ¸
© y ¹
To realize the designated value of stiffness degradation factor, D y should be modified as,
§ 1 ·
Dy 1 ¨ 1 J ¸ (3-1-41)
¨D' ¸
© y ¹
For example, to realize the stiffness degradation factor D 'y 0.4, assuming J 0.7 , the modified D y is
§ 1 ·
Dy 1 ¨ 1 0.7 ¸ 0.357
© 0.4 ¹
This modification is done automatically in STERA_3D.
97
f) Modification of considering rigid zone ratio
A beam-column connection can be idealized as a rigid zone. In case of a beam element, the default length
of the rigid zone is set to be a half of the column width, and the nonlinear bending spring of the beam
element is arranged at the position of the column face.
On the other hand, if elastic deformation of the connection is considered by reducing the length of rigid
zone, the position of the nonlinear bending spring will be inside the connection area. In this case, when the
nonlinear bending spring is yielding, the moment value at the position of the column face is smaller than
the yield moment.
Column Column
My
A B
My
dA l dB
A B
Kd A l' Kd B
My' My
Figure 3-1-11 Reduction of rigid zone and modification of yield moment
To make the moment at the column face to be the same as yield moment, the yield moment of the nonlinear
bending spring is increased as,
l / 2 (1 K )d A
My' My [M y
l/2
(3-1-42)
d
[ 1 2(1 K ) A
l
For example, when l 540cm, d A 30cm, K 0.75 ,
[ 1 2 u (0.25) u 30 / 540 1.027 (3-1-43)
98
3.1.2 Steel Beam
tf
H
tw
B : Width, H : Height, tw, tf : Thickness
Figure 3-1-12 Steel Beam Section
AN 2 Bt f H 2t f t w (3-1-44)
Area of section to calculate shear deformation ( )
AS H 2t t
f w (3-1-45)

BH 3 ( B t w )( H 2t f ) 3
Iy : along strong axis (3-1-46)
12
2t f B ( H 2t f )t w
3 3
Iz : along weak axis (3-1-47)

12
Moment of inertia for torsion
2 Bt f ( H 2t f ) t w
3 3
J (3-1-48)
3
99
TA WA
Gx
MA MB
MA MB A B
A B WB
TB Nx
Nx
elastic element
l IA
T A ½ W A ½ I A ½ MA MB
° ° ° ° ° ° A B
®T B ¾ ®W B ¾ ®I B ¾ IB
°G ° °G ° ° 0 °
¯ x¿ ¯ x¿ ¯ ¿
Hysteresis model of a nonlinear bending spring is defined as the moment-rotation relationship under the
anti-symmetry loading as shown in Figure 3-1-14. The initial stiffness of the nonlinear spring is supposed
to be infinite, however, in numerical calculation, a large enough value is used for the stiffness.
I T
M W W M
A B
T I
Moment distribution
M M M
My My
6 EI = +
k0
l kp | f
k0 k0
Ty T W Iy I
100
Yield moment force

ª 1 2º
My «¬ Bt f ( H t f ) 4 t w ( H 2t f ) »¼V y (3-1-49)
where,
Vy : Strength of steel (N/mm2)
Vy
My
Figure 3-1-15
Yield rotation
From Figure 3-1-14, the yield rotation of the nonlinear bending beam, I y , is supposed to be zero value,
however, in STERA_3D program, it is assumed as,
I y = 0.001 T y (3-1-50)
where
6 EI
Ty M y / k0 , k0
l
Hysteresis model
A bi-linear model is assumed for the hysteresis model.
My
Iy
Figure 3-1-16 Hysteresis of steel
101
d) Modification of initial stiffness of nonlinear springs
In numerical calculation, a large dummy value is used for the initial stiffness of the nonlinear spring to
represent rigid condition. This large stiffness may cause an error for estimating the force from the
displacement. One possible way to solve the problem is to reduce the initial stiffness of the nonlinear spring
to be a certain value reasonable for calculation, and on the other hand, increase the stiffness of the elastic
element so that the total initial stiffness of the beam element does not change from the original one. This
idea is proposed by K-N Li (2004) for MS model, and can be used for nonlinear spring model also.
I T
M W W M
A B
T I
M M M
My My
6 EI = +
k0
l kp | f
k0 k0
Ty T W Iy I
My My
Ty = W + Iy | 0
k0 k0
Increase Reduce
stiffness stiffness
M M
My
+
k0* k0 / J 1 k *p EI / p1
W* I y* I*
My J 1M y My
Ty = W*
k0
+ I y* 1 J 1
k0 k0
102
The idea is realized using flexibility reduction factors, J 1 1, J 2 1 , in the relationship between the
displacement vector and force vector of the elastic element in Equation (2-1-1) as,
ª l' l' º
«J 1 3EI
6 EI y
0 »
W ' yA ½ « y » M ' yA ½
° ° « l' ° °
0 » ®M ' yB ¾
l'
®W ' yB ¾ « 6 EI
J2 » (3-1-51)
°G ' ° 3EI y
¯ x¿ « y
»° N ' °
« 0 l' »¯ x ¿
0
«¬ EA »¼
l' l' l' l'

It must be J1 ! or J 1 ! 0.5 and. J 2 ! or J 2 ! 0.5 .
3EI y 6 EI y 3EI y 6 EI y
Also the initial flexibility matrix of the nonlinear spring can be expressed as follows, introducing the
parameters, p1 , p 2 to increase the initial flexibility.
I yA ½ ª p1 EI 0 º M ' yA ½
® ¾ « ® ¾
EI »¼ ¯M ' yB ¿
(3-1-52)
¯I yB ¿ ¬ 0 p2
When p1 o 0, p 2 o 0 , it represents the infinite stiffness for rigid condition. Accordingly, the yield
rotation will be modified as,
My
I y* p1 (3-1-53)
EI
My
I T J1 (3-1-54)
k0
Making the modified flexibility matrix to be identical to the original one,
ª l' l' º ª p1 l' l' º

« 3EI
6 EI y
0 » « EI J 1 3EI
6 EI y
0 »
« y » « y »
« « »
0 »
l' p2 l'
« J2 0 » (3-1-55)
« 3EI y » EI 3EI y
« » « »
« sym. l' » « sym.
l' »
«¬ EA »¼ original «¬ EA »¼ mod ified
This gives the flexivility reduction factors as:

3 3
J1 1 p1 , J 2 1 p2 (3-1-56)
l' l'
From the conditions J 1 ! 0.5 and J 2 ! 0.5 ,
l' l'
p1 , p2 (3-1-57)
6 6
l'
K-N Li (2004) calls these parameters, p1 , p 2 , as “plastic zones” and recommends to be p1 p2 .
10
Then, the reduction factors will be J 1 J2 0.7 .
103
3.1.3 SRC Beam
S
as
d1
t d1
a1
D
d2 a2 d2
B
b1
B : Width of beam,
D : Height of beam,
S : Effective width of slab, tf
t : Thickness of slab
d1 : Distance to the center of top main rebars, tw h1
d2 : Distance to the center of bottom main rebars,
a1 : Area of top main rebars,
a2 : Area of bottom main rebars
as : Area of rebars in slab
b1 : Width of steel
h1 : Height of steel
tw : Thickness of web
tf : Thickness of flange
Figure 3-1-18 SRC Beam Section
AN BD S B t nE 1a1 a2 a S a ST ) (3-1-58)
where,
aST 2b1 tw t f h1 tw :Area of steel

AS BD (3-1-59)
2 2
BD 3 ( S B )t 3 § D· § ·
BD¨ g ¸ S B t ¨ D g ¸
t
Ie
12 12 © 2¹ © 2 ¹
2
nE 1a1 d1 g 2 nE 1a2 D d 2 g 2 nE 1aS §¨ D t ·
g¸
© 2 ¹
b1h1 (b1 t w )(h1 2t f )
3 3
nE 1 (3-1-60)
12
104
where, g is the center of beam section calculated by
BD 2 / 2 ( S B)t D t / 2 nE 1a1d1 a2 D d 2 aS D t / 2 aST D / 2
g
AN
(3-1-61)
Hysteresis model of a nonlinear bending spring is the same as RC beam.
Crack moment force
For reinforced concrete elements, the crack moment, M c is calculated as,
M c1 0.56 V B Z e1 , Z e1 Ie / g when tension in top main rebars (3-1-62)
M c2 0.56 V B Z e 2 , Z e 2 I e / D g when tension in bottom main rebars (3-1-63)
where,
VB : Compression strength of concrete (N/mm2)
Z e1 , Z e 2 : Section modulus
Yield moment force

My M y1, 2, RC M y ,S (3-1-64)
where
M y1, 2, RC : Yield moment of reinforced concrete (3-1-65)
M y1, RC 0.9a1V y D d1 0.9aS V y D t / 2 when tension in top main rebars
M y 2, RC 0.9a2V y D d 2 when tension in bottom main rebars
where,
Vy : Strength of rebar (N/mm2)
ª 1 2º
M y ,S «¬b1t f (h1 t f ) 4 t w (h1 2t f ) »¼V y ,S : Yield moment of steel (3-1-66)
where,
V y, S : Strength of steel (N/mm2)
105
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144
3.3 Wall
3.3.1 RC Wall
l w1
lw
lw2
t
x
y
l w , l w1 , l w 2 : Width of wall,
t : Depth of wall,
C1, C2 : Side columns,
aw : Area of rebars in a wall panel
Figure 3-3-1 Wall Section
AN AN ,C1 AN ,C 2 t l w 2 n E 1a w (3-3-1)
where,
AN ,C1 , AN ,C 2 : Area of section of side columns for axial deformation

AS AS ,C1 AS ,C 2 t l w 2 / N , N 1.2 (3-3-2)
where,
AS ,C1 , AS ,C 2 : Area of section of side columns for shear deformation

2 2
l w2 t 3 §l · §l ·
Iy I y ,C 1 I y ,C 2 AN ,C1 ¨¨ w1 ¸¸ AN ,C 2 ¨¨ w1 ¸¸ (3-3-3)
12 © 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
where,
I y ,C 1 , I y ,C 2 : Moment of inertia of side columns
145
To consider nonlinear interaction among M x M y N z , the nonlinear bending spring at the member
end is constructed from the nonlinear vertical springs arranged in the member section as shown in Figure
3-3-2.
z
Ix 2
Ix1 I yc
H zc Hi
yi x
xi
Figure 3-3-2 Nonlinear bending springs
Displacement of the i-th nonlinear axial spring is,
Hi H zc xiI yc in a wall panel

Hi H zc yiI x1 xiI yc in a side column 1 (3-3-4)
Hi H zc yiI x 2 xiI yc in a side column 2
N ' zc , H zc
M ' yc , I yc
Figure 3-3-3 Equilibrium condition in the wall panel direction
146
In the wall panel direction, all vertical springs in the nonlinear section are assumed to work against the
moment and the axial force. The equilibrium conditions are,
Nc N1 N2
M ' yc ¦ k i H i xi ¦ k i H i xi ¦ k i H i xi
i i i
Nc N1 N2
¦ k i (H zc xiI yc ) x i ¦ k i (H zc yiI x1 xiI yc ) xi ¦ k i (H zc yiI x 2 xiI yc ) xi

i i i
I yc ½
° °
ª Nc N 1 N 2 2 N1 N2 Nc N 1 N 2
º °I x1 °
« ¦ k i xi ¦ k i xi y i ¦ k i xi y i ¦i k i xi »¼ ®I ¾
¬ i i i ° x2 °
°¯H zc °¿
(3-3-5)
Nc N1 N2
N ' zc ¦k H i
i i ¦ k iH i ¦ k iH i
i i
Nc N1 N2
¦ k (H
i
i zc x i I yc ) ¦ k i (H zc y i I x1 x i I yc ) ¦ k i (H zc y i I x 2 x i I yc )
i i
I yc ½
Nc N 1 N 2 ° I °
ª Nc N 1 N 2 N1 N2
º ° x1 °
« ¦ k i xi ¦ k i yi ¦ ki yi ¦i k i »¼ ®I ¾
¬ i i i ° x2 °
°¯H zc °¿
(3-3-6)
where, Nc, N1 and N2 are the number of vertical springs in a wall panel, side column 1 and side column 2,
respectively.
M ' x1 , I x1 M ' x2 , Ix2
side column 1 side column 2
Figure 3-3-4 Equilibrium condition in the out of wall direction
147
In the out of wall direction, we establish the equilibrium condition for each side column independently. The
equilibrium condition for the side column 1 is,
N1
M ' x1 ¦ k i H i y i
i
N1
¦ k i (H zc y iI x1 xiI yc ) y i
i
I yc ½
° °
ª N1 N1 N1
º °I x1 °
« ¦ k i xi y i ¦k y 0 ¦ k i yi » ® ¾
2
¼ °I x 2 °
i i
¬ i i i
°¯H zc °¿
(3-3-7)
Also, for the side column 2,
N2
M ' x2 ¦ k i H i y i
i
N2
¦ k i (H zc y iI x1 xiI yc ) y i
i
I yc ½
° °
ª N2 N2 N2
º °I x1 °
« ¦ k i xi y i ¦k y ¦ k i yi » ® ¾
2
0
¼ °I x 2 °
i i
¬ i i i
°¯H zc °¿
(3-3-8)
In a matrix form
ª Nc N 1 N 2 2 N1 N2 Nc N 1 N 2
º
« ¦ k i xi ¦ k i xi y i ¦ k i xi y i ¦k x » i i
M ' yc ½ « N 1i i
N1
i i
N1 » I ½ I yc ½
« k x y ¦ k i yi » ° °
« ¦ ¦ ki y
yc
°M ' ° °I °
2
0
» °I x1 °
° x1 °
> @ ° °
i i i i
® ¾ « N2
i i i
» ®I ¾ k p ® x1 ¾
°I x 2 °
N2 N2
°M ' x 2 ° « ¦ k i xi y i 0 ¦k y 2
¦ k i yi » ° x 2 °
°¯ N ' zc °¿ » °¯H zc °¿ °¯H zc °¿
i i
« i i i
« Nc N 1 N 2 N1 N2 Nc N 1 N 2
»
« ¦ k i xi ¦ k i yi ¦ k i yi ¦i k i »¼
¬ i i i
(3-3-9)
Therefore
I yc ½ M ' yc ½ M ' yc ½
°I ° ° ° °M ' °
° x1 °
® ¾ > @
1 ° M ' x1 °
kp ® ¾ > @ °
f p ® x1 ¾
°
(3-3-10)
°I x 2 ° °M ' x 2 ° °M ' x 2 °
°¯H zc °¿ °¯ N ' zc °¿ °¯ N ' zc °¿
For both ends
148
I yAc ½ M ' yAc ½
°I ° °M ' °
° xA1 ° ° xA1 °
°I xA2 ° ° M ' xA2 °
°
°H zAc °
°
> @
ª f pA
°
0 º ° N ' zAc °
°
®
°I yBc °
¾ « 0
¬ > @ ® ¾
f pB »¼ ° M ' yBc °
(3-3-11)
°I xB1 ° ° M ' xB1 °

° ° ° °
°I xB 2 ° °M ' xB 2 °
°H ° ° N' °
¯ zBc ¿ ¯ zBc ¿
For the out of wall direction, each side columns behave independently in the same way as the column
element. Therefore, we discuss here only the hysteresis model in the wall panel direction. Hysteresis model
of nonlinear bending spring is defined as the moment-rotation relationship under the symmetry loading in
Figure 3-3-5. The initial stiffness of the nonlinear spring is supposed to be infinite, however, in numerical
calculation, a large enough value is used for the stiffness.
M
I W
T
T
I W
A
Moment distribution
M
M M M
My My
2 EI
Mc k0 = + Mc
l
k0 ky D y k0 k0 kp | f
Tc Ty T W Ic I y I
149
The yield moment, M y is obtained from the equilibrium condition in Figure 3-3-6 as,
My a sV y l w 0.5a wV wy l w 0.5Nl w (3-3-12)
where,
as : Total area of rebar in the side column

