Contents

Preface ..........................
...........................................................
.
1 Introduction ........................................................................
1.1 Scope ................................................................................
1.2 Background .....................................................................
1.3 The ALARA Principle .....................................................
1.4 Range of Applicability ....................................................
1.5 Qualitative Aspects of ALARA ......................................
1.6 Quantitative Aspects of ALARA ....................................
1.7 Implementation ...............................................................
2. Nuclear Power Dose Experience ....................................
2.1 Status of Nuclear Power Generation ............................
2.2 Exposures in the United States ....................................
2.3 Goals for 1990 and 1995 .................................... ............
2.4 Comparisons with Other Countries ..............................
.
3 Quantitative Methods in Optimization .........................
3.1 Introduction ............................ .... ................................
3.2 Conceptual Approach .....................................................
3.3 Valuation of Marginal Value of Dose Avoided .............
3.3.1 Valuations Based on Surveys and
Past Practices ....................................................
3.3.2 Impact of Required Crew Changes .....................
3.3.3 Impact of Replacement Power Costs ...................
3.3.4 Job-Specific Marginal Values of
Dose Reduction ................. :...............................
3.4 Eqaluation of Options ...................................................
3.4.1 Preliminary Screening of Options .......................
3.4.2 Aggregating Present and Future Costs
and Benefits ......................................................
3.4.3 Present-Value Calculation ...................................
3.5 Comparison of Options ...................................................
3.6 Sensitivity Analyses .......................................................
.
4 Management, Policy and Administration for an
ALARA Program .................................................................
4.1 Organization ...................................................................
4.2 Management Direction ...................................................
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Corporate Policy ...................................................

4.2.1
Radiation Protection Manual ..............................
4.2.2
.
.
Procedures ........................... .............................
4.2.3
Responsibilities .....................................................
4.2.4
Goals and Objectives ............................................
4.2.5
4.3 Training ...........................................................................
4.3.1 Radiation Protection Technicians and
Supervisors ........................................................
...
4.3.2 Station Employees ............................ ..............
4.3.3 Engineers ..............................................................
4.3.4 Managers and Supervisors ..................................
4.3.5 Examinations ........................................................
4.3.6 Continuing Training ............................................
4.4 Monitoring Program Performance .................................
4.4.1 Quantitative Indicators ........................................
4.4.2 Performance Monitoring ......................................
4.5 Assessment ......................................................................
.
5 Dose Control Principles in Reactor D e s i m and
Modification .........................................................................
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................
5.2 ALARA Principle in the Design Process .......................
5.3 Design Dose Objectives ..................................................
5.4 Design Responsibilities and Organizational
Structure for Implementing the Dose
Control Principles .......................................................
5.5 Radiation Dose-Reduction Technology ..........................
5.5.1 Source Reduction Design Factors .......................
5.5.1.1 Cobalt Source Reduction ........................
5.5.1.2 System Chemistry and Metallurgy .......
5.5.1.3 System Decontamination .......................
5.5.1.4 Fuel Integrity ..........................................
5.5.2 System Integrity and Contamination .................
5.5.3 Time, Distance and Shielding .............................
5.5.3.1 Plant and Equipment Reliability ...........
5.5.3.2 Ease of Maintenance,
Operation, Inspection and Access ......
5.5.4 System Layout ......................................................
5.5.5 Remote Operation ................................................
5.5.6 Robotics .................................................................
5.5.7 Shielding ..........................................................
.
6 Operational Considerations ............................................
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................
6.2 Radioactive Source Reduction .......................................
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Optimum pH .........................................................
6.2.1
Exclusion of Extraneous Materials .....................
6.2.2
Cobalt Reduction ..................................................
6.2.3
Hydrogen Water Chemistry and Zinc Injection
6.2.4
in Boiling Water Reactors ................................
6.2.5 Hot Drain-Off of Feedwater Systems and
Condensers Following Shutdown and
Prior to Start-Up in Boiling Water
Reactors ............................................................
6.2.6 Ultra-Fine Filters for Letdown System ..............
6.2.7 Oxygen Injection into Boiling Water Reactor
Feedwater ..........................................................
6.2.8 Iron Controls in Boiling Water Reactors ............
6.3 Contamination Control ...................................................
6.3.1 Proper Maintenance and Operations ..................
6.3.2 Optimization of Plant Contamination Control ...
6.3.3 Protective Clothing andfor Respirator
Optimization ...................................................
6.3.4 Decontamination of Work Areas .........................
6.3.5 Use of Tents. Containment Bags and
Glove Boxes .......................................................
6.3.6 Use of Local Ventilation ......................................
6.3.7 Boiling Water Reactor Controlled
Shutdowns .........................................................
6.3.8 Pressurized Water Reactor Shutdown
Chemistry ..........................................................
6.3.9 Decontamination of Primary System and
Components .......................................................
6.3.10 Fuel Cladding Integrity .....................................
6.4 External Exposure Control ............................................
6.4.1 External Exposure Control During Job Setup ...
6.4.1.1 Radiation Work Permit .........................
6.4.1.2 Decontamination of Components ...........
6.4.1.3 AleridAlarm Systems .............................
6.4.1.4 Posting .....................................................
6.4.1.5 Radiation and Airborne Radioactivity
Monitoring ...........................................
6.4.1.6 Temporary Shielding ..............................
6.4.1.7 Pre-Job Briefing ......................................
6.42 External Exposure Control During Work
Activities ............................................................
6.4.2.1 Job Supervisor .........................................
6.4.2.2 Radiation Protection Technician
Coverage ...............................................
 ...
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6.4.2.3 Auxiliary Operators Routine

Activities .............................................. 92
6.4.2.4 Radiation Workers .................................. 92
6.4.2.5 Special Tooling and Robotics ................. 93
6.4.2.6 Communications ..................................... 93
6.4.2.7 Dose Tracking ......................................... 93
6.4.3 Post-Job Activities ............................................... 94
6.4.3.1 Dose Accounting ...................................... 94
6.4.3.2 Post-Job Reviews .................................... 94
6.4.3.3 Documentation ........................................ 94
6.4.3.4 ALARA Reports ....................................... 94
6.5 Planning .......................................................................... 95
6.5.1 General .................................................................. 95
6.5.2 Task Planning ...................................................... 95
6.5.2.1 Defining the Job Scope ........................... 96
6.5.2.2 Photos. Video Tape and Video
Mapping ............................................. 96
6.5.2.3 Radiological Surveys ............................... 96
6.5.2.4 Pre-Job Inspections. Dry Runs .............. 97
6.5.2.5 Dose Estimates ..................................... 97
6.5.3 Outage Coordination ............................................ 97
6.5.3.1 Radiological Support Personnel ............. 98
6.5.3.2 Schedule Considerations ........................ 98
6.5.3.3 Coordination of Outage Tasks ............... 98
Appendix A. Pre-Job ALARA Briefing ............................... 100
.
Appendix B Pre-Job ALARA Checklist ............................. 101
.
Appendix C ALARA Reviews-Graded
Approach .......................................................... 103
References ........................................................................ 104
The NCRP ............................................................................... 115
NCRP Publications ................................................................. 123
Index ..................................................................................... 134