Essential Concepts

of Radiation Physics

Sheanne M. Macaraeg, M.Sc.

Medical Physicist
Quirino Memorial Medical Center
RADIATION
 OBJECTIVES

Ø  Define electromagnetic radiation, specifically ionizing

radiation.
Ø  State sources of ionizing radiation.
Ø  Describe the general design of an x-ray tube.
Ø  Discuss the events that occur when x-ray passes through
matter.
Ø  Differentiate among the radiation quantities and identify the
appropriate symbol for each quantity.
 OUTLINE

Ø  What is radiation?
•  Discovery of X-rays
•  Where does radiation come from?
Ø  The X-ray Tube
•  Components of an X-ray Tube
•  X-ray Production
Ø  Interaction of X-ray with Matter
Ø  Radiation Quantities and Units
 DISCOVERY OF
X-RAYS
§  On 08 November 1895, a German physics professor Wilhelm
Conrad Roentgen discovered a mysterious ray while
experimenting with a type of Crookes tube in a laboratory at
the University of Wurzburg in Bavaria.
§  Roentgen called this discovery “x-ray”.
§  In late November 1895, he took the world’s first x-ray picture
on film that clearly showed the bones of his wife’s hand.
 DISCOVERY OF
X-RAYS

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen and the first x-ray picture on

film – Mrs. Roentgen’s hand.
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen and the type of Crookes tube
he used when he discovered x-rays.
FORMS OF ENERGY

§  Potential Energy – is the ability to do work by virtue of position.

§  Kinetic Energy – is the energy of motion.
§  Chemical Energy – is the energy released by a chemical
reaction.
§  Electrical Energy – represents the work that can be done
when an electron moves through an electric potential
difference (voltage).
§  Thermal Energy (Heat) – is the energy of motion at the
molecular level.
§  Nuclear Energy – is the energy that is contained within the
nucleus of an atom.
§  Electromagnetic Energy – the least familiar form of energy.
FORMS OF ENERGY
 WHAT IS
RADIATION?
§  Electromagnetic Energy is usually referred to as
electromagnetic radiation or, simply, RADIATION.

§  Radiation – is an energy emitted and transferred through

space or through a material medium.
 WHERE DOES
RADIATION COME
FROM?

§  Natural Environmental Radiation

- results in an annual dose of approximately 3 mSv

§  Man-Made Radiation
- results in 3.2 mSv annually
 WHERE DOES
RADIATION COME
FROM?

Natural Environmental Radiation

§  cosmic rays
§  terrestrial radiation
§  internally deposited radionuclides
§  radon
 WHERE DOES
RADIATION COME
FROM?

Natural Environmental Radiation

§  cosmic rays
- are particulate and electromagnetic radiation emitted
by the sun and stars
- On Earth, the intensity of cosmic radiation increases with
altitude and latitude.
 WHERE DOES
RADIATION COME
FROM?

Natural Environmental Radiation

§  terrestrial radiation
- results from deposits of uranium, thorium, and other
radionuclides in the Earth
- The intensity is highly dependent on the geology of the
local area.
 WHERE DOES
RADIATION COME
FROM?

Natural Environmental Radiation

§  internally deposited radionuclides
- mainly potassium-40 (40K), are natural metabolites
- They have always been with us and contribute an
equal dose to each of us.
 WHERE DOES
RADIATION COME
FROM?
Natural Environmental Radiation
§  radon
- the largest source of natural environmental radiation
- is a radioactive gas that is produced by the natural
radioactive decay of uranium, which is present in trace
quantities in the Earth
-  All Earth-based materials, such as concrete, bricks, and
gypsum wallboard, contain radon.
-  emits alpha particles, which are not penetrating, and
therefore contributes a radiation dose only to the lung
 WHERE DOES
RADIATION COME
FROM?

Man-Made Radiation
§  medical x-rays
§  nuclear medicine
§  nuclear power generation
§  consumer products
 WHERE DOES
RADIATION COME
FROM?