Vy : Strength of rebar in the side column
aw : Total area of vertical rebar in the wall panel
V wy : Strength of rebar in the wall panel
N : Axial load from the dead load
a sV y
My
a wV wy
lw
Figure 3-3-6 Equilibrium condition under yielding moment
The crack moment, M c is assumed to be,
Mc 0.3M y (3-3-13)
The tangential stiffness at the yield point, k y , is obtained from the following equation:
k y 0.2 K 0 (3-3-14)
The yield rotation of the nonlinear bending beam, I y , is then obtained from,
§ 1 ·My
I y ¨¨ 1¸
¸K
(3-3-15)
©D y ¹ 0
where, the stiffness degradation factor, D y , is assumed as,
Dy 0.02 (3-3-16)
150
c) Nonlinear vertical springs
The nonlinear bending spring is constructed from the nonlinear vertical springs arranged in the member
section as shown in Figure 3-3-6. This model is based on the concept of “Multi-spring model” and
modified for the wall element by Saito et.al. The vertical springs in the side columns are determined
independently in the same way as the Multi-spring models of columns. The wall panel section is devided in
5 areas, and a steel springs and a concrete spring are arranged at the center of each area.
l w1
lw
lw2
(a) Original column section

1 2 6 7
5 x 10
11 12 13 14 15
3 4 8 9
y Concrete spring
Steel spring
(b) Multi-spring model
(tension) (tension)
s fy
c d y
s dy
(compression) (compression)
(c) Hysteresis of steel spring (d) Hysteresis of concrete spring
Figure 3-3-7 Nonlinear vertical springs
151
Strength of steel spring in wall panel
The strength of the steel spring in the wall panel is one-fifth of total strength of rebars in the section,
a wV wy
s fy (3-3-17)
5
where,
aw : Total area of vertical rebar in the wall panel
V wy : Strength of rebar in the wall panel
Strength of concrete spring in wall panel
The strength of the concrete spring in the wall panel is one-fifth of total strength of concrete in the section,
0.85 A pV B
c fy (3-3-18)
5
where,
Ap : Total area of wall panel section
VB ： Compression strength of concrete
Yield displacement of vertical spring in wall panel

The yield displacements of steel and concrete springs in the wall panel are assumed to be the same as those
of the springs in the side columns.
d) Nonlinear shear spring

There are three nonlinear shear springs in x direction in wall panel and y direction in side columns.
Hysteresis model of the nonlinear shear springs is the same as that in the beam element in Figure 3-1-4.
Yield shear force
° 0.053 pt 0.23 (V B 18) ½°

Qy ® 0.85 p w V wy 0.1V 0 ¾b j (3-3-19)
°̄ M /(QD) 0.12 °¿
where,

M/(QD) : § Shear span-to-depth ratio (= l /( 2 D ) )
V0 : Axial stress of the column
152
Crack shear force
The crack shear force is, Qc , is assumed as,
Qy
Qc (3-3-20)
3
Ultimate shear force
The crack shear force is, Qu , is assumed as,
Qu Qc (3-3-21)
Crack shear deformation

The crack shear deformation is obtained as,
Qc
Jc (3-3-22)
GA
Yield shear displacement
The yield shear deformation is assumed as,
1
Jy (3-3-23)
250
Ultimate shear displacement
The ultimate shear deformation is assumed as,
1
Ju (3-3-24)
100
Q y1 Q xc Qy2
Q y1 Q xc Qy2
Figure 3-3-8 Nonlinear shear springs in the wall
153
e) Modification of initial stiffness of nonlinear springs
The same modification can be done for the nonlinear springs of wall element as described for those of
beam and column elements by reducing the initial stiffness of the nonlinear spring and increasing the
stiffness of the elastic element as shown in the following figure:
M
I W
T
T
I W
A
Moment distribution
M
M M M
My My
2 EI
Mc k0 = + Mc
l
k0 ky D y k0 k0 kp | f
Tc Ty T W Ic I y I
Increase Reduce
stiffness stiffness
M M
My
+ Mc
k *
0
k *p
W Ic* I y* I
154
Introducint the concept of “plastic zones”, the initial stiffness of the i-th multi-spring can be expressed as,
Ei Ai
k 0i (3-3-25)
pz
where Ei : the material young’s modulus, Ai : the spring governed area, and pz : the length of assumed
plastic zone. When p z o 0 , it represents the infinite stiffness for rigid condition.
In the same manner of beam and column elements, introducing the flexibility reduction factors,
J 0 0, J 1 0, J 2 0 , the flexibility matrix of the elastic element is,
ª l' l' º
«J 1 3EI
6 EI c »
« c
»
« l' »
J2
« 3EI c »
« l' l' »
« J1 »
« 3EI 1 6 EI 1 »
« l' »
> fW @ « J2 » (3-3-26)
« 3EI 1 »
« J1
l'

l' »
« 3EI 2 6 EI 2 »
« l' »
« sym. J2 »
« 3EI 2 »
« l' »
« J0 »
¬ EAc ¼
l'
Also, adopting p z as discussed for beam and column elements, the reduction factors will be:
10
J1 J2 0.7 , J 0 0.8 (3-3-27)
155
f) Reduction factor of shear stiffness
If shear cracking occurs in the reinforced concrete wall, the shear stiffness decreases. The following graph
shows the test results of the relationship between the stiffness reduction factor E and the lateral drift
3
angle R u 10 (referred from “Standard for Structural Calculation of Reinforced Concrete Structure”,
Architectural Institute of Japan).
For example, if the lateral drift angle is over than 1/1000, the reduction factor becomes less than 0.2.
Therefore, STERA_3D assumes the “Reduction Factor for Stiffness” is 0.2 in the default setting for the
option of the RC wall element.
156
3.3.1 Direct Wall
Direct Wall identifies the force-displacement points in the back-bone curves of the nonlinear shear spring
and the nonlinear bending spring.
M ' yBc
h X
M ' yAc
Different types of hysteresis model are prepared for the force-deformation relationship of the spring.
qi qi
ky ky
fy fy
fc k1 fc k1
k0 ui k0 ui
(a) Normal-trilinear (b) Degrading-trilinear
Figure 3-3-11 Hysteresis model of the shear and bending springs
157
3.3.2 Steel Wall (Brace)
a) Buckling of brace
3 B 4
N', G '
Z
h
1 2 X
A
w Y
Figure 3-3-12 Element model for brace
Under the compression load, the stress of buckling failure is calculated theoretically as
S 2E
VE ,
O2
L
where O : slenderness ratio
i
If V E ! V y (strength of steel), the compression failure will occur before buckling.
Figure 3-3-13 Relationship between buckling stress and slenderness ratio
158
The AIJ (Architectural Institute of Japan) guideline adopts the following equation for the stress of buckling.
V cr ^1 0.4 O O `Vp
2
y , for O d O p (3-3-28)
0.6
V cr Vy, for O ! O p (3-3-29)
O O p
S 2E
where Op : Critical slenderness ratio
0.6V y
b) Hysteresis model
The hysteresis model proposed by Wakabayashi et. al. is adopted in STERA_3D (hereinafter referred to as
Wakabayashi model). The model consists of four Stages A, B, C and D.
ı [N/mm2] ı [N/mm2]
300.00 300.00
Stage A
250.00 250.00
200.00 200.00
150.00 Ȝ=60 Ȝ=60
150.00
100.00 100.00
50.00 50.00 Stage D
0.00 0.00
-50.00 -50.00
-100.00 -100.00
-150.00 -150.00
-200.00 -200.00
-250.00
İ -250.00 İ
-0.004 -0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004 -0.004 -0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004
Stage A: tension failure with constant strength Stage D: unloading stage
ı [N/mm2] ı [N/mm2]
300.00 300.00
250.00 250.00
200.00 200.00
Ȝ=60 150.00 Ȝ=60
150.00
Stage C
100.00 100.00
Stage D
50.00 50.00
0.00 0.00
-50.00 -50.00
-100.00 -100.00
-150.00 Stage B -150.00
-200.00 -200.00
-250.00
İ -250.00 İ
-0.004 -0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004 -0.004 -0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004
Stage B: buckling failure and strength reduction Stage C: tension stage after buckling
159
The compression curve (Stage B) and the tension curve (Stage C) are defined using the nondimensional
strength and deformation as,
n N / N 0 : nondimensional strength
G ' / ' 0 : nondimensional deformation
where N : axial load, N 0 AV y : axial strength (A: area, V y : yielding stress of steel)
' : displacement, ' 0 LH y LV y E : yield deformation
Both curves are assumed to be the following form
n 1 aG b
r
where a , b : parameters of the function of nondimensional Euler load nE VE /V y S 2 E O 2V y
b-1) Compression Curve

Compression curve (Stage B) is defined from the following empirical formula,
n 1 p1G p2
12
10 nE 1
where p1 , p2 4 nE 0.6
3
Compression strength nc is also on this curve, therefore,
1 p1G c p2
12
nc
or p1nc 2G c p2 nc 1 0
Nc E 'c / L A 'c
Since nc G
N0 E ' / L A '
Finally nc is obtained by solving
p1nc 3 p2 nc 1 0
b-2) Tension Curve

Tension curve (Stage C) is defined from the following empirical formula,
n 1 p3G 1
32
1
where p3
3.1 nE 1.4
160
b-3) Movement of Tension Curve
Movement of tension curve x is defined as follows:
x ln q1G a 1 q2 s Ga s x
3 1 nE
where q1 , q2 0.115 nE 0.36
10
b-4) Movement of Compression Curve

Movement of compression curve y is defined to satisfy the following relationship
y Gb
y0 G b0 G b0
Gb
y
y0
161
b-5) Movement of Compression Curve
The point shifting from the unloading Stage D to Stage C is obtained by assuming that the
plastic tension deformation G t is proportional to the plastic compression deformation G c as
G t q3G c
Gt
where q3 0.3 nE 0.24
Gc
Example
O 60
Starting from compression Starting from tension

O 120
Starting from compression Starting from tension
References
M. Shibata, T. Nakayama and M. Wakabayashi, "Mathematical Expression of Hysteretic Behavior of
Braces", Research Report, Architectural Institute of Japan, No. 316, pp.18-24, 1982.6 (in Japanese)
162
3.3.3 SRC Wall (Brace)
b) Nonlinear shear spring
Yield shear force
Qy Qy , RC Qy , S (3-3-30)
where
Qy , RC : Yield shear force of reinforced concrete
0.053 pt 0.23 (V B 18) ½

Qy , RC ® 0.85 pw V wy 0.1V 0 ¾b j (3-3-31)
¯ M /(QD) 0.12 ¿
Qy , S : Yield shear force of steel
Qy , S AS V y , S cos R (3-3-32)
where,
AS : Area of steel (mm2)
V y, S : Strength of steel (N/mm2)
R : Angle of steel
163
3.4 External Spring
G zB
G yA Z
B
A A
G xA B
G xB X
B
Y
G yB A
G zA
Figure 3-4-1 Element model for external spring
3.4.1 Lift up spring
N
tension
G
K0
compression
ground
Figure 3-4-2 Hysteresis model of the external spring
In STERA_3D, if there is no building element at one end of the external spring, this end is considered fixed.
Such spring is used to express the stiffness the ground attached to the building. In such a case, as the
relationship between axial force and deformation of the spring, the linear stiffness is defined only in
compression side and zero stiffness in the tension side as shown in Figure 3-4-2, assuming that the building
detaches from the ground.
164
3.4.2 Air spring
Reference:
1) Marin Presthus, “Derivation of Air Spring Model Parameters for Train Simulation”, Master of Science
Programme, Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Luleå University of
Technology, Sweden, 2002
Figure 3-4-3 Air spring ( V : volume, p : relative pressure, A : area)
An effective area Ae is introduced to express the volume change of air bag 'Vb as
'Vb Ae z (3-4-1)
When the initial pressure of air spring is p0 , after the deflection, the pressure will change as
pb p0 'pb for air bag (3-4-2a)
pr p0 'pr for reservoir (3-4-2b)
The volume will also change as
Vb Vb 0 zAe zs As for air bag (3-4-3a)
Vr Vr 0 zs As for reservoir (3-4-3b)
where
zs : the movement of air mass through orifice
As : area of surge pipe
The pressure and the volume of the isentropic process can be described by
p1 V1n p2 V2n (3-4-4)
where
p1 , V1 : initial pressure and volume
p2 , V2 : final pressure and volume
n : ratio of specific heat = 1.4 for Air
165
Applying the above equation to the air bag
p0 'pb Vb0 zAe zs As

n
p0 Vbn0 (3-4-5a)
n
§ zA z A ·
p0 'pb ¨1 e s s ¸ p0 (3-4-5b)
© Vb 0 ¹
by using Taylor expansion 1 x | 1 nx

n
( x 1)
§ 'pb · § n zAe zs As ·
¨1 ¸ ¨1 ¸ 1 (3-4-5c)
© p0 ¹ © Vb 0 ¹
§ 'pb · § zAe zs As ·
Assuming ¨ ¸¨ ¸|0
© p0 ¹ © Vb 0 ¹
'pb n zAe zs As
| (3-4-5d)
p0 Vb 0
Using the same procedure for the reservoir
p0 'pr Vr 0 zs As
n
p0 Vrn0 (3-4-6a)
'pr nzs As
| (3-4-6b)
p0 Vr 0
From the Bernoulli equation, the difference of the pressure between the left and right of the pipe speeds up
a portion of gas through the orifice. The force balance in the pipe is given by
As 'pb 'pr Cs zs E (3-4-7a)
where
E : viscous damping parameter determined by experiment
Substituting Eq. (3-4-5d) and (3-4-6b),
§ zA z A z A ·
p0 As n ¨ e s s s s ¸ Cs zs E (3-4-7b)
© Vb 0 Vr 0 ¹
np0 As Ae § Vb 0 As § 1 1 · · E
¨z ¨ ¸ zs ¸¸ Cs zs (3-4-7c)
Vb 0 ¨© Ae © Vb 0 Vr 0 ¹ ¹
166
The force balance for the piston can be expressed as
Fz Ae pb patm (3-4-8)
where
patm : atmospheric pressure
Substituting Eq. (3-4-2a),
Fz p0 'pb patm Ae
'pb Ae p0 patm Ae
n zAe zs As
p0 Ae p0 patm Ae
Vb 0
np0 Ae 2 § As ·
¨ z zs ¸ p0 patm Ae (3-4-9)
Vb 0 © Ae ¹
From Eq. (3-4-7c)
np0 As Ae § As § Vb 0 Vr 0 · · E
¨¨ z ¨ ¸ zs ¸¸ Cs zs (3-4-10)
Vb 0 © Ae © Vr 0 ¹ ¹
Vr 0
O
Vb 0 Vr 0
np0 Ae 2 § As · Ae
¨z zs ¸ Cs zs E (3-4-11)
Vb 0 © Ae O ¹ As
np0 Ae 2 O § 1 As ·
Fz ¨ z zs ¸ p0 patm Ae (3-4-12)
Vb 0 © O Ae O ¹
np0 Ae 2 O np0 Ae 2 Vr 0 Vr 0 np0 Ae 2

Kv Ke , Ke
Vb 0 Vb 0 Vr 0 Vb 0 Vb 0 Vb 0 Vr 0
As
Introducing a new variable y zs
Ae O
E E
A § AO· A § AO·
Kv z y O e ¨ e ¸ Cs y E E
CE y , CE O e ¨ e ¸ Cs (3-4-13)
As © As ¹ As © As ¹
§1 · §1 ·
Fz K v ¨ z y ¸ p0 patm Ae K v z y K v ¨ 1¸ z p0 patm Ae (3-4-14)
©O ¹ ©O ¹
Therefore Fz
K v z y CE y E (3-4-15)
Kv z
Ke
Fz K v z y K e z p0 patm Ae (3-4-16) CE y
167
Incremental form of equation is
Fz ( n1) Kv z( n1) y( n1) Ke z( n1) (3-4-17)
z( n1) z( n) 't z tn1

y( n1) y( n ) 't y tn1
Then
E
§y y ·
CE ¨ ( n1) ( n ) ¸ Kv z( n1) y( n1) (3-4-18)
© 't ¹
The solution of Eq. (3-4-18) is obtained by solving the following equation:

E
§y y ·
f y( n1) CE ¨ ( n1) ( n ) ¸ Kv z( n1) y( n1) 0 (3-4-19)
© 't ¹
Its derivative regarding y( n1) is
E 1
E CE § y( n1) y( n) ·
f ' y( n1) ¨ ¸ Kv (3-4-20)
't © 't ¹
A Newton-Raphson method is applied to solve the nonlinear equation f y( n1) 0

f y( n1)
y( n1) new y( n1)old
f ' y( n1)
where the prime f ' y( n1) denotes derivative with respect to y( n1) ,
f y
y
new old
y( n1) y( n1)
168
3.5 Base Isolation
The element model of base isolation consists of shear springs arranged in x-y plane changing its direction
with equal angle interval as shown in Figure 3-5-1. This model is called MSS (Multi-Shear Spring) model
developed by Wada et al.
x x qi , u i
y Ti x
Figure 3-5-1 Element model of base isolation
a) Nonlinear shear spring
The hysteresis model of each nonlinear shear spring is defined as a bi-linear model as shown in Figure
3-5-2. The force and displacement vectors of i-th shear spring are expressed as,
qi , x ½ ªcos T i º
® ¾ « sin T » qi (3-5-1)
¯q i , y ¿ ¬ i ¼
u x ½
ui >cos T i
sin T i @® ¾ (3-5-2)
¯u y ¿
From the relationship, qi k i u i , the constitutive equation of i-th shear spring is,
qi , x ½ ªcos T i º u x ½ ª cos 2 T i cos T i sin T i º u x ½

® ¾ ki « »>cos T i sin T i @® ¾ « »® ¾ (3-5-3)
¯q i , y ¿ ¬ sin T i ¼ ¯u y ¿ ¬cos T i sin T i sin 2 T i ¼ ¯u y ¿
qi
fy ky qi , y
qi
qi , x
k0
ui Ti x
dy
Figure 3-5-2 Hysteresis model of the shear spring
169
From the sum of all nonlinear shear springs in the element, the constitutive equation of the base isolation
element is,
Q x ½ § N ª cos 2 T i cos T i sin T i º ·u x ½

® ¾ ¨ ¦ ki « » ¸® ¾ (3-5-4)
¯Q y ¿
¨ i 1 cos T sin T
© ¬ i i sin 2 T i ¼ ¸¹¯u y ¿
where, N is the number of shear springs in an element. In STERA_3D, N=6 is selected.
First and second stiffness
We assume that all nonlinear shear springs in an element have the same stiffness and strength. The initial
stiffness of the base isolation element, K 0 , is obtained from Equation (3-5-4) by substituting
ux 1, u y 0.
§ N ·
K0 ¨ ¦ cos 2 T i ¸k 0 (3-5-5)
©i1 ¹
Therefore, the initial stiffness of each shear spring is,
K0
k0 N
(3-5-6)
¦ cos
i 1
2
Ti
The same relationship is established for the second stiffness after yielding,
Ky
ky N
(3-5-7)
¦ cos
i 1
2
Ti
where, K y and k y are the second stiffness after yielding for the base isolation element and the
nonlinear shear spring, respectively.
Yield shear force

The yield shear force of the base isolation element, Q y , is obtained assuming that all the nonlinear shear
springs reach their yielding points except the spring perpendicular to the loading direction, and the increase
of the force after yielding is negligible (Figure 3-5-3). That is,
§ N ·
Qy ¨ ¦ cos T i ¸ f y (3-5-8)
©i1 ¹
Therefore, the yield shear force of each shear spring is,
Qy
fy N
(3-5-9)
¦ cosT
i 1
i
170
fy
fy
Qy Ti fy
fy
fy
Figure 3-5-3 Assumption of yield shear force
171
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Reference
1) Terje Haukaas and Armen Der Kiureghian, “Finite Element Reliability and Sensitivity Methods for
Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering”, PEER 2003/14, APRIL 2004
2) Wen, Y.-K. (1976) “Method for random vibration of hysteretic systems." Journal of Engineering
Mechanics Division, 102(EM2), 249-263.
3) Baber, T. T. and Noori, M. N. (1985). “Random vibration of degrading, pinching systems." Journal
of Engineering Mechanics, 111(8), 1010-1026.
a) Basic formulation
The basic formula of Bouc-Wen model is
f D k x D k z (A5-1)
z
^
Ax E x z
N
z J x z
N
`Q (A5-2)
K
where, E J , and N are parameters that control the shape of the hysteresis loop, while A, Q , and K
are variables that control the material degradation.
From the yield deformation, G y , the parameters E J are expressed as,
E E G yN and J J G yN (A5-3)
The model can be written as,
A z
N
Ê VJQxz J `Q wz wx
z x (A5-4)
K wx wt
186
This leads to the following expression for the continuum tangent
wf wz A z
N
Ê VJQxz J `Q
k D k D k D k D k (A5-5)
wx wx K
The evolution of material degradation is governed by the following choice of equations (Baber and
Noori 1985):
A A G A e Q GQ e K GK e (A5-6)
where e is defined by the rate equation
e D k z x (A5-7)
and A G A GQ and G K are user-defined parameters.
b) Incremental form for numerical analysis

Incremental form of Eq.(A5-1) is
f n D k x n D k z n (A5-8)
By a backward Euler solution,
z n z n 't zt n
(A5-9)
x n x n 't x t n
Applied to Eq. (A5-4),
N
° § x n x n · ½°
A n z n ®E VJQ¨¨ z n ¸¸ J ¾ Q n
°̄ © 't ¹ °¿ x n x n
z n z n 't (A5-10)
K n 't
where
A n A G A e n Q n GQ e n K n G K e n (A5-11)
x n x n
e n e n 't D k z n
't (A5-12)
e n D k z n xn xn
Since
§ x n x n ·
VJQ¨¨ z n ¸¸ VJQ^x n x n z n ` (A5-13)
© 't ¹
187
)
f z n z n z n x n x n (A5-14)
K n
N
) A n z n < Q n (A5-15)
< E VJQ^x n x n z n ` J (A5-16)
A Newton-Raphson method is applied to solve the nonlinear equation f z n ,
f z n
z new n
z old (A5-17)
f
z n
n
where the prime f

z n denotes derivative with
respect to z n ,
f z n
z
new old
z n z n
Evaluation of the function derivatives is summarized below.
Original f z n Function derivatives f

z n
x n x n x n x n
e n e n 't D k z n e
n 't D k
't 't
A n A G A e n A
n G A e
n
Q n GQ e n Q
n GQ e
n
K n G K e n K
n G K e
n
)
N
A n z n < Q n )
A
n N z n
N

VJQ z n < Q n
N
z n <Q
n
) )
K n )K
n
f z n z n z n x n x n f
z n x x n
K n K n n
(A5-18)
188
The procedure can now be summarized as follows:
1. While ( z n z n ! tol )

new old
(a) Evaluate function
e n e n D k z n x n x n
A n A G A e n Q n GQ e n K n G K e n
< E VJQ^x n x n z n ` J
N
) A n z n < Q n
)
f z n z n z n x n x n (A5-19)
K n
(b) Evaluate function derivatives
x n x n
e
n 't D k
't
A
n G A e
n
Q
n GQ e
n
K
n G K e
n
VJQz n < Q n z n <Q

n
N N
)
A
n N z n
)
K n )K
n
f
z n x n x n (A5-20)
K n
(c) Obtain trial value in the Newton-Raphson scheme
f z n
znew z n (A5-21)
f
z n
n
(d) Update z n
zold
n z n and z n znew
n (A5-22)
189
c)) Tangent stiffness
The tangent stiffness is necessary to compute the nonlinear structural analysis.
From the incremental forms:
f n D k x n D k z n
N
° § x n x n · ½°
A n z n ®E VJQ¨¨ z n ¸¸ J ¾ Q n
°̄ © 't ¹ °¿ x n x n
z n z n 't
K n 't
The tangent stiffness is calculated as (T. Haukaas and A. D. Kiureghian, 2004);
wf n wz n
k n D k D k (A5-23)
wx n wx n
wz n b
(A5-24)
wx n b
where
< E VJQ^x n x n z n ` J
N
) A n z n < Q n
b D k z n
b D k x n x n
b
x n x n
K n
) )
b bG Ab b z n <GQ b
N
x
n x n GK b
K
n K n
VJQz n <Q n

N
b bG Ab b N z n
)
N
b z n <GQ b x n x n GK b
Kn
190
3.6 Masonry Wall
B1 B B2
N ' z1 , H ' z1 N 'z 2 , H 'z 2

l
Q' xc , H ' xc
A1 A2
A
Figure 3-6-1 Element model for masonry wall
a) Nonlinear shear spring
Hysteresis model of the nonlinear shear spring is defined as the poly-linear slip model as shown in Figure
3-6-2.
Q
Q
Qy
Dk 0
Qc J
Qu
k0
Jc Jy Ju J
Figure 3-6-2 Hysteresis model of the nonlinear shear spring
The characteristic values, Qc , Q y , Qu are obtained based on the formulation described in the reference
(Paulay and Priestley, 1992).
The procedure to obtain the shear strength is shown below:
191
(1) Compression strength of masonry prism
Compression strength of diagonal strut is

R Z t f 'm (3-6-1)
where,
f 'm : Compression strength of the masonry prism
Z : Width of the diagonal strut (Z = 0.25 d, d is diagonal length)
t : Thickness of wall
The compression strength of the masonry prism ( f ' m ) is determined by the following equation (Paulay and
Priestley, 1992),
f ' cb ( f 'tb Df ' j )
f 'm (3-6-2)
U u ( f 'tb Df ' cb )
j
D (3-6-3)
4.1hb
where,
f 'cb : Compressive strength of the brick
f 'tb : Tensile strength of the brick (= 0.1 f ' cb )
f 'j : Compressive strength of the mortar
j : Mortar joint thickness
hb : Height of masonry unit
Uu : Stress non-uniformity coefficient (=1.5)
The shear strength is then obtained as,

Vc R cos T Z t f ' m cos T (3-6-4)
192
(2) Shear strength by sliding shear failure
The maximum shear stress is obtained from the Mohr-Coulomb criterion:
Wf W 0 PV 0 W 0 tan I V 0 (3-6-5)
where,
W0 : Cohesive capacity of the mortar beds (=0.04 f ' m ) (Paulay and Priestly, 1992)
P : Sliding friction coefficient along the bed joint
P 0.654 0.000515 f ' j (Chen et.al, 2003)
V0 : Compression stress ( W / Aw R sin T / Aw )
The shear strength is
§ W ·
Vf W f AW ¨¨W 0 P ¸ AW W 0 Aw PW (3-6-6)
© AW ¸¹
Substituting V f R cos T , W R sin T

where T is an angle subtended by diagonal strut to horizontal plane
R cos T W 0 Aw PR sin T
R cos T 1 P tan T W 0 Aw (3-6-7)
W 0 Aw
R cos T
1 P tan T
Therefore,
W 0 Aw
Vf (3-6-8)
1 P tan T
193
(3) Characteristic values of nonlinear skeleton
The shear resistance, Q y , is calculated to be the minimum value between the shear strength by sliding
shear failure, V f , and the shear strength of diagonal compression failure, Vc , that is,
Qy min(V f , Vc ) (3-6-9)
The shear displacement at the maximum resistance, J y , is obtained as (Madan et al.,1997),
H 'm d m
Jy (3-6-10)
cos T
where,
H 'm : Compression strain at the maximum compression stress
( H ' m =0.0018, Hossein and Kabeyasawa, 2004)
Initial elastic stiffness is assumed as (Madan et al., 1997)
k0 2Q y / J y (3-6-11)G
From Figure 3-6-2, the shear resistance at crack, Qc , is obtained as,

Q y Dk 0 J y
Qc (3-6-12)
1D
where, D is the stiffness ratio of the second stiffness and assumed to be 0.2.
Shear displacement at crack is then obtained as,

Jc Qc / k 0 (3-6-13)
Shear resistance and displacement at the ultimate stage are assumed as (Hossein & Kabeyasawa, 2004)
Qu 0.3Q y (3-6-14)
Ju 3.5(0.01hm J y ) (3-6-15)
where, hm is the height of masonry wall.
References:
1) T. Pauley, M.J.N. Priestley, 1992, Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry building, JOHN
WILEY & SONS, INC.
2) Hossein Mostafaei, Toshimi Kabeyasawa, 2004, Effect of Infill Walls on the Seismic Response of
Reinforced Concrete Buildings Subjected to the 2003 Bam Earthquake Strong Motion : A Case Study of
Bam Telephone Centre, Bulletin Earthquake Research Institute, The university of Tokyo
3) A. Madan,A.M. Reinhorn, ,J. B. Mandar, R.E. Valles, 1997, Modeling of Masonry Infill Panels for
Structural Analysis, Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, Vol.114, No.8, pp.1827-1849
194
b) Vertical springs
For the moment, the vertical springs of the element model in Figure 3-6-1 are assumed to be elastic springs.
N ' z1 k z H ' z1 , N 'z2 k zH 'z2 (3-6-16)
kz E m (tl w ) / 2 (3-6-17)
where,
Em : Modulus of elasticity of masonry prism (=550 f ' m , FEMA 356, 2000)
t : Thickness of masonry wall
lw : Width of masonry wall
195
3.7 Passive Damper
a) Hysteresis damper
Hysteresis damper is modeled as a shear spring as shown in Figure 3-7-1.
B1 B B2
l
Q' xc , H ' xc
A1 A2
A
Different types of hysteresis model are prepared for the force-deformation relationship of the spring.
(1) Bi-linear Model

f f f
k2
k2
k1 k1 k2
x x 䠇㻌 x
xy xm 㻩㻌
(2) Normal-trilinear Model

f f1 f 2 f1 f2
x x x
㻩㻌㻗㻌
196
(3) Degrading Tri-linear model
p My
P
n Tm kr
ks Ts Tm
p Ty p p
My Tm
k y PD , k y , P
p p
kr
p Ty pT y
Mm
Mm ks km P E , km n
n
nT m pT s
(4) Bouc-Wen model

y y y
A 1 A 1 A 1

D 0.01 D 0.01 D 0.01
x x x
E 0.5, J 0.5, N 10 E 0.5, J 0.5, N 2 E 0.1, J 0.9, N 2
(5) Nonlinear Spring model
f
k2
k1 x
xy xm
Figure 3-7-2 Hysteresis model of the shear spring
197
b) Viscous damper
Viscous damper is modeled as a shear spring as shown in Figure 3-7-3.
B1 B B2
A1 A2
A
(1) Algorithm for oil damper devise
Figure 3-7-4 shows the Maxwell model with an elastic spring with stiffness, K d , and a dashpot with
damping coefficient, C.
Fij, uij
Node i Node j
Fk, uk Fc, u㹡
Figure 3-7-4 Maxwell model
Since the elastic spring and the dashpot are connected in a series,
Fk Fc Fij (3-7-1)
where, Fk : force of the elastic spring
Fc : force of the dashpot
Fij : force between i-j nodes
198
The force of the elastic spring, Fk , is obtained as,
Fk K d uk K d (uij uc ) (3-7-2)
where, u k : relative displacement of the elastic spring
u c : relative displacement of the dashpot
uij : relative displacement between i-j nodes
For an oil damper, the force-velocity relationship of the dashpot is defined as shown in Figure 3-7-5.
Fc
relief point
.
uc
Figure 3-7-5 Dashpot element

The force of the dashpot after the relief point is,
Fc C 2 u c Qc (3-7-3)
Substituting Equations (3-7-2) and (3-7-3) into (3-7-1)

K d (u ij u c ) C 2 u c Qc (3-7-4)
When the time interval ǻt is small enough, the velocity at time t can be expressed as,
'u c (t )
u c (t ) (3-7-5)
't
'u c (t ) u c (t ) u c (t 't ) (3-7-6)
Substituting above equations into Equation (3-7-4),

K d u ij (t ) u c (t 't ) Qc
'u c (t ) (3-7-7)
C2
Kd
't
The algorithm to obtain the force Fij (t ) from u ij (t ) is as follows:

1) Evaluate 'u c (t ) from Equation (3-7-7)
2) Evaluate u c (t ) from Equation (3-7-6)
3) Evaluate Fij (t ) from Equation (3-7-2)
199
Before the relief point of the dashpot, Equation (3-7-7) will be obtained by changing C2 o C1 , Qc 0
as

K d u ij (t ) u c (t 't )
'u c (t ) (3-7-8)
C1
Kd
't
When the velocity of the dashpot is over the negative relief point, Equation (3-7-7) will be obtained by
changing Qc o Qc ,

K d u ij (t ) u c (t 't ) Qc
'u c (t ) (3-7-9)
C2
Kd
't
In case there is no elastic spring,
Fij, uij
Node i Node j
Fc, u㹡
Figure 3-7-6 Dashpot element without elastic spring
u ij (t ) u c (t )
Fuj Fc C 2 u c Qc
'u c (t ) 'u ij (t )
u c (t )
't 't
Therefore,
'u ij (t )
Fij (t ) C2 Qc (3-7-10)
't
Before the relief point of the dashpot,