The contribution of various sources to the average U.S. population

radiation dose, 1990 vs 2006. – National Council on Radiation Protection
and Measurements (NCRP)
 TYPES OF
RADIATION

§  Ionizing Radiation

§  Non-Ionizing Radiation
 TYPES OF
RADIATION
IONIZING RADIATION
§  any type of radiation that is capable
of removing an orbital electron of the
atom with which it interacts
§  IONIZATION – is the removal of an
electron from an atom
§  produces positively and negatively
charged particles (ions) when
passing through matter
§  x-rays, gamma rays and ultraviolet
light are the only forms of
electromagnetic radiation with
sufficient energy to ionize
NON-IONIZING RADIATION
§  does not carry enough energy to
ionize atoms or molecules
§  causes excitation of the atoms
§  EXCITATION – occurs when the
radiation excites the motion of the
atoms or molecules, or excites an
electron from an occupied orbital
into an empty, higher-energy orbital
§  given off in the form of heat
 TYPES OF
RADIATION
Non-Ionizing Radiation
 TYPES OF
RADIATION
Ionizing Radiation
 TYPES OF IONIZING
RADIATION
(According to its Form)

•  Alpha Radiation
- consists of positively charged Helium nuclei (relatively large
particles consisting of two protons and two neutrons)
- can be blocked by a sheet of paper or a human skin
 TYPES OF IONIZING
RADIATION
(According to its Form)

•  Beta Radiation
- made up of electrons which have lower mass than those
particles that make up Alpha radiation
- can be blocked by glass or thick clothing
 TYPES OF IONIZING
RADIATION
(According to its Form)

•  X-rays & Gamma Rays

- electromagnetic radiation
- can be blocked by a sheet of lead or a concrete layer
 TYPES OF IONIZING
RADIATION
(According to its Form)
EFFECTS OF IONIZING
RADIATION
•  Stochastic Effect
- the probability of an effect increases with dose
- with no dose threshold
- the severity of the effect is not dose related
- due to cell transformation
- example: radiation carcinogenesis
•  Deterministic Effect
- has a threshold in dose
- the severity of the effect is dose related
- due to cell death
- example: radiation-induced cataracts
THE X-RAY TUBE
 X-RAY TUBE
§  is an electronic vacuum tube with components contained within
a glass or metal enclosure
§  is a special type of vacuum tube that contains two electrodes:
the cathode and the anode
§  it is relatively large (30 to 50 cm long and 20 cm in diameter)
§  The glass enclosure is made up of Pyrex glass to enable it to
withstand the tremendous heat generated. The enclosure
maintains a vacuum inside the tube. This vacuum allows for more
efficient x-ray production and a longer tube life.
§  The metal enclosure tubes maintain a constant electric potential
between the electrons of the tube current and the enclosure.
Therefore, they have a longer life and are less likely to fail.
X-RAY TUBE
 X-RAY TUBE
§  CATHODE
- is the negative side of the x-ray tube; it has two primary parts, a filament and
a focusing cup
§  FILAMENT
- is a coil of wire (approximately 2 mm in diameter and 1 or 2 cm long)
- emits electrons when it is heated
- When the current through the filament is sufficiently high, the outer-shell
electrons of the filament atoms are “boiled off” and ejected from the filament.
This phenomenon is known as thermionic emission.
- are usually made of thoriated tungsten
- tungsten provides for higher thermionic emission than other metals
§  FOCUSING CUP
- is negatively charged so that it electrostatically confines the electron beam
to a small area of the anode
X-RAY TUBE
 X-RAY TUBE
§  ANODE
- is the positive side of the x-ray tube; it conducts electricity and radiates heat
and contains the target
- serves three functions:
•  electrical conductor
- it receives electrons emitted by the cathode and conducts them
through the tube to the connecting cables and back to the high-voltage
generator

•  mechanical support

•  thermal dissipater
- When the projectile electrons from the cathode interact with the
anode, more than 99% of their kinetic energy is converted into heat
 X-RAY TUBE
§  TARGET
- is the area of the anode struck by the electrons from the cathode. In
stationary anode tubes, the target consists of a tungsten alloy embedded in the
copper anode. In rotating anode tubes, the entire rotating disc is the target.
TYPE OF RADIATION
•  Primary Radiation
- radiation being emitted directly to the patient from an x-ray
source
•  Leakage Radiation
- radiation escaping from within the source assembly except
for the useful beam
- they contribute nothing in the way of diagnostic information
and result in unnecessary exposure of the patient and the
personnel
•  Scatter Radiation
- radiation generated by the interaction of the primary
radiation with matter
X-RAY PRODUCTION
§  x-rays are emitted isotropically, that is, with equal intensity in
all directions
§  We use only x-rays emitted through the special section of the
x-ray tube called the window.
§  The x-rays emitted through the window are called the useful
beam.
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
Summary:
ü  X-ray production requires three basic things:
a source of electrons, a means of
accelerating the electrons, and a means of
decelerating the electrons.
ü  Tube current (mA) is used to control the
number of x-rays.
ü  Tube voltage (kVp) is used to control the
energy of x-rays.
INTERACTION OF
X-RAY WITH
MATTER
 INTERACTION OF X-RAY
WITH MATTER