'u ij (t )
Fij (t ) C1 (3-7-11)
't
When the velocity of the dashpot is over the negative relief point,
'u ij (t )
Fij (t ) C2 Qc (3-7-12)
't
200
(2) Algorithm for viscous damper devise
Figure 3-7-7 shows the Maxwell model with an elastic spring with stiffness, K d , and a dashpot with
damping coefficient, C.
Fij, uij
Node i Node j
Fk, uk Fc, u㹡
Figure 3-7-7 Maxwell model
Since the elastic spring and the dashpot are connected in a series,
Fk Fc Fij (3-7-13)
where, Fk : force of the elastic spring
Fc : force of the dashpot
Fij : force between i-j nodes
The force of the elastic spring, Fk , is obtained as,

Fk K d uk K d (uij uc ) (3-7-14)
where, u k : relative displacement of the elastic spring
u c : relative displacement of the dashpot
uij : relative displacement between i-j nodes
For a viscous damper, the force-velocity relationship of the dashpot is defined as shown in Figure 3-7-8,
Figure 3-7-8 Dashpot element

That is,
C sgn u c (t ) u c (t )
D
Fc (3-7-15)
201
From Equations (3-7-13) and (3-7-14)
Fij (t )
u c (t ) u ij (t ) (3-7-16)
Kd
Taking time differential and substituting Equation (3-7-15) give
1/ D
Fij (t ) § Fij (t ) ·
Kd

sgn Fij (t ) ¨
¨ C
¸
¸
u ij (t ) (3-7-17)
© ¹
The numerical integration method, Runge-Kutta Method, can be used to solve the Equation (3-7-17).
In general, the solution of the differential equation, y (t ) f ( y, t ) , is obtained by Rungu-Kuttta Method as

follows:
y n 1 yn
1
k 0 2k1 2k 2 k 3 (3-7-18)
6
k0 f ( y n , t n )'t
k1 f ( y n k 0 / 2, t n 't / 2)'t
k2 f ( y n k1 / 2, t n 't / 2)'t
k3 f ( y n k 2 , t n 't )'t
Equation (3-7-17) can be written as

1/ D
§ § Fij (t ) · ·¸
¨

Fij (t ) ¨ u ij (t ) sgn Fij (t )¨
¨ C ¸ ¸ d
¸ K (3-7-19)
¨ © ¹ ¹ ¸
©
Applying Runge-Kutta Method gives the following algorithm,
Fij (t n 1 ) Fij (t n )
1
k 0 (t n ) 2k1 (t n ) 2k 2 (t n ) k 3 (t n ) (3-7-20)
6
1/ D
§ § Fij (t n ) · ·¸
¨
k0 ¨
¨ u ij (t n ) sgn Fij (t n ) ¨ ¸
¸ ¸ d
K 't
¨ ©
C
¹ ¹ ¸
©
1/ D
§ § Fij (t n ) k 0 / 2 · ·¸
¨
k1
¨ u ij (t n 't / 2) sgn Fij (t n ) k 0 / 2 ¨
¨ ¸
¸ ¸ d
K 't
¨ ©
C
¹ ¹ ¸
©
1/ D
§ § Fij (t n ) k1 / 2 · ·¸
¨
k2
¨ u ij (t n 't / 2) sgn Fij (t n ) k1 / 2 ¨
¨ ¸
¸ ¸ d
K 't
¨ ©
C
¹ ¹ ¸
©
1/ D
§ § Fij (t n ) k 2 · ·
¨ ¸
k3
¨ u ij (t n 't ) sgn Fij (t n ) k 2 ¨
¨
¸
¸ ¸ K d 't
¨ ©
C
¹ ¸
© ¹
202
In this algorithm, it is assumed as,
u ij (t n ) u ij (t n 't )
u ij (t n 't / 2) (3-7-21)
2
203
3.8 Ground Spring
3.8.1 Soil structure interaction
a) When building and foundation on ground is subjected to an earthquake excitation, the system can be
divided into two parts: b-1) building and foundation with interaction forces and b-2) ground with zero-mass
foundation subjected to the reaction of interaction forces and an earthquake excitation, which can be
divided further into c-1) zero-mass foundation subjected to an earthquake excitation (kinematic
interaction) and c-2) zero-mass foundation subjected to the reaction of interaction forces (inertia
interaction).
b-1) Building and foundation
a) Building and foundation
c-1) Kinematic interaction

Ground
G
Input ground motion b-2) Ground with zero-mass foundation
G
c-2) Inertia interaction
204
In case of c-2), the force-displacement relationship is written as,
PG ½ ª KH KHR ºuG ½
® ¾ « »® ¾ (3-8-1)
¯MG ¿ ¬KHS KR ¼¯TG ¿
where PG , MG are sway and rocking forces corresponding to the interaction forces between the
superstructure (building-foundation) and the ground, uG , TG are sway and rocking displacements. This
stiffness matrix is called “dynamic impedance matrix”.
If we neglect the coupling between sway and rocking degrees of freedom, the dynamic impedance matrix is
evaluated separately from the d-1) sway impedance KH and d-2) rocking impedance KR as follows:
PG ½ ªKH 0 º uG ½
® ¾ « »® ¾ (3-8-2)
¯MG ¿ ¬ 0 KR ¼ ¯TG ¿
d-1) Sway
PG , uG
c-2) Inertia interaction

M G , TG PG KH uG
PG , uG
G
d-2) Rocking
M G , TG
PG ½ ª KH KHR ºuG ½ G
® ¾ « »® ¾
¯MG ¿ ¬KHS KR ¼¯TG ¿
MG KR TG
205
This corresponds to the Sway-Rocking model as shown below:
c-2) Inertia interaction c-2) Sway-Rocking model
M G , TG M G , TG
PG , uG PG , uG
KH
G G
KR
Finally, the soil-structure interaction is

implemented adding the sway and rocking
springs at the bottom of superstructure.
KH
KR
Input ground motion
It is important to note that the input ground motion to an embedded foundation is smaller than the input
ground motion in the free field due to the influence of the embedding of the foundation. This effect is called
“kinematic interaction”.
Free filed Embedded foundation
206
3.8.2 Cone model to calculate the static stiffness
The cone model is proposed by Wolf [1994] for determining the dynamic stiffness of a foundation on the
ground. The foundation is assumed as an equivalent rigid cylinder and only vertically incident shear wave
is considered. In case of the stratified ground, a simplified formulation is proposed by IIba et.al. [2000]
without considering the reflection and refraction coefficients at the boundary of the soil layer to obtain the
static stiffness. The following formulation is adopted in the STERA_3D software.
Reference:
1) John P Wolf, Foundation Vibration Analysis Using Simple Physical Models, Prentice Hall, 1994
2) Iiba M., Miura K and Koyamada K, "Simplified Method for Static Soil Stiffness of Surface Foundation",
Proceedings of AIJ Annual Meeting, 303-304, AIJ, 2000. (in Japanese)
a) Sway spring
Consider a semi-infinite cone whose area increases in the depth direction. First, we show the calculation
method of the horizontal ground spring (sway spring) for the rectangular foundation 2b u 2c (ground
surface foundation or embedded foundation). The equivalent radius of a circle having the same area is
bc
obtained as r0 2 .
S
2r0
The forces of the minute portion at the distance z from the apex of the cone are:
・Shear force at the upper surface
wu
Q S r 2GJ S r 2G (3-8-3)
wz
・Shear force at the lower surface
2
§ § dz · · w § wu · § dz · 2 § wu w u ·
2 2
dQ
Q dz S ¨ ¨1 ¸ r ¸ G ¨ u dz ¸ S ¨1 ¸ r G ¨ 2 dz ¸
dz ©© z ¹ ¹ wz © wz ¹ © z ¹ © wz wz ¹
(3-8-4)
Considering the static case ignoring the inertial force acting on the minute part, from the balancing of
forces,
207
§ dQ ·
Î ¨Q dz ¸ Q 0
© dz ¹
dz · 2 § wu w 2u · wu
2
§
Î S ¨1 ¸ r G ¨ 2 dz ¸ S r G
2
0
© z ¹ © wz wz ¹ wz
§ dz · § wu w 2u · wu
2
w 2u § dz § dz ·2 · § wu w 2u ·
Î ¨1 ¸ ¨ dz ¸ 2
¨¨ z ¨© z ¸¹ ¸¸ ¨© wz wz 2 ¸¹
dz dz 0
© z ¹ © wz wz 2 ¹ wz wz 2 © ¹
Î Ignoring high-order small amount terms
w 2u 2 wu
0 (3-8-5)
wz 2 z wz
The solution to this equation can be expressed as follows:

A
u B (3-8-6)
z
where A and B as undetermined coefficients.
Assuming that the displacement on the ground surface is U and the displacement at the depth d is 0 as
boundary conditions,
A A
U B, 0 B (3-8-7)
l d
From this, the coefficient A is
A
l d l U (3-8-8)
d
Let Q0 be the shear force of the ground surface
wu § A· § ld ·
Q0 S r02G S r02G ¨
2 ¸
¨ S r02G ¸U (3-8-9)
wz © l ¹ © ld ¹
Therefore, the horizontal spring K H on the ground surface is
Q0 ld
KH S r02G (3-8-10)
U ld
Assuming that d is infinite,
S r02G
KH (3-8-11)
l
The horizontal spring of the circular rigid foundation on semi-infinite uniform ground is obtained
theoretically from the following formula.
8Gr0
KH (3-8-12)
2 Q
If the two springs are set to be equal, the distance l from the apex of the cone to the ground surface is
obtained as follows:
208
8Gr0 S r02G
o l
2 Q S r (3-8-13)
2 Q
0
l 8
In case of the stratified ground, consider a truncated cone of thickness di from the i-th layer of stratified
ground and zi be the coordinate of the bottom of the i-th layer. The radius of the truncated cone ri at
depth zi is then calculated as follows from the geometric relationship.
zi
ri r0 (3-8-14)
z0
The horizontal spring on the upper surface of this truncated cone is
2
z d §z · zi S r02G1 § Gi · zi zi 1
K i
S r Gi i 1 i
2
S ¨ i 1 r0 ¸ Gi ¨ ¸ (3-8-15)
zi 1 zi zi 1 © G1 ¹ z0 zi zi 1
H i 1
zi 1d i © z0 ¹ z0
The horizontal spring K hb at the base bottom position is obtained as a synthetic spring in which
horizontal springs of each layer are connected in series.
n 1
1 1
K hb
¦K
i 0
i
(3-8-16)
H
However, in the bottom layer,
S r02G1 § Gn · zn zn 1 S r02G1 § Gn · zn1

K n 1
¨ ¸ o ¨ ¸ zn o f (3-8-17)
© G1 ¹ z0 zn zn 1
H
z0 z0 © G1 ¹ z0
Finally, the horizontal ground spring K hb is obtained as,

K hb E h K1h (3-8-18)
where
1 S r02G1 S r02G1 8S r0G1
Eh , K1h
n
§1 · z0 l 2 Q
¦ ¨
i 1 © Di
¸
¹
§ Gi · zi zi 1 § Gn · zn 1
Di ¨ ¸ i 1, 2," , n 1 , D n ¨ ¸
© G1 ¹ z0 zi zi 1 © G1 ¹ z0
2 Q 1
z0 S r0
8
209
b) Rocking spring
Rotational spring can be obtained as follows, similar to the method for determining horizontal spring. For
the rectangular foundation 2b u 2c (ground surface foundation or embedded foundation, 2b is the
length in rotational direction), the equivalent radius of a circle having the same moment of inertia is
2b 2c .
3
4
obtained as rr 0
3S
S
') The moment of inertia of a circle Ic rr40
4
2b 2c
3
The moment of inertia of a rectangular Ib

12
2r0
wM
M dz
wz
The forces of the minute portion at the distance z from the apex of the cone are:
・Moment at the upper surface
wT S rr40 wT
M EI E (3-8-19)
wz 4 wz
・Moment at the lower surface
4
S §§ dz · · w § wT · S§ dz · 4 § wT w 2T ·
4
dM
M dz ¨ ¨ 1 ¸ rr 0 ¸ E ¨ T dz ¸ ¨1 ¸ rr 0 E ¨ 2 dz ¸
dz 4 ©© z ¹ ¹ wz © wz ¹ 4© z ¹ © wz wz ¹
(3-8-20)
Considering the static case ignoring the inertial force acting on the minute part, from the balancing of
forces,
§ dM ·
Î ¨M dz ¸ M 0
© dz ¹
S§
dz · 4 § wT w 2T · rr40 wu
4
Î ¨1 ¸ rr 0 E ¨ 2 dz ¸ E 0
4© z ¹ © wz wz ¹ 4 wz
Î Ignoring high-order small amount terms
w 2T 4 wT
0 (3-8-21)
wz 2 z wz
The solution to this equation can be expressed as follows:
210
A
T B (3-8-22)
z3
where A and B as undetermined coefficients.
Assuming that the rotational displacement on the ground surface is 4 and the displacement at the depth d
is 0 as boundary conditions,
A A
4 B, 0 B (3-8-23)
lr d
3
lr3
From this, the coefficient A is
lr d lr 3 4
3
A (3-8-24)
l r d lr 3
3
Let M 0 be the shear force of the ground surface
3 lr d
3
S rr40
wu § 3A ·
S rr40 S rr40
E¨ 4 ¸ 4
^ `
M0 E E (3-8-25)
wz lr d lr3 lr
3
4 4 © lr ¹ 4
Therefore, the rotational spring K R on the ground surface is
3 lr d
3
M0 S rr40
^ `
KR E (3-8-26)
4 lr d lr3 lr
3
4
Assuming that d is infinite,

3S rr40 E
KR (3-8-27)
4lr
The horizontal spring of the circular rigid foundation on semi-infinite uniform ground is obtained
theoretically from the following formula.
8Grr30
KR (3-8-28)
3 1 Q
If the two springs are set to be equal, the distance lr from the apex of the cone to the ground surface is
obtained as follows:
8Grr30 3S rr40 E 3S rr40 E

2G 1 Q o lr

9 1 Q 2 Sr (3-8-29)
3 1 Q
r0
4lr 4lr 16
211
In case of the stratified ground, consider a truncated cone of thickness di from the i-th layer of stratified
ground and zri be the coordinate of the bottom of the i-th layer. The radius of the truncated cone rri at
depth zri is then calculated as follows from the geometric relationship.
zri
rri rr 0 (3-8-30)
zr 0
The rotational spring on the upper surface of this truncated cone is
3 zri 1 di
3
i S rri41 3S rr40 E1 § Ei · zri3 zri3 1
¨ ¸
^ `
K Ei

(3-8-31)
zri 1 di zri3 1 zri 1 4 zr 0 © E1 ¹ zr30 zri3 zri3 1
R 3
4
The rotational spring K rb at the base bottom position is obtained as a synthetic spring in which rotational
springs of each layer are connected in series.
n 1
1 1
K rb
¦Ki 0
i
(3-8-32)
R
However, in the bottom layer,
3S rr40 E1 § En · zrn3 zrn3 1 3S rr40 E1 § En · zrn3 1

K Rn 1 ¨ ¸ o ¨ ¸ zn o f

(3-8-33)
4 zr 0 © E1 ¹ zr30 zrn3 zrn3 1 4 zr 0 © E1 ¹ zr30
Finally, the horizontal ground spring K rb is obtained as,

K rb E r K1r (3-8-34)
ここに、
1 3S rr40 E1 3S rr40 E1 4 rr30 E1
Er , K1r
n
§ 1 · 4 zr 0 4lr 3 1 Q 12
¦ ¨
i 1 © D ri
¸
¹
3
§ Ei · zri3 zri3 1 § En · § zn 1 ·
Di ¨ ¸ 3 3 i 1, 2,", n 1 , D n ¨ ¸¨ ¸

© E1 ¹ zr 0 zri zri 1
3
© E1 ¹© z0 ¹
zr 0

9 1 Q 12 Sr
r0
16
212
3.8.3 Embedded foundation
Khb , Krb Khe , Kre
In case of embedded spread foundation, the resistances at the side of the foundation K he , K re can be
expected in addition to the resistances K hb , K rb at the base of the foundation. That is,
Kh K hb K he
(3-8-35)
Kr K rb K re
where
De Ghe
K he [ he K hb (3-8-36)
r0 Ghb
° D § De · ½° Ghe
3
K re [ re K rb ®2.3 0.58 ¨ ¸ ¾
e
(3-8-37)
°¯ rr 0 © rr 0 ¹ °¿ Ghb
m
¦G H
i 1
i i
2 Q K hb
Ghe m
, Ghb (3-8-38)
¦H
8r0
i
i 1
De is the depth of the foundation. [ he and [ re are the earth pressure reduction coefficients of
horizontal and rotational directions at the side of the foundation and they are set to 0.5 when considering
only the side receiving the reaction force from ground at the time of the earthquake. m is the number of
soil layers from the surface to the bottom at the side the foundation where the earth pressure acts. Q is the
average Poisson's ratio of the ground under the foundation base. The damping at the embedded part is not
considered.
213
3.8.4 Radiation damping
The static stiffness obtained by the cone model alone can not express the radiation damping that the
energy of ground shaking spreads to a distance.
To evaluate the radiation damping, we consider a semi-infinite earth column with the same area of the
foundation where a shear wave travels downward when the foundation sways harmonically in a horizontal
direction.
The wave travels in the earth column can be expressed as the solution of the wave equation.
w 2u w 2u G
Vs 2 , Vs (3-8-39)
wt 2 w2 z U
where G is the shear modulus of the soil, U is the density of the soil, and Vs is the shear wave
velocity.
ipt
When the foundation sways harmonically as ue , the solution of the wave equation is
u z , t ue
ip t z /Vs
(3-8-40)
The shear force at the bottom of the foundation is,

wu GA GA du du
Q GA iupeipt UVs A (3-8-41)
wz
z 0
Vs Vs dt dt
where A is the area of the foundation. Therefore, the damping force by the radiation is equivalent as the
viscous damping of a dashpot with a damping coefficient
CH UVs A (3-8-42)
The radiation damping of a rocking motion is expressed as the similar formula

CR U KVs I (3-8-43)
S r4
where I is the second moment of inertia for a circular foundation with the radius r
4
3.4
K is the coefficient for vertical wave velocity, where Q is the Poisson’s ratio
S 1 Q
Peipt ipt Peipt

ue
Q
C UVA
G, Q , U
214
In case of the stratified ground, we can use the following formula for the radiation damping
CH UeVe A (3-8-44)
3.4
CR Ue KeVe I , Ke (3-8-45)
S 1 Q e
where Ue is the average density, Ve is the average shear wave velocity and Qe is the average shear
modulus defined by the weighted average by depth of layers under the basement as
n n n
¦ Ui d i ¦Vi di ¦Q d i i
Ue i 1
n
, Ve i 1
n
, Qe i 1
n
(3-8-46)
¦d
i 1
i ¦d
i 1
i ¦d
i 1
i
3.8.5 Complex stiffness with material damping
The damping effect of the soil material can be considered by setting the shear modulus to the following
complex shear modulus.
G* G 1 2ih (3-8-47)
where h is the damping factor of the soil. As a result, the dynamic stiffness obtained from the cone model
becomes also complex value as,
KH* K H iK H ' K H 1 2ihH : sway spring

KR *
K R iK R ' K R 1 2ihR : rocking spring (3-8-48)
Furthermore, the damping coefficient is obtained from the imaginary part of the complex stiffness under the
periodic vibration of the circular frequency Ȧ.
K x C x Æ assuming x ae iZt Æ K iZC x
From the equivalent condition,
K iZC x K iK ' x K 1 2ih x
K' 2hK
Therefore, C (3-8-49)
Z Z
STERA_3D calculates the circular frequency Ȧ as

2S
Z1 (3-8-50)
T1
where T1 is the first natural period of the structure with the ground spring (real part).
215
3.8.6 Impedance matrix
It is known that radiation damping is likely to occur in a frequency band higher than the dominant
frequency of the ground ( f G ), and the effect is greater at higher frequencies. Therefore, the damping is
evaluated separately for a lower frequency side and a higher frequency side than the dominant frequency.
a) In case of f d f G Z d ZG for Sway spring and f d 2 f G Z d 2ZG for Rocking spring
Considering material damping only,

K' 2hK
PG K H uG CH uG , C (3-8-51)
Z Z
MG K R TG CRTG (3-8-52)
where
K H , CH : stiffness and damping of sway spring
K R , CR : stiffness and damping of rocking spring
b) In case of f ! f G Z ! ZG for Sway spring and f ! 2 f G Z ! 2ZG for Rocking spring
Considering both material damping and radiation damping,
PG K H uG CH CH ' uG (3-8-53)

MG K T C C ' T
R G R R G (3-8-54)
where
CH ', CR ' : radiation damping for sway and rocking
To avoid the discontinuous of damping, we modify the formula as

f fG
PG K H uG CH ] H CH ' uG , ] H (3-8-55)
f
f 2 fG
MG K R TG CR ] RCR ' TG , ] R (3-8-56)
f
In a matrix form
PG ½ ªKH 0 º uG ½ ªCH ] H CH ' 0 º uG ½

® ¾ « 0 ® ¾ ® ¾
K R »¼ ¯TG ¿ «¬ CR ] R CR '»¼ ¯TG ¿
(3-8-57)
¯M G ¿ ¬ 0
216
3.8.7 Pile foundation
Now we discuss the Sway and Rocking springs for the foundation with piles.
1) Sway
PG , uG
G
PG , uG
Inertia interaction
M G , TG
PG , uG
G
2) Rocking
M G , TG
a) Vertical stiffness of a single pile

The vertical stiffness of a single pile is obtained from the follow formula:
KV EAD
,
k B 1 e 2D L EAD 1 e 2D L
D
kS
1 e EAD 1 e
2D L 2D L
(3-8-58)
kB EA
where,
E : Young’s Modulus of the pile, A : Area of the pile, L : Length of the pile
kS : Vertical spring of the soil surrounding the pile, k B : Vertical spring at the bottom of the pile
217
')
P0
u0
Pz
uz
uz
k S u z dz dz
u z du z
Pz dPz
uL
PL
a-1) Equilibrium condition of the vertical forces in a pile
The equilibrium condition of the vertical forces in a small segment is
dP k S u z dz 0 (3-8-59)
The axial strain in the segment is obtained as
du z Pz
(3-8-60)
dz EA
Therefore
dP d 2u z
EA kS u z (3-8-61)
dz dz 2
The solution of this second order differential equation is
kS
uz c1eD z c2 e D z , D (3-8-62)
EA
Also
Pz
EAD c2 eD z c1eD z (3-8-63)
Setting the boundary conditions as Pz P0 at z 0 and u z uL at z L,
P0 EAD c2 c1 (3-8-64)
uL c1eD L c2 e D L (3-8-65)
Therefore, the coefficients c1 and c2 are obtained as
218
EAD uL P0 e D L EAD uL P0 eD L
c1 c2

, (3-8-66)
EAD eD L e D L EAD eD L e D L
The force at the bottom of the pile PL is
PL
EAD c2 eD L c1eD L (3-8-67)
From the relationship u L PL k B ,
2 K P P0
PL
EAD e
DL D L DL
(3-8-68)
KP e e e D L
and
2 P0
uL
EAD e
DL D L DL
(3-8-69)
KP e e e D L
The displacement at the head of the pile is

u0 c1 c2 (3-8-68)
Therefore, the stiffness of the vertical spring at the head of the pile is
K0
P0 EAD c2 c1
EAD P0eD L P0 eD L
u0 c1 c2 2 EAD uL P0 e D L P0 eD L
EAD eD L e D L
2 EAD
2
eD L e D L
kB e DL
e D L
DL
EAD e e D L
(3-8-69)
EAD e DL
e D L
^k e e EAD e e `
B
DL D L DL D L

4 EAD eD L e D L ^k e e EAD e e `
B
DL D L DL D L
EAD
kB e DL
e D L EAD e e DL D L
kB e DL
e D L EAD e e DL D L
219
a-2) Vertical spring of the soil surrounding the pile
The vertical spring of the soil surrounding the pile k S is obtained as the friction resistance of soil
surrounding the soil (Randolph and Wroth, 1978).
(a) Concentric cylinder around loaded pile (b) Stresses in soil element
Reference: Randolph M.F and Wroth C.P, “Analysis and deformation of vertically loaded piles”, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering 104(12): 1465-1487. 1978.
From the equilibrium condition of vertical forces
§ wW · § wV y · § dr · § dr ·
¨ W ¸ r dr d T dy W rd T dy ¨ V dy ¸ ¨ r ¸ dT dr V y ¨ r ¸ dT dr 0
wr ¹ wy
y
© © ¹© 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
(3-8-70)
Neglecting higher order
w W r wV y
r 0 (3-8-71)
wr wy
Assuming the stress change along the depth wV y wy is negligible, the second term will be zero. Then,
w W r
0 (3-8-72)
wr
Integrating from the pile radius r0 to r ,
³ d W r 0 W r r W r0 r0
r
0
r0
W r0 r0 W 0 r0
W r (3-8-73)
r r
Assuming the deformation along the radius du is smaller than the deformation along the depth dw , the
shear stain is
wu ww dw W r W 0 r0
J | (3-8-74)
wz wr dr G r rG r
220
The vertical shear deformation is obtained by integrating from r0 to rm ,
rm 1 W 0 r0§r ·
wS W 0 r0 ³ dr ln ¨ m ¸ (3-8-75)
rG G © r0 ¹
r0
Randolf and Worth proposed the following empirical formula for the radius rm
rm 2.5 L 1 Q (3-8-76)
The vertical force around the pile is calculated as
§ 2S G ·
P 2S r0 W 0 ¨¨ ¸¸ wS (3-8-77)
© ln rm r0 ¹
Therefore, the vertical spring of the soil surrounding the pile k S is
2S Ge
kS , rm 2.5 L 1 Q e (3-8-78)
ln rm r0
where,
1 n 1 n
Ge ¦ Gi di : average shear modulus, Q e
Li1
¦ Q i di : average Poisson ratio
Li1
a-3) Vertical spring at the bottom of the pile

The vertical spring at the bottom of the pile k B is obtained as a static impedance of circular
foundation as,
3S S GB r0
kB (3-8-79)
8 1 Q B
where,
GB : shear modulus of the soil at the bottom of the pile
Q B : Poisson ratio of the soil at the bottom of the pile
221
b) Horizontal stiffness of a single pile
b-1) Horizontal stiffness of a single pile
H
x y
p x
The flexural deformation of the infinite pile under horizontal load at the top of the pile is
d4y
EI p x 0 (3-8-80)
dx 4
where p x is the reaction force of the soil.
Assuming
p x kh By (3-8-81)
where B is the width of the pile.

The solution is expressed as
y e E x A1 sin E x B1 cos E x e E x C1 sin E x D1 cos E x

kh B (3-8-82)
E 4
4 EI
Since the deformation in infinite depth is zero, that is x o f , y 0,
A1 B1 0 (3-8-83)
In case of fixed pile head,
dy
T 0 E C1 E D1 0 Æ C1 D1 (3-8-84)
dx x 0
The horizontal force at the pile head is
H Q 0 (3-8-85)
Therefore,
Q 0 d3y H H
3 4C1E 3 Æ C1 (3-8-86)
EI dx x 0
EI 4 E 3 EI
222
The horizontal deformation of the pile is
H
y e E x sin E x cos E x (3-8-87)
4E 3 EI
The deformation of the pile head is
H
y (3-8-88)
4 E 3 EI
Therefore, the horizontal stiffness is
4 E 3 EI 4 EI kh B
1/ 4 3/ 4
Kh (3-8-89)
Francis (1964) proposed the following formula for the horizontal ground spring per unit length of a
single pile:
1/12
1.3ES § ES B 4 ·
k fS kh B ¨ ¸ (3-8-90)
1 Q S 2 © EP I P ¹
where
E P : Young’s modulus of a pile, I P : Moment of inertia of a pile
E S : Young’s modulus of soil, Q P : Poisson ratio of soil
This formula is based on the study by Biot (1937) with respect to the ground spring against bending of
an infinite beam on ground and is modified by Visic (1961). Francis extended this concept to the pile
considered that there is ground on both sides of the beam and doubled the ground stiffness.
Reference:
1) Francis A. J, Analysis of Pile Groups with Flexural Resistance, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and
Foundations Division, 1964, Vol. 90, Issue 3, Pg. 1-32
2) Biot, M. A. Bending of an infinite beam on an elastic foundation. J. Appl. Mech., 1937, 4, 1, Al-A7
3) Vesic A.B, Bending of beams resting on isotropic elastic solid, Journal of the Engineering Mechanics
Division, 1961, Vol. 87, Issue 2, Pg. 35-54
223
b-2) Horizontal damping of a single pile
Gazetas proposed the following formula for the horizontal damping per unit length of a single pile:
cgS 2 U S B VL VS (3-8-91)
S wave
where
3.4VS
VL : Lysmer analog wave
S 1 Q S
This damping expresses the radiation damping P wave
in both directions of the pile. Pile
Reference: Gazetas, G. and Dobry, R, Horizontal Response of Piles in Layered Soils, J. Geo tech. Engrg.
Div.,ASCE, Vol.110, pp.20-40, 1984
b-3) Ground spring and damping coefficient between multiple layers

The ground spring and damping coefficient between multiple layers can be calculated by multiplying
the layer thickness of each layer and averaging as
k ' fSi
0.5 k fS i 1 H i 1 k fSi H i (3-8-92)
c 'gSi
0.5 cgS i 1 H i 1 cgSi H i (3-8-93)
224
c) Impedance of group piles
In case of group piles, the impedance of the foundation can not be obtained from the simple addition
of the impedances of individual piles because of the interaction of piles.
c-1) Group effect in horizontal direction (stiffness)
The horizontal stiffness of group piles is obtained from the horizontal stiffness of a single pile as,
K HG N P E H K HS (3-8-94)
where
K HG : horizontal stiffness of group piles, K HS : horizontal stiffness of a single pile

N P : number of piles, E H : coefficient of group effect
The following formula is adopted for STERA_3D as the coefficient of group effect for horizontal ( x )
direction,
0.54
N 2
0.74 S B
0.43
0.59 S B
E Hx 0.4 S B N x 2
0.3
y (3-8-95)
where
S : distance between piles in x-direction, B : diameter of pile,

N x , N y : number of piles in x-direction and y-direction
The horizontal stiffness of a single pile is obtained from Eq. (3-8-89) as
4 EP I P
1/4
K HS k S 3/4 (3-8-96)
where
k S : the stiffness coefficient of a single pile under homogenous ground

The horizontal stiffness of group piles
N P E H K HS N P E H 4 EP I P k S 3/4 4 N P EP I P
1/ 4 1/ 4
K HG kG 3/ 4 (3-8-97)
kG N P E H 4/3 k S (3-8-98)
225
For the horizontal damping, the group effect is assumed negligible, and the horizontal damping of
group piles is obtained as,
cHG N P cHS (3-8-99)
where
cHG : damping coefficient of group piles, cHS : damping coefficient of a single pile
In evaluating the horizontal ground stiffness of the group pile K HG in layered ground, it is necessary
to determine the value of the stiffness coefficient kG which represents the average stiffness coefficient in
layered ground. The following iterative procedure is used to calculate kG .
P
u0 u 0
ui
ui 1
Step. 1 Set the initial value of kG as
kG = average of kGi in the surface layer (< 5 B )
where kGi N P E H 4/3 k Si : horizontal stiffness of group pile at i-th layer from Eq.(3-8-89)
Step. 2 The flexural deformation of a pile under the horizontal load P at the top is approximated by
P kG
u e E x sin E x cos E x , E 4 (3-8-100)
4 N P EP I P E 3 4 EI
The horizontal stiffness at the top can be calculated by,
K HG 2
¦k Gi i u
(3-8-101)
u0
Step. 3 Update kG as
K HG 2 4 N P EP I P
4/3 1/4
kG (3-8-102)
Step. 4 Go back to Step 1 until K HG 2 | K HG .
226
c-2) Group effect in horizontal direction (damping)
The damping effect of the soil material is considered as
kGi* kGi 1 2ihGi (3-8-103)
where hGi is the damping factor of the soil in i-th layer. The horizontal damping at the top of group piles
can be calculated by,
hHG
¦h u
Gi i
(3-8-104)
u0
Therefore, the imaginary part of the horizontal stiffness is