§  Photoelectric Effect
§  Compton Scattering
§  Pair Production
§  Photodisintegration
§  Coherent Scattering
 INTERACTION OF X-RAY
WITH MATTER

§  Photoelectric Effect
- is an interaction between an x-ray photon and
an inner-shell electron tightly bound to an atom of
the absorbing médium
- In the photoelectric interaction, a photon is
completely absorbed by the atoms of the tissue.
- This type of interaction is responsible for both
patient dose and contrast in the image.
 INTERACTION OF X-RAY
WITH MATTER

§  Compton Scattering
- also known as incoherent, inelastic, or modified
scattering
- is responsable for most of the scattered radiation
produced during radiologic procedures
- This scatter may be directed forward as a small-
angle scatter, backward as backscatter, and to the side
as sidescatter.
- In the Comptom process, an incoming x-ray photon
interacts with a loosely bound outer electron of an atom
of the irradiated object.
 How does x-ray
interact with
matter?
§  It penetrates.
- The photon will penetrate
the absorbing material.
- The chance of penetration
increases at higher photon
energies.
 How does x-ray
interact with
matter?
§  It is absorbed.
(Photoelectric Effect)
- The photon is totally
absorbed in the material.
- The chance of penetration
increases at lower photon
energies and high atomic
number absorbing material.
 How does x-ray
interact with
matter?
§  It is scattered.
(Compton Effect)
- Only part of the photon
energy is absorbed. The
remaining energy is released
with reduced energy and
different direction.
- The probability of
occurrence increases at lower
photon energies.
X-RAY ATTENUATION

Ø  Refers to the total

reduction in the intensity of
the x-ray beam due to
absorption (Photoelectric
Effect) and scattering
(Compton Effect) following
penetration through a
given thickness of matter.
 RADIATION
QUANTITIES AND
UNITS
Radiation quantities
help us . . .
ü  understand something about the level of risk that
radiation poses to us, our patients, and those with
whom we work
ü  Answer the following questions:
• How much radiation exists at some position?
• How much risk does the radiation pose to a
specific tissue?
• How likely it is that an exposed person will develop
cáncer or pass on some radiation caused
genetically heritable effect?
Some Radiation
Measuring
Instruments
RADIATION UNITS AND
DOSE QUANTITIES

F  EXPOSURE
F  ABSORBED DOSE
F  EQUIVALENT DOSE
F  EFFECTIVE DOSE
RADIATION UNITS AND
DOSE QUANTITIES

F  EXPOSURE
- the amount of ionizing radiation that may strike
an object such as the human body when in
the vicinity of a radiation source
RADIATION UNITS AND
DOSE QUANTITIES

F  ABSORBED DOSE
- is the deposition of energy per unit mass by
ionizing radiation in the patient’s body tissue
RADIATION UNITS AND
DOSE QUANTITIES

F  EQUIVALENT DOSE
- also attempts to take into account the
variation in biologic harm that is produced by
different types of radiation. Both the type and
the energy of the radiation are considered.
This quantity is used for radiation protection
purposes.
RADIATION UNITS AND
DOSE QUANTITIES

F  EFFECTIVE DOSE
- is another radiation quantity used for radiation
protection purposes
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION
ON RADIATION UNITS AND
MEASUREMENTS (ICRU)
•  Development of internationally acceptable
recommendations regarding:
ü  quantities and units of radiation and radioactivity
ü  procedures suitable for the measurement and
application of these quantities in clinical
radiology and radiobiology
ü  physical data needed in the application of these
procedures, the use of which tends to assure
uniformity in reporting
NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
ON RADIATION QUANTITIES
AND UNITS
§  Center for Device Regulation, Radiation Health,
and Research (CDRRHR)
- regulates facilities/establishments and other
activities engaged in the use of radiation
devices and other activities in the Philippines
§  Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI)
- regulates facilities which utilize radioactive
materials and devices producing or utilizing
radioactive substances
 EXPOSURE (X)