K HG ' | 2hHG K HG
In the same way, the horizontal radiation damping at the top of group piles can be calculated by
cHG
¦c u
Gi i
(3-8-105)
u0
where cGi N p cSi
c-3) Group effect in rocking direction (stiffness)
The group effect in rotational direction is assumed negligible and the coefficient of group effect is
one. Therefore, the rotational stiffness is calculated from the vertical stiffness of individual pile as
m
K RGx ¦K
im1
Vi yi2 : around x-axis (3-8-106)
K RGy ¦K
i 1
2
Vi i x : around x-axis (3-8-107)
where
xi , yi : distance from the center of ration in x, y directions
c-4) Group effect in rocking direction (damping)

In case of rocking direction, the damping effect of the soil at the bottom of the pile is considered
dominant.
hRG hb (3-8-108)
where hb : damping factor of the soil at the bottom of the pile
Therefore, the imaginary part of the rocking stiffness is
K RG ' | 2hRG K RG (3-8-109)
227
3.8.8 Equivalent period and damping factor considering soil structure interaction
a) Equivalent period
GB GS GB GR GS GB
F m F m F
m
K B , CB H
K S , CS
K R , CR
Force and deformation
GB F KB GS F KS GR HT R H M KR
G GB F KB G GB GS F 1 K B 1 K S H FH K R F KR H 2
G GB GS GR

F 1 KB 1 KS 1 KR H 2
Stiffness
K KB 1
K 1
1 KB 1 KS K
1 KB 1 KS 1 KR H 2
Period (mass of foundation is ignored)
m m mH 2
TB 2S TS 2S TR 2S
KB KS KR
m
T 2S TB T 2S
m
2S
m

m
T 2S
m
2S
m

m mH 2

K K KB KS K KB KS KR
TB2 TS2 TB2 TS2 TR2
228
b) Equivalent damping
b-1) Equivalent damping for material damping

Force including damping force is
F CG K G
For a harmonic excitation G aeiZt
G iZG
Then
§ C·
F K ¨ 1 iZ ¸ G K 1 2hi G
© K¹
where h is the damping ratio
ZC
h
2K
Defining the viscous damping ratio separately for each dashpot,
Z B CB Z S CS ZR CR
hB , hS , hR
2K B 2KS 2K R
This is the case to define the damping force to be independent to the frequency of excitation.
This type of damping is called “material damping”.
Total complex stiffness will be

1 1 1 1

K 1 2hi K B 1 2hB i K S 1 2hS i K R H 1 2hR i
2
Using the relationship

1 1 2hi 1 2hi
| 1 2hi
1 2hi 1 2hi 1 2hi 1 4h 2
Then
1 1 1 1
1 2hi 1 2hBi 1 2hS i 1 2hRi
K KB KS KR H 2
From the real part
1 1 1 1

K KB KS KR H 2
From the imaginary part
2 2 2
K K K § TB · § TS · § TR ·
h hB hS hR ¨ ¸ hB ¨ ¸ hS ¨ ¸ hR
KB KS KR H 2 ©T ¹ ©T ¹ ©T ¹
229
b-2) Equivalent damping for viscous damping
Force including damping force is
§C K ·
F CG K G m ¨ G G ¸
©m m ¹

m 2hZG Z 2G
For a harmonic excitation G aeipt
§ § p· ·
F m Z 2 2hZ pi G mZ 2 ¨ 1 2h ¨ ¸ i ¸ G
© ©Z ¹ ¹
This is the case to define the damping force to be dependent to the frequency of excitation.
This type of damping is called “viscous damping”.
Total complex stiffness will be

1 1 1 1

§ § p· · § § p · · § § p · · § § p · ·
mZ 2 ¨1 2h ¨ ¸ i ¸ mZB 2 ¨1 2hB ¨ ¸i ¸ mZS 2 ¨1 2hS ¨ ¸i ¸ mZR 2 ¨1 2hR ¨ ¸i ¸
© ©Z ¹ ¹ © © ZB ¹ ¹ © © ZS ¹ ¹ © © ZR ¹ ¹
Using the relationship
1 § p·
| 1 2h ¨ ¸ i
§ p·
1 2h ¨ ¸ i ©Z ¹
©Z ¹
Then
1 § § p· · 1 § § p · · 1 § § p · · 1 § § p · ·
2 ¨
1 2h ¨ ¸ i ¸ ¨¨1 2hB ¨ ¸ i ¸¸ 2 ¨
¨ 1 2 h ¨ ¸ i ¸¸ 2 ¨
¨ 1 2 h ¨ ¸ i ¸¸
mZ © ©Z ¹ ¹ mZB © ZB ¹ ¹ mZS © © ZS ¹ ¹ mZR © © ZR
2 S R
© ¹ ¹
From the real part

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Æ
Z 2
ZB 2
ZS 2
ZR 2
K KB KS KR H 2
From the imaginary part
§ p· K § p · K § p · K § p ·
h¨ ¸ hB ¨ ¸ hS ¨ ¸ 2 R¨
h ¸
©Z ¹ K B © ZB ¹ K S © ZS ¹ K R H © ZR ¹
In case of the resonance frequency, p Z
3 3 3
§Z · §Z · §Z ·
h ¨ ¸ hB ¨ ¸ hS ¨ ¸ hR
© ZB ¹ © ZS ¹ © ZR ¹
or
3 3 3
§T · §T · §T ·
h ¨ B ¸ hB ¨ S ¸ hS ¨ R ¸ hR
©T ¹ ©T ¹ ©T ¹
230
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°T ° «¬ w w»¼ °¯G y °¿
¯ y ¿
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û z u z T y T y G x G x `T
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30 0
31 0
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Node 7 39 4
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46 8
47 9 8 9
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242
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^ `
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^ ` independent location number

T

û z u z T y T y u x T z `
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^ `
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freedom number

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° z ° ° °
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® ¾ « »® ¾
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° ° « »° °
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Locate element stiffness
Element stiffness matrix
according to the freedom number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
ª º
« »
« »
« »
« »
« »
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« »
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« k k k k k »
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« k k k k »
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« k k k »
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« »
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A PyG
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° ° ° ° ¼» °¯TzA °¿
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¯ zA ¿ ¯ zG ¿

G: center of gravity
M zG
G G PxG
l xA
l yA
PyG
A
A PxA

PyA
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T
® ¾ « ® ¾ ® ¾
m »¼ « »¼ ¯ux ¿
T
¯ Px ¿ ¬ ¯ux ¿ ¬
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Px m m ux

Px Px Px
m m m m
1 2 1 2

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Pz Pz Pz Pz

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G z G zi G zN

u x u xi u xN

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L

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the first node, u x
u x ux " u xN
$OVRWKHYHUWLFDOGLVSODFHPHQWDWWKHPLGGOHQRGH G zi is dependent to the vertical displacements of
the nodes at both ends, G z G zN .
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© ¹ © ¹
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§ N ·
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©i ¹

m " mN
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m mi mN
1 i N 1 N N

248
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m mi mN
1 i N 1 N N
Li
L
249
5. Equation of motion
5.1 Mass matrix
In the default setting, the mass at each node is identical and equally distributed as
1
Mi M floor (5-1-1)
N floor
where, M i : mass at the node i, M floor : total mass of the floor, N floor : total number of nodes in the
floor.
However, you can change the mass at each node depending on the place of the node by setting “proportion
to influence area” in Option Menu. In this case, the mass at each node is determined from the following
equation:
Ai
Mi M floor (5-1-1)
A floor
where, Ai : influence area of node i, A floor : total area of the floor. Influence area of the node is different
depending on the place of the node as shown in Figure 5-1-1.
i j
X X
Mi
Ai, Mi Aj, Mj liy
G
IG
k lix MG
A k, M k
G : center of gravity of the floor

Y Y
(1) Influence area of the node (2) Mass and rotational inertia at G
Figure 5-1-1 Mass and rotational inertia at the node
The process to determine the mass based on influence area is as follows:
Step 1. Calculate the slab area (block with cross mark)

Step 2. The area of the block is divided equally to the corner nodes. (Figure 5-1-2)
Step 3. If there is no corner node, the area is divided equally to the all nodes in a floor. (Figure 5-1-3)
250
Figure 5-1-2. Influence area of the node (red)
Figure 5-1-3. Distribution of the rest area
Example) Floor weight = 700kN
700kN/8 50kN+12.5
= 87.5kN 87.5kN 112.5kN
= 62.5kN
87.5kN 112.5kN
87.5kN 62.5kN
87.5kN 62.5kN
87.5kN 112.5kN
87.5kN 87.5kN 62.5kN 112.5kN

(a) Same for all nodes (b) Proportional to influence area
Figure 5-1-4 Example of mass distribution
251
In case of rigid floor assumption, in-plane freedoms at the nodes are dependent to the freedoms at the
center of gravity of the floor. Therefore, the mass at the center of gravity, M G , is,
MG M floor (5-1-2)
The rotational inertia at the center of gravity, IG, along the z-axis is obtained from the following equation:
¦ M l
N
IG i
2
ix liy2 (5-1-3)
i
where, N is the total number of the nodes at the floor. The rotational inertia at other nodes are,
Ii 0, i 1, " , N (5-1-4)
The mass matrix is obtained as,
ª% 0 0º ª # º
«0 % » « # »
« » « »
u xi « Mi » «M i »
« » « »
u yi « Mi » «M i »
G zi « Mi » «M i »
>M @ « »« » (5-1-5)
T xi « Ii » « Ii »
T yi « Ii » «I »
« » « i »
T zi « Ii » « Ii »
« % 0 » « # »
« » « »
¬« 0 0 %¼» ¬« # ¼»
Since the mass matrix has only diagonal components, those components are saved in one-dimension vector.
For example, the mass vector of the structure in Figure 5-1-5 will be as follows:
M6 ½
Node 6 ° 0 °
° °
°M7 °
° °
Node 7 ° 0 °
°M8 °
° ° 6 7
° 0 °
° °
Node 8 ® 0 ¾ 10
°M ° 8 9
° 9°
° 0 °
Node 9 ° 0 °
° ° 1 2
°M 10 °
° ° 5
°M 10 ° 3 4
Node 10 °¯ I 10 °¿
Figure 5-1-5 Example of mass vector
252
In case a complete rigid floor such as a foundation slab for the ground springs, we need to calculate the
rotational inertia at the center of gravity along each axis.
b
X
Y a
The rotational inertia along Z-axis is
§ M · 2
a /2 b /2 c /2
a IZ ³ U r dV
2
³ ³ ³ ¨
¸ x y dxdydz
2

a /2 b /2 c /2 © ¹
abc
M § ·
a /2 b /2 c /2 a /2 b /2 c /2
b
¨ ³ x dx ³ dy ³ dz ³ dx ³ y dy ³ dz ¸
2 2
X
abc © a /2 b /2 c /2 a /2 b /2 c /2 ¹
M 2
12

a b2
Y (5-1-6)
In the same way, the rotational inertia along X-axis is
IX
12

M 2 2
b c (5-1-7)
The rotational inertia along Y-axis is
IY
12

M 2 2
a c (5-1-8)
If the mass is located at each node, as already mentioned, the rotational inertia at the center of gravity, IG,
along the Z-axis is obtained as
³ U r dV ¦ M l X
IZ 2
i ix
2
liy 2 (5-1-9) Mi
liy
G
IG
lix MG
G : center of gravity of the floor

Y
253
5.2 Stiffness matrix
As shown in Figure 4-4-2, the global stiffness matrix >K @ is formulated from element stiffness matrices.
5 8 7 10 11 13
Pz 8 ½ 5 ªk 5,5 k 5,8 k 5, 7 k 5,10 k 5,11 k 5,13 º u z 8 ½
°P ° 8«
« k 8 ,8 k 8, 7 k 8,10 k 8,11 k 8,13 »» ° u z 9 °
° z9 ° ° °
°° M y 8 °° 7 « k 7,7 k 7 ,10 k 7 ,11 k 7 ,13 » °° T y 8 °° Example of beam element
® ¾ « »® ¾
° M y 9 ° 10 « k10,10 k10,11 k10,13 » °T y 9 °
° Px10 ° 11 « sym. k11,11 k11,13 » °u x10 °
° ° « »° °
°¯M z10 °¿ 13 ¬« k12,12 ¼» °¯T z10 °¿
Locate element stiffness
Element stiffness matrix
according to the freedom number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1 ª º
« »
2 « »
3 « »
« »
4« »
5« k 5, 5 k 5, 7 k 5,8 k 5,10 k 5,11 k 5,13 »
« »
6« »
7« k 7,7 k 7 ,8 k 7 ,10 k 7 ,11 k 7 ,13 »
« »
8« k 8,8 k 8,10 k 8,11 k 8,13 »
9 «« »
»
10 « k10,10 k10,11 k10,13 »
« »
11 « sym. k11,11 k11,13 »
12 « »
« »
13 ¬« k13,13 ¼»
Global stiffness matrix
Figure 5-2-1 Formulation of global stiffness matrix
254
5.3 Modal analysis
1) Eigen value problem

The free vibration equilibrium equation without damping is
>M @û` >K @û` ^0` (5-3-1)
where >K @ is the stiffness matrix and >M @ is the mass matrix in the form;
ªm1 0 " 0º
«0 m2 " 0 »»
>M @ « (5-3-2)
«# # % # »
« »
¬0 0 " mn ¼
The solution can be postulated to be in the form
û` Î ` e iZt (5-3-3)
where Î ` is a vector of order n, Z is a frequency of vibration of the vector Î ` .
Substituting into the equilibrium equation, the generalized eigen problem is obtained as,
>K @Î ` Z 2 >M @Î ` (5-3-4)
This eigen problem yields the n eigen solutions Z , Î `, Z , Î `,", Z , Î ` where the
2
1 1
2
2 2
2
n n
eigen vectors are M-orthonormalized as,
Îi ` > M @Î j ` ¦ mkIi ,kI j ,k

n
0 ; iz j
T
(5-3-5)
k 1
')
Let’s assume two different set of eigen solutions Z ,Î ` , Z ,Î ` .
i
2
i
2
j j
Form Equation (5-3-4),
Îi ` > K @Î j ` Îi ` > K @Î j ` Zi 2 Îi ` > M @Î j `

T T T
(5-3-6)
Since >K @ and >M @ are the symmetric matrices,
Îi ` > K @Î j ` Î j ` > K @Îi ` Z j 2 Î j ` > M @Îi ` Z j 2 Îi ` > M @Î j `
T T T T
(5-3-7)
Subtracting Equation (5-3-7) from Equation (5-3-6),
Z i
2

Z j 2 Îi ` > M @Î j ` 0
T
(5-3-8)
Since Zi z Z j , we obtain Equation (5-3-5).

The vector Îi ` is called the i-th mode shape vector, and Z i is the corresponding frequency
of vibration.
255
2) Modal decomposition of equilibrium equation
Defining a matrix >) @ whose columns are the eigenvectors and a diagonal matrix : > @
2
which stores the eigenvalues on its diagonal as,
ªZ12 º
« »
Z
>: @
2
>)@ >Î1 ` Î 2 ` " Î n `@ , 2 «
«
2 »
»
(5-3-9)
%
« 2»
¬« Z n ¼»
We introduce the following transformation on the displacement vector of the equilibrium

equation (5-4-2):
û (t )` >) @^q(t )` (5-3-10)
Then,
> M @>) @^q` >C @>) @^q` > K @>) @^q` ^P` (5-3-11)
Multiplying >) @ ,
T
>) @ > M @>) @^q` >) @ >C @>) @^q` >) @ > K @>) @^q` >) @ ^P`
T T T T
(5-3-12)
where
ª m1 º
« m2 »
>) @ > M @>) @ ª¬ M º¼ « », m Îi ` > M @Îi `
T T
(5-3-13)
« % » i
« »
¬ mn ¼
ª k1 º
« »
« k2 »
>) @ > K @>) @ >:@>) @ > M @>) @ >:@ ª¬ M º¼ ª¬ K º¼ , ki Zi 2 mi
T T
« % »
« »
¬« kn ¼»
(5-3-14)
A damping matrix that is diagonalized by >) @ is called a classical damping matrix.
ªc1 º
« c2 »
>) @ >C @>) @ ª¬C º¼ « »
T
(5-3-15)
« % »
« »
¬ cn ¼
where, ª¬ M º¼ , ª¬C º¼ and ª¬ K º¼ are called generalized modal mass, modal damping and modal
stiffness matrix, respectively.
256
Therefore,
ª¬ M º¼ ^q` ª¬C º¼ ^q` ª¬ K º¼ ^q` >) @ ^P`

T
(5-3-16)
It can be reduced to n- equations of the form
mi qi (t ) ci qi (t ) ki qi (t ) ri (t ) (5-3-17)
X0 (t ) ½
° °
Îi ` ^P(t )` Îi ` > M @>U @ ® Y0 (t ) ¾
T T
where ri (t ) (5-3-18)
° Z (t ) °
¯ 0 ¿
By setting ci / mi 2hiZi and ki / mi Zi 2
X0 (t ) ½
° °
qi (t ) 2hiZi qi (t ) Zi 2 qi (t ) Ê i ` ® Y0 (t ) ¾ Êi , x X0 (t ) E i ,yY0 (t ) E i , x Z0 (t )`
T
° Z (t ) °
¯ 0 ¿
(5-3-19)
where
Îi ` > M @>U @ Îi ` > M @ ª¬Û x ` Û y ` Û z `º¼

T T
Ê i ` Ê Ei ,y Ei ,z `
T T
(5-3-20)
Îi ` > M @Îi ` Îi ` > M @Îi `
T T i,x
Îi ` > M @Û x,y,z `

T
Ei , x, y , z (5-3-21)
Îi ` > M @Îi `
T
Ei , x , y , z is called “pparticipation factor” of i-th mode.
Ei , x , y , z is the coefficient when you decompose the vector Û x ,y,z ` into mode vectors as,
Û ` >) @Ê ` ¦ E
n
x ,y,z x, y, z i, x, y, z Îi ` (5-3-22)

i 1
')
>) @ > M @ ,
T
Multiplying
>) @ > M @Û x,y,z ` >) @ > M @>) @Ê x, y , z ` ª¬ M º¼ Ê x , y , z `

T T
(5-3-23)
Therefore,
Ê ` >) @ > M @Û x,y,z `

1
ª¬ M º¼
T
x, y , z (5-3-24)
It is equivalent to Equation (5-3-21).
257
Equation (5-3-17) can be decomposed again as,
xi (t ) 2hiZi xi (t ) Zi 2 xi (t )
X0 (t )
yi (t ) 2hiZi yi (t ) Zi 2 yi (t ) Y0 (t )
(5-3-25)
zi (t ) 2hiZi zi (t ) Zi 2 zi (t ) Z0 (t )

and
qi (t ) Ei , x xi (t ) Ei ,y yi (t ) Ei ,z zi (t ) (5-3-26)
Therefore, the displacement vector is obtained by superposing displacement responses of

single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) systems in each mode and each direction as,
n n n n
û (t )` >) @^q(t )` ¦ Îi ` qi (t ) ¦ Ei, x Îi ` xi (t ) ¦ Ei,y Îi ` yi (t ) ¦ Ei,z Îi ` zi (t )
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
(5-3-27)
E i , x Îi ` is called “pparticipation vector” of i-th mode in x-direction.
3) Effective modal mass

We consider the vibration of the structure with i-th mode participation vector E i Îi ` and the
frequency Zi . The amplitude of the vibration can be expressed as
^Ki (t )` s E i Îi ` (5-3-28)
where s is a scalar value. The amplitude of the velocity is
^Ki (t )` sZi E i Îi ` (5-3-29)
The kinematic energy of the vibration is then calculated as,

1 1 1
^Ki ` > M @^Ki ` sZi Ei Îi ` > M @Îi ` sZi Ei mi
T 2 T 2
Ei (5-3-30)
2 2 2
The kinematic energy of SDOF system with an effective mass, M e ,i , under the same
amplitude and the same frequency is
1
sZi M e,i
2
Ee ,i (5-3-31)
2
Therefore, to be the same kinematic energy, the effective modal mass is defined as,
M e ,i E i 2 mi (5-3-32)
It can be also expressed as,
Îi ` > M @Û `

T 2
Îi ` > M @Û ` m

T
E i 2 mi Ei Ei Îi ` > M @Û `

T
M e ,i (5-3-33)
Îi ` > M @Îi ` Îi ` > M @Îi `
T i T
258
The sum of effective modal mass is,
n n
¦ M e ,i ¦ E Î ` > M @Û ` Û ` > M @Û `

T T
i i (5-3-34)
i 1 i 1
Therefore the ratio of effective modal mass to the total mass is used to judge the number of
significant modes that should be included in the analysis.
4) Initial condition
The initial conditions are obtained from Equation (5-3-10) as,
>) @ > M @û (t )` >) @ > M @>) @^q(t )` ª¬ M º¼ ^q (t )`

T T
(5-3-35)
Therefore,
>) @ > M @û`t 0 , ^q`t 0 >) @ > M @û`t 0

1 1
^q`t ª¬ M º¼ ª¬ M º¼
T T
0
(5-3-36)
259
5.4 Damping matrix
In STERA 3D program, the damping matrix is formulated in the following way:
1) Proportional damping
The mass-proportional damping and the stiffness-proportional damping are defined as,
>C @ a0 >M @ and >C @ a1 >K @ (5-4-1)
where the constants a0 , a1 have units of sec-1 and sec, respectively.
For a system with a mass-proportional damping, the generalized damping for the i-th mode in
Equation (5-4-1) is obtained as,
ci a0 mi , c i / mi 2hi Z i (5-4-2)
Therefore,
a0 1
a0 2hiZi , hi (5-4-3)
2 Zi
Similarly, for a system with a stiffness-proportional damping, the generalized damping for the
i-th mode is,
a1Zi mi , 2hiZi
2
ci ci / mi (5-4-4)
Therefore,
2hi a1
a1 , hi Zi (5-4-5)
Zi 2
hi
C a0 M C a1 K
a0 1 a1
hi
2 Zi
hi Zi
2
In STERA_3D, you can select from the two types of stiffness-proportional damping.
One is the proportional damping using the initial stiffness matrix:
>C @ 2h
>K 0 @ (5-4-6)
Z1
260
where, h: damping factor, Z1 : circular frequency of the first natural mode, >K 0 @ : the initial stiffness.
Another is the proportional damping using the spontaneous stiffness matrix
>C @ 2h
Z
>K @ p (5-4-7)
where, h: damping factor, Z1 : circular frequency of the first natural mode, >K p @ : the spontaneous
stiffness changing according to the nonlinearity of structural elements.
In the scene of the practical design of Japan, it is common to use the proportional damping using the
spontaneous stiffness matrix.
2) Rayleigh damping
A Rayleigh damping matrix is defined proportional to the mass and the initial stiffness
matrices as,
>C @ a 0 >M @ a1 >K 0 @ (5-4-8)
The modal damping ratio for the i-th mode is,

a0 1 a1
hi Zi (5-4-9)
2 Zi 2
The coefficients a0 , a1 can be determined from specified damping ratios h1 , h2 modes,
respectively. Expressing Equation (5-4-9) for these two modes in matrix form leads to:
1 ª1 / Z1 Z1 º a0 ½ h1 ½
® ¾ ® ¾ (5-4-10)
2 «¬1 / Z 2 Z 2 »¼ ¯ a1 ¿ ¯h2 ¿
Solving the above system, we obtain the coefficients a0 , a1 :

2Z1Z 2 Z1h2 Z 2 h1
a0

Z1 2 Z 2 2 (5-4-11)
2Z1h2 Z 2 h1
a1
Z 1
2
Z2
2

hi
C a0 M a1 K
a0 1 a1
hi Zi
2 Zi 2
261
3) Damping matrix with a base isolation building
In an actual design practice for the base isolation buildings, it is common to assume zero viscous damping
for the base isolation floor. For example, in case of the stiffness-proportional damping, the damping
matrix is defined as:
>C @ 2h
Z
>K upper @ (5-4-12)
> @
where, K upper : the stiffness matrix consisted with upper structures without base isolation elements.
4) Damping matrix with viscous damper devices

If there are some viscous damper devices in a structure, in addition to the proportional damping matrix, the
global damping matrix formulated from element damping matrices are considered as:
>C @ >C pro @ >C v @ (5-4-13)
> @
where, C pro : the proportional damping matrix, >C v @ : the global damping matrix formulated from
element damping matrices in the same manner of the global stiffness matrix.
262
5.5 Input ground acceleration
, Y and Z , in X, Y and Z

Earthquake ground motions are defined as three components acceleration; X 0 0 0
directions. The inertia forces at node i are defined as,
# ½ # ½ ª # º # ½
° ° ° # ° « » ° # °
° # ° ° ° « # » ° °
° M i uxi X 0 ° °uxi ° «1 0 0» °uxi °
° ° ° ° «
° M i uyi Y0 °
» ° °
°uyi ° «0 1 0»
X 0 ½ °uyi ° X 0 ½

°° M i Gzi Z0 °° °°G °° «0
>M @® zi ¾ >M @«
0 1» ° °
» ® Y0 ¾
°°Gzi °° ° °
>M @® ¾ >M @>U @® Y0 ¾ (5-5-1)
® ¾
° I iTxi °

°T xi ° «0 0 0» ° ° °T xi ° ° Z °
Z0
° I iTyi ° °Tyi ° «0 0 0» ¯ ¿ °Tyi ° ¯ 0¿
° ° ° ° « » ° °
° I iTzi ° T
° zi ° «0 0 0» °T zi °
° # ° ° # ° « # » ° # °
° ° ° ° « » ° °
°¯ # °¿ °¯ # °¿ «¬ # »¼ °¯ # °¿
For example, the components of the matrix >U @ of the structure in Figure 5-5-1 will be as follows:
X 0 Y0 Z0

ª0 0 1º
Node 6 «0 0 0»»
«
«0 0 1»
« »
Node 7 «0 0 0»
«0 0 1»
« » 6 7
«0 0 0»
Node 8 «0 0 0» 10
« »
«0 0 1» 8 9
«0 0 0»
« »
Node 9 «0 0 0» 1 2
« »
«1 0 0»
5
«0 1 0» 3 4
« »
Node 10 ¬0 0 0¼
Figure 5-5-1 Components of the matrix >U @
263
Equilibrium condition of the structure under earthquake ground motion is:
X 0 ½
° °
>C @û` >K @û` >M @û` >M @>U @® Y0 ¾ (5-5-2)
° Z °
¯ 0¿
Damping force
Restoring force Inertia force
Finally the equation of motion is obtained as:
X0 ½
° °
>M @û` >C @û` >K @û` >M @>U @® Y0 ¾ ^P` (5-5-3)
° Z °
¯ 0¿
264
5.6 External force by vibrator
A vibrator is assumed to be located at the center of gravity at a certain floor. The external forces from the
vibrator are denoted as Fx , Fy in X and Y directions.
# ½ ª# #º
°# ° «# # »»
° ° «
° Fx ° «1 0»
° ° « »
° Fy ° «0 1»
°° 0 °° «0 0 » Fx ½ F ½
® ¾ « »® ¾ >V @ ® Fx ¾ (5-6-1)
°0° «0 0 » ¯ Fy ¿ ¯ y ¿
°0° «0 0»
° ° « »
°0° «0 0»
°# ° «# #»
° ° « »
°¯ # °¿ ¬« # # ¼»
For example, the components of the matrix >V @ of the structure in Figure 5-6-1 will be as follows:
Fx Fy
ª0 0º
Node 6 «0 0 »»
«
«0 0»
« »
Node 7 «0 0»
«0 0»
« » 6 7
«0 0»
Node 8 «0 0» 10
« »
«0 0» 8 9
«0 0»
« »
Node 9 «0 0» 1 2
« »
«1 0»
5
«0 1» 3 4
« »
Node 10 ¬ 0 0¼
Figure 5-6-1 Components of the matrix >V @
265
Equilibrium condition of the structure under vibrator force is:
Fx ½
>C @û` > K @û` [ M ]û` >U @ ® ¾ (5-6-2)
¯ Fy ¿
Damping force
Inertia force
Restoring force
External force
F ½
> M @û` >C @û` > K @û` >U @ ® Fx ¾ ^P` (5-6-3)
¯ y ¿
266
5.7 External force by wind
A wind force is assumed to be applied at the center of gravity at each floor with the constant distribution
along the height of the building. The external forces at i-th floor from the wind are denoted as
hi , x Fx t , hi , y Fy t , hr , y M z t in X, Y horizontal directions and Z rotational direction.
Fy t
Fx t M z t
hi F t
Figure 5-7-1 Wind force distribution
# ½ ª # # # º
° # ° « # # # »»
° ° «
° hx ,i Fx t ° « hx ,i 0 0»
° ° « »
° hy ,i Fy t ° Fx t ½ «0 hy ,i 0»
°° °° «0 0»
>W @ ® Fy t ¾° ,
°
0 0
® ¾ >W @ « » (5-7-1)
° 0 ° °M t ° «0 0 0»
° 0 ° ¯ z ¿ «0 0 0»
° ° « »
°hr ,i M z t ° «0 0 hr ,i »
° # ° « # # # »
° ° « »
¯° # ¿° ¬« # # # ¼»
267
For example, the components of the matrix >W @ of the structure in Figure 5-7-1 will be as follows:
Fx Fy Mz
ª 0 0 0 º
Node 6 « 0
« 0 0 »»
« 0 0 0 »
Node 7 « »
« 0 0 0 »
« 0 0 0 » 7
« » 6
« 0 0 0 »
Node 8 10
« 0 0 0 »
« » 8 9
« 0 0 0 »
« 0 0 0 »
Node 9 « » 1 2
« 0 0 0 »
« »
« hx ,1 0 0 » 5
« 0 0 » 3 4
hy ,1
Node 10 « »
«¬ 0 0 hr ,1 »¼
Figure 5-7-2 Components of the matrix >W @
268
Equilibrium condition of the structure under wind force is:
Fx ½
° °
>C @û` > K @û` [ M ]û` >W @ ® Fy ¾ (5-7-2)
°W °
¯ z¿
Damping force
Inertia force
Restoring force
External force
Fx ½
> M @û` >C @û` > K @û` >W @ °® Fy °¾ ^P` (5-7-3)
°W °
¯ z¿
269
5.8 Numerical integration method
Two numerical integration methods are prepared; one is the Newmark-ȕ method with incremental
formulation using a step-by-step stiffness matrix, and another one is the Force correction method using a
step-by-step stiffness and a force vector together. In case it is difficult to define the step-by-step stiffness of
the element such as the case of using a viscous damper element, automatically the Operator Splitting
method is selected.
a) Newmark-ȕ method
The incremental formulation for the equation of motion of a structural system is,
>M @^'ai ` >C @^'vi ` >K @^'d i ` ^'f ` ^'pi ` (5-8-1)
where, >M @ , >C @ and >K @ are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices. ^'d i `, ^'vi `, ^'ai ` and
^'pi ` are the increments of the displacement, velocity, acceleration and external force vectors, that is,
^'d i ` { ^d i 1 ` ^d i `, ^'vi ` { ^vi 1 ` ^vi ` , ^'ai ` { âi 1 ` âi `, ^'pi ` { ^pi 1 ` ^pi ` (5-8-2)
^'f ` is the unbalanced force vector in the previous step.
Using the Newmark-ȕ method,
^'vi ` âi `'t 1 ^'ai `'t (5-8-3)

2
^'d i ` ^vi `'t 1 âi `'t 2 E ^'ai `'t 2 (5-8-4)

2
From Equation (5-8-4), we obtain
^'ai ` 1
^'d i ` 1 ^vi ` 1 âi ` (5-8-5)
E 't 2
E 't 2E
Substituting Equation (5-8-4) into Equation (5-8-3) gives
^'vi ` 1
^'d i ` 1 ^vi ` §¨¨1 1 ·¸¸âi `'t (5-8-6)
2E 't 2E © 4E ¹
Equations (5-8-5) and (5-8-6) are substituted into the equation of motion, Equation (5-8-2), and we obtain
ª º
^'d i `« 1
>M @ 1
>C @ >K @»
¬ E 't
2
2E 't ¼
(5-8-7)
ª º
^'p i ` >M @§¨¨ 1 ^v i ` 1 â i `·¸¸ >C @« 1 ^v i ` §¨¨ 1 1·¸¸â i `'t » ^'f `
© E 't 2E ¹ ¬ 2E © 4E ¹ ¼
The equation can be rewritten as,
>Kˆ @ ^'d ` i ^'pˆ i ` (5-8-8)
270
where,
>Kˆ @ >K @ 1
2 E 't
>C @ 1 2 >M @
E 't
(5-8-9)
ª º
^'pˆ i ` ^'pi ` >M @§¨¨ 1
^vi ` 1 âi `·¸¸ >C @« 1 ^vi ` §¨¨ 1 1·¸¸âi `'t » ^'f ` (5-8-10)
© E 't 2E ¹ ¬ 2E © 4E ¹ ¼
b) Force correction method
The equation of motion of a structural system is,
>M @â n1 ` >C @^vn1 ` ^ f n ` ^'f ` >K @^d n1 ` ^d n ` ^Pn1 ` (5-8-11)
where, >M @ , >C @ and >K @ are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices. ^d n1 `, ^vn1 ` and â n1 `
are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vector at time step (n+1). ^ f n ` is the restoring force
vector corresponding to ^d n `, and ^'f ` is the unbalanced force vector in the previous step. ^Pn1 ` is
the external force vector.
Using the average acceleration method,
^d n1 ` ^d n ` ^vn `'t 1 â n ` ân1 `'t 2 (5-8-12)