§  Measures the amount of electrons liberated by x-

rays or Gamma rays in a mass of air
§  It answers the question:
- How much radiation exists at some position?
§  The SI unit of exposure is coulomb per kilogram
(C/kg). The old unit is the Roentgen (R).
§  Exposure is the only quantity that is measurable
and is only applicable to air.
 AIR
§  Chosen as the material in which exposure
measurements are made for several reasons:
- readily available everywhere
- free
- its composition is universally almost constant
and therefore reproducible
- its atomic number is almost identical with that of
muscle tissue
(Zair = 7.78, Zmuscle tissue = 7.64)
ABSORBED DOSE (D)
§  Describes the amount of radiation deposited in a
unit mass of the interacting material
§  It answers the question:
- How much risk does the radiation pose to a
specific tissue?
§  This quantity can not be measured, however, it
can be calculated using the equation
D =X•f
where: X is the exposure
f is the roentgen to rad conversion factor whose value depends on the energy of x-ray
and the kind of material being irradiated
ABSORBED DOSE (D)
§  The old unit of absorbed dose is the rad which is
an acronym for radiation absorbed dose
§  The SI unit is the Gray (Gy)

1 Gy = 100 rads
or
1 rad = 1 cGy
EQUIVALENT DOSE (EqD)
•  It is the weighted absorbed dose averaged over
a tissue for a particular type of radiation
•  It also answers the question:
- How much risk does the radiation pose to a
specific tissue?

EqD = WR • D
where: WR is the radiation weighting factor
EQUIVALENT DOSE (EqD)
§  The old unit of absorbed dose is the rem which is
an acronym for radiation equivalent man
§  The SI unit is the Sievert (Sv)

1 Sv = 100 rems
or
1 rem = 10 mSv
RADIATION WEIGHTING
FACTORS (Wr)

§  This factor places risks associated with biologic

effects on a common scale.
§  Each type and energy of radiation has a specific
radiation weighting factor.
§  The radiation weighting factor is a measure of
energy imparted.
RADIATION WEIGHTING
FACTORS (Wr)
Type and Energy Range WR

Photons < 20 MeV 1

Electrons, muons, all energies 1
Neutrons < 10 keV 5
10 keV – 100 keV 10
> 100 keV – 2 MeV 20
> 2 Mev – 20 MeV 10
> 20 MeV 5
Photons > 20 MeV 5
Alpha particles, fission 20
fragments, heavy nuclei
EFFECTIVE DOSE (EfD)

§  provides a measure of the overall risk of exposure

to ionizing radiation
§  The NCRP, in Report No. 116, defines it as “the sum
of the weighted equivalent dosesfor all irradiated
tissues or organs”.
EFFECTIVE DOSE (EfD)
§  The tissue equivalent dose multiplied by the tissue
weighting factor, WT, and is expressed in Sievert
(Sv)
EfD = EqD • WT
§  It answers the question:
- How likely will a person develop cancer or pass
on some radiation caused genetically heritable
effect?
 TISSUE WEIGHTING
FACTOR (WT)
§  is a conceptual measure for the relative risk
associated with irradiation of different body
tissues
§  is a value that denotes the percentage of the
summed stochastic risk stemming from irradiation
of tissue to the all-inclusive risk, when the entire
body is irradiated in a uniform fashion
§  The tissue weighting factor is a measure of organ
sensitivity.
TISSUE WEIGHTING
FACTOR (WT)
Organ

Gonads 0.20
Colon 0.12
Lung 0.12
Red bone marrow 0.12
Stomach 0.12
Bladder 0.05
Breast 0.05
Liver 0.05
Oesophagus 0.05
Thyroid 0.05
Bone surfaces 0.01
Skin 0.01
Remainer 0.05
TOTAL 1.00
 Film/TLD
badge
monitors the
Intensity of gamma
effective
rays meaured in
dose
Roentgen
received by
the radiation
Activity of
worker in
radioactive source
rems
measured in Curies
or Becquerel
Absorbed dose in rads or
Grays
Converted to equivalent dose
in rems or Sieverts

Shield
 Physical SI Unit Non-SI Unit Relationship
Quantity
Activity Becquerel (Bq) Curie (Ci) 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq
1 Bq = 2.7 x 10-11 Ci

Exposure Coulomb/ Roentgen (R) 1 R = 2.58 x 10-4 C/kg

kilogram (C/kg) 1 C/kg = 3876 R

Absorbed Gray (Gy) radiation 1 Gy = 1 J/kg

Dose absorbed dose 1 Gy = 100 rads
(rad)

Equivalent Sievert (Sv) radiation 1 Sv = 1 J/kg

Dose/ Effective equivalent man
Dose
1 Sv = 100 rems
(rem)
 REFERENCES

[1] Bushong, S. (2013). Radiologic Science for

Technologists: Physics, Biology, and Protection
(10th Ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby, Inc.

[2] Statkiewicz-Shere, M.A., Visconti, P., & Ritenour,

E.R.(2011). Radiation Protection in Medical
Radiography (6th Ed.). Maryland Heights, Missouri:
Mosby, Inc.
Thank you
for your
attention!