4
^vn1 ` ^vn ` 1 â n ` â n1 `'t (5-8-13)

2
Substituting Equations (6-2-2) and (6-2-3) into (6-2-1),
>M @â n1 ` >C @§¨ ^v n ` 1 ân ` â n1 `'t ·¸ ^ f n ` ^'f `

© 2 ¹
>K @§¨ ^vn `'t 1 â n ` â n1 `'t 2 ·¸ ^Pn1 `

© 4 ¹
(5-8-14)
Solving for â n1 ` ,
>L@â n1 ` >Fn @ (5-8-15)
where
>L@ >M @ 1 >C @'t 1 >K @'t 2 (5-8-16)

2 4
§ · § 2·
>Fn @ >C @¨ ^v n ` â n `'t ¸ ^ f n ` ^'f ` >K @¨ ^v n `'t â n `'t ¸ ^Pn 1 `
1 1
(5-8-17)
© 2 ¹ © 4 ¹
271
>M @ân1` >C @^vn1` ^ f n1` ^Pn1`
from the following Figure,
^ f n1` ^ f n ` >K @^d n1` ^d n ` ^'f `
^'f `
^ f n1`
^fn ` >K @
^d n ` ^d n1`
ân `, ^vn `, ^d n `, ^ f n `, >K n @, ^Pn 1`
>L@ân1` >Fn @
^d n1 ` ^d n ` ^vn `'t 1 â n ` â n1 `'t 2

4
^vn1 ` ^v n ` 1 â n ` â n1 `'t

2
>K n @ o >K n1 @
> f n @ o > f n1 @
n = n+1
END
272
c) Operator Splitting method
The Operator Splitting (OS) method is a type of mixed integration method in which stiffness is divided into
linear and nonlinear (Nakashima, 1990). The explicit predictor-corrector method is employed for the
integration associated with the nonlinear stiffness, whereas the unconditionally stable Newmark-ȕ method
is used for the integration associated with linear stiffness. The formulations are described as follows:
The equation of motion of a structural system is,
>M @â n1 ` >C @^vn1 ` >K @^d n1 ` ^ f n1 ` >K @^d~n1 ` ^Pn1 ` (5-8-18)
^d~ `
n 1 ^d n ` ^vn `'t 1 â n `'t 2
4
(5-8-19)
^d n1 ` ^d n ` ^vn `'t 1 â n ` â n1 `'t 2 (5-8-20)

4
^vn1 ` ^vn ` 1 â n ` â n1 `'t (5-8-21)

2
where, >M @ , >C @ and >K @ are the mass, damping and initial tangential stiffness matrices. ^d n1 `,
^ `
^vn1 ` and â n1 ` are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vector at time step (n+1). d n1 is
~
^ `
the predictor displacement vector, ^ f n 1 ` is the restoring force vector corresponding to d n 1 , and
~
^Pn1 ` is the external force vector.
Force
>K @^d n 1 `
Corrector
>K @^d~n1 `
^ f n1 `
Predictor
Displacement
^d~ `
n 1 ^d n 1 `
273
Substituting Equations (5-8-19), (5-8,20), (5-8,21) to (5-8,18),
>M @â n1 ` >C @§¨ ^v n ` 1 â n ` â n1 `'t ·¸ >K @§¨ ^d n ` ^vn `'t 1 â n ` â n1 `'t 2 ·¸
© 2 ¹ © 4 ¹
§ 2·
^ f n 1 ` >K @¨ ^d n ` ^v n `'t â n `'t ¸ ^Pn1 `
1
© 4 ¹
(5-8-22)
Solving for â n 1 ` ,
>L@â n1 ` >Fn @ (5-8-23)
where
>L@ >M @ 1 >C @'t 1 >K @'t 2 (5-8-24)

2 4
§ ·
>Fn @ >C @¨ ^v n ` â n `'t ¸ ^ f n 1 ` ^Pn 1 `
1
(5-8-25)
© 2 ¹
The procedure for solving the equation of motion is as follows

Step 1. ^~ ` by Equation (5-8-19).
Calculate the predictor displacement vector d n 1
Step 2. Obtain the restoring force ^ f n 1 ` corresponding to ^d~ ` in reference to the constitutive model.
n 1
Step 3. Substitute ^ f n1 ` to Equation (5-8-25) and solve the acceleration vector â n 1 ` , and obtain the
corrector displacement vector ^d n1 ` from Equations (5-8-20) and (5-8-21).
In the initial condition, the building will deform under dead and live loads. It can be analyzed by solving
X0 ½
° °
> M @û` >C @û` > K @û` > M @>U @ ® Y0 ¾ (5-8-26)
° Z g °
¯ 0 ¿
wehre g is the gravity acceleration. However, this causes the fluctuation of the response in the beginning
of the response. It is better to add the static gravity force ^ f0 ` as
X0 ½ 0½
° ° ° °
> M @û` >C @û` > K @û` > M @>U @ ® Y0 ¾ ^ f 0 ` , ^ f0 ` > M @>U @ ®00 ¾ (5-8-27)
° Z ° °g°
¯ 0¿ ¯ ¿
and set the initial displacement as û` û0 ` , where û0 ` is the solution of
> K @û0 ` ^ f0 ` (5-8-28)
274
5.9 Energy
a) Equation of energy
As it was mentioned in Equation (5-5-2), the equation of motion is obtained as:
X 0 ½
° °
>M @û` >C @û` >K @û` >M @>U @® Y0 ¾ ^P` (5-9-1)
° Z °
¯ 0¿
For example, in case of a structure with a rigid floor in Figure 5-9-1, the displacement vector, û`, consists
of 15 components (see RED numbers in Figure 5-9-1.)
u1 ½
°u °
° 2°
û` ® ¾ (5-9-2)
° # °
°¯u15 °¿
1 4
6 7
2 5
7 15 10
10 3 6
13
8 9
8 11
9 14
12
1 2
5
3 4
Node number Freedom number
Figure 5-8-1 Example of the freedom vector of a structure with a rigid floor
The equation of energy is derived by multiplying the velocity vector, û` , and integrating by the time
T
range [0-t]:
t t t t
³ û` >M @û`dt ³ û` >C @û`dt ³ û` >K @û`dt ³ û` ^P`dt
T T T T
(5-9-3)
0 0 0 0
275
û`T >M @û` t û`T >C @û`dt û`T >K @û` t
³ û` ^P`dt
³
T
(5-9-4)
2 0
2 0
WK WD WP WI (5-9-5)
where,
WK
û`T >M @û` : Kinematic energy
2
t
³ û` >C @û`dt : Damping energy

T
WD
0
WP
û`T >K @û` : Potential energy
2
t
³ û` ^P`dt : Input energy
T
WI
0
If the system is nonlinear, the equation of motion can be expressed as:
X 0 ½
° °
>M @û` >C @û` Qu, u >M @>U @® Y0 ¾ ^P` (5-9-6)
° Z °
¯ 0¿
where, Qu , u is the nonlinear restoring force vector. Then, the equation of energy can be derived as;
WK WD WP WI (5-9-7)
where,
WK
û`T >M @û` : Kinematic energy
2
t
³ û` >C @û`dt

T
WD : Damping energy
0
t (5-9-8)
³ û` Qu, u dt : Potential energy

T
WP
0
t
³ û` ^P`dt : Input energy
T
WI
0
276
b) Decomposition of potential energy
We can decompose the restoring force vector into the restoring force of each member as,
Qu, u q1 u, u q 2 u , u " q n u, u ; n : number of members (5-9-9)
Therefore, the potential energy can be decomposed as,
t t n n§t T · n
³ û` Qu, u dt ³ û` ¦ qi u, u dt ¦ ¨ ³ û` qi u , u dt ¸ ¦W

T T
WP ¨ ¸ P ,i (5-9-10)
0 i 1
0 i 1©0 ¹ i 1
where
³ û` q u, u dt ;
T
W P ,i i potential energy of i-th member (5-9-11)
0
277
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§ · T
Ai ¨ Di ¸ (6-1-3)
¨ D ¸ T
© i ¹
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n n
Di ¦ wj
j i
W W ¦w
j
j : the ratio of weight upper than i-th story,
T: the first natural period of a building (=0.02h, h : the building height)
As shown in Figure 6-1-1, the static lateral load is obtained as,
Fn Qn Fi Qi Qi i " n (6-1-4)
278
Z
) 4
4 &Z
) 4±4 Z
4 &ZZ
Z
.
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Therefore, the following simple way is adopted to correct unbalance force:
1) Calculate unbalance displacement 'd from the unbalance force 'f
'd 'f k (7-3-2)

where, k is the spring stiffness
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calculation

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i
f i

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f ic
i

fi 'd

k

d
di d i

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nonlinear vertical springs in the member section is calculated as:

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i
¦ 'f
i
c i 'f s i (7-3-3)
where 'f c i : unbalance force of concrete spring,

'f s i : unbalance force of steel spring
The unbalance displacement is then calculated as:

'D 'N ¦ ki
i
'N ¦ k
i
c i k s i (7-3-4)
where k c i : stiffness of concrete spring,

k s i : stiffness of steel spring
In the next step calculation, the increment displscement of each spring is ajusted as follows:
'd ic'd i 'D (7-3-5)

where 'd i : increment displacement of i-th spring
'd ic : adjusted increment displacement of i-th spring
'f
'f 'f
xs x
'f
'f
Figure 7-3-2 Unbalance force in MS-model

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N measurement data xm m " N , where T is the period of the data that
corresponds to the duration time of data. The coefficient of a Fourier series is obtained as:
N

Ck
N
¦x
m
m e i Skm N k " N (7-4-1)
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N
xm ¦C e
k
k
i Skm N
m " N (7-4-2)
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The data y m is obtained by the following inverse discrete Fourier transform:
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m't
ym
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S k
S k e i Skm N m " N (7-4-3)
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S ¦
N't k k N
SC
Sk > i FRVSk N @ i C k , S N k S N k k " N (7-4-4)
N k
SC
SN
N
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The following band pass filter (Butterworth filter) in frequency domain is applied to the
coefficient S k .
GB f GL f GH f (7-4-5)
f fL
n
GL f (7-4-6)
f fL
n

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f fH
n
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GL f GH f
STERA_3D adopts the following frequency parameters:

fL (Hz)
fH (Hz)
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x m m " N
FFT &DOFXODWHFourier coefficients of the data
Ck k " N
Eq. (7-4-4) &DOFXODWHFourier coefficients of the data of the integration
Sk k " N
Eq. (7-4-5) $SSO\EDQGSDVVILOWHU
hk S k k " N
,FFT &DOFXODWHWKHGDWDRILQWHJUDWLRQE\,QYHUVHFourier transform
y m m " N
[2] From velocity data to displacement data

Repeat the above process again
310

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STERA 3D

STructural Earthquake Response Analysis 3D

Dr. Taiki SAITO

TOYOHOSHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (TUT), JAPAN

2008/07/08 STERA_3D Technical Manual Ver.2.0 is uploaded.

(1) Global Coordinate

Figure 1-1-1 Global coordinate

Figure 1-1-1 Global coordinate

Figure 1-1-2 Local coordinate of a beam element

Figure 2-1-1 Element model for beam

Force-displacement relationship for elastic element

­T ' yA ½ ­W ' yA ½ ­I yA ½ ­K yA ½ ­ M ' yA ½

­ M ' yA ½ ­T ' yA ½ ­T ' yA ½

where, [k B ] is the stiffness matrix of the beam element.

Including rigid parts and node movement

­T ' yA ½ ­T yA  W ½ u  O B l 'T yB  u zA  O A l 'T yA

Figure 2-1-2 Including rigid parts and node movement

From node axial displacements, relative axial displacement is,

Combining Equations (2-1-7) and (2-1-9),

Out of plane deformation of beam

­T ' zA ½ ­T zA  W ½ u  O A l 'T zA  u yB  O B l 'T zB

O Al ' l' OB l'

Figure 2-1-4 Beam displacement with rigid connection (X-Y plane)

From global node displacement to element node displacement

In case of Y-direction beam

Local coordinate of Y-beam Global coordinate

Figure 2-1-3 Relation between local coordinate and global coordinate

Transformation matrix for nonlinear spring displacement

X-Z plane Y-Z plane

Figure 2-2-1 Element model for column

Force-displacement relationship for elastic element

where, [ f pA ] and [ f pB ] are the flexural

°I xB ° ° M ' xB ° Figure 2-2-2 Nonlinear bending springs

The force-displacement relationship in Equation (2-2-7) is then expressed as,

­T ' yA ½ ­W ' yA ½ ­I yA ½ ­K yA ½ ­ M ' yA ½

The flexural matrix [ f C ] is;

­ M ' yA ½ ­T ' yA ½ ­T ' yA ½

Including rigid parts and node movement

Including rigid parts and node movement,

Figure 2-2-3 Including rigid parts and node movement

From global node displacement to element face displacement

>K C @ >TC @T >kC @>TC @ (2-2-20)

­ M ' yA ½ ­ M ' yA ½ ­ M ' yA ½

M ' xB1 M ' yBc M ' xB 2

M ' xA1 M ' yAc M ' xA2

Figure 2-3-1 Element model for wall

Force-displacement relationship for elastic element

N ' zBc , H zBc

Figure 2-3-2 Nonlinear bending springs

­I yAc ½ ­ M ' yAc ½

­I yBc ½ ­ M ' yBc ½

°I xB1 ° ° M ' xB1 °

The force-displacement relationship in Equation (2-3-7) is then expressed as,

­I yAc ½ ­ M ' yAc ½ ­ M ' yAc ½

Force-displacement relationship for nonlinear shear springs

­T ' yAc ½ ­W ' yAc ½ ­I yAc ½ ­K yAc ½ ­ M ' yAc ½

The flexural matrix [ f W ] is;

ª f p11 " f p17 º

­ M ' yAc ½ ­T ' yAc ½ ­T ' yAc ½

Including rigid parts and node movement

­T ' yAc ½ ­T ' yAc ½

Including rigid parts and node movement,

Figure 2-3-3 Relationship between center and node displacements

T ' yA ½ W ' yA ½ I yA ½ K yA ½ M ' yA ½

M ' yA ½ T ' yA ½ T ' yA ½

T ' yA ½ T yA W ½ u O B l 'T yB u zA O A l 'T yA

T ' zA ½ T zA W ½ u O A l 'T zA u yB O B l 'T zB

T ' yA ½ W ' yA ½ I yA ½ K yA ½ M ' yA ½

M ' yA ½ T ' yA ½ T ' yA ½

M ' yA ½ M ' yA ½ M ' yA ½

I yAc ½ M ' yAc ½

I yBc ½ M ' yBc ½

I yAc ½ M ' yAc ½ M ' yAc ½

T ' yAc ½ W ' yAc ½ I yAc ½ K yAc ½ M ' yAc ½

M ' yAc ½ T ' yAc ½ T ' yAc ½

T ' yAc ½ T ' yAc ½

G xs u xBc u xAc hT yBc

u xA1 ½ ª1 º u yA1 ½ u yA1 ½

>Cb @1 >Cb @T (2-4-10)

u x2 u~x 2 cos T u~z 2 sin T T

^ f ` >Cb @1 ^~f ` >Cb @T >nb @T ^N ` (2-4-15)

Q' xc ½ ªk sx 0 0 º J ' xc ½ J ' xc ½

wG z 1 § G zA2 G zA1 G zB 2 G zB1 ·

u xA1 ½ ª1 º u yA1 ½ u yA1 ½

wG z 1 § G zA2 G zA1 G zB 2 G zB1 ·

wu z 1 § u xB1 u xA1 u xB 2 u xA2 ·