Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 1970. Vol.I,pp.697-704. PergamonPress.

inGreat Britain
Printed

CRACK EXTENSION BY ALTERNATING SHEAR?

R. M. N. PELLOUX
Solid State Physics Laboratory, Boeing Scientific Research Laboratories, Seattle, Wash. 98 124, U.S.A.

Abstract-A comparison of the slip line flow field at the tip of a sharp crack and of a blunted crack shows that
a sharp crack can be extended by alternating shear until it becomes blunted. Crack tip blunting is associated
with high strain concentration and fracture by hole growth and coalescence. Crack extension by alternating
shear has been obtained in fully plastic, plane strain sharply notched, singly and doubly grooved tensile
specimens. Electronfractography shows crack extension by alternating shear at the tip of cleavage and fatigue
cracks. It is shown that fatigue crack propagation is the result of repeated cyclic crack extension by alter-
nating shear.

1. INTRODUCTION
THE of the electron microscope to study fracture surfaces at high magnification has
USE
led to a detailed identification and classification of characteristic fracture surface
markings; however, the deformation mechanisms leading to the formation of these
markings are far from being understood. This is especially true in the case of ductile
fracture. The work of Crussard[ 11 and more recently of Palmer and Smith[2] has
shown that ductile fracture is initiated by the formation of microcracks at the interface
between inclusions (or precipitates) and the solid solution matrix or by the fracture of
the same inclusions. During plastic deformation, the microcracks grow and link up to
form the shallow cusps or ‘dimples’ observed on the fracture surface. The coalescence
of the microcracks or voids has been observed to take place along a plane of maximum
shear stress or along a plane normal to the direction of maximum tensile stress, leading
to the formation respectively of elongated or equiaxed dimples.
In most cases of ductile fracture, dimples or void markings do not cover the entire
fracture surface: there are also some flat ‘featureless’ areas which may extend over
dimensions of the order of a few microns. Crussard [ l] first observed these flat areas on
shear fracture surfaces but also on tensile and impact test fracture surfaces of mild steel
in the brittle-ductile transition range. Crussard[l] suggested that fracture occurs in
slip planes that have been weakened by plastic deformation and referred to it as a glide
plane decohesion fracture. Rogers[3] and Beachem[4] made the same observations,
noting that the flat surface often show wavy markings similar to wavy slip lines running
along a direction generally normal to the direction of crack propagation. Beachem[4]
referred to the markings as ‘serpentine glide’ and the fracture as a stretching process. In
all cases it was pointed out that precipitates or second phase particles were present in
the regions of glide plane decohesion but did not initiate a mode of fracture by void
growth. In this work it is shown that a similar mode of ductile fracture can be produced
on a macroscopic scale by using test specimens in which fully plastic stress and strain
fields are attained before fracture.

2. FULLY PLASTIC, PLANE STRAIN, GROOVED TENSILE SPECIMENS

(a) Singly grooved tensile specimen
Figure I(a) shows a sketch of a singly grooved tensile specimen with an infinitely
sharp groove. For a perfectly rigid plastic material, deformation can take place only by
fpresented at the National Symposium on Fracture Mechanics, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa.,
June 17-19. 1968.
697
698 R. M. N. PELLOUX

LI
d
B
,
,,I’
A/’ /’
I’
A

I u/2

t”

lYm!#Il
B
1’
/’
A/’
:\
\
\
\
\
\
C

(la) (IdI

Fig. 1. (a). (b). (c), crack extension by alternating shear

in a singly grooved tensile specimen: (a), (d), (e), crack
blunting by simultaneous shear in a singly grooved
tensile specimen.

shear on the two planes AB and AC. Deformation can proceed either alternately on one
band and then on the other or simultaneously since the exact solution does not specify
as to how the shear is distributed between the two planes.
Alternating shear. Figs. l(b) and l(c) show that if shear starts on plane AB and if
there is some strain hardening on that plane it will be easier for the shear to proceed on a
second plane A’B’ which has not been deformed so that the shear would tend to be
alternating. This process of deformation by alternating shear results in an extension of
the notch length by a mechanism of rupture and not by fracture. The absolute extension
of the crack length is equal to half the displacement of the flanks of the notch, that is,
half the crack tip opening displacement. Note that the extension of the crack length
relative to the width of the specimen is twice the absolute crack extension. In the case
of alternating shear the crack tip remains always sharp.
Simultaneous shear. If the material were totally non-hardening or if the hardening
became saturated, simultaneous shear would be expected on planes AB and AC leading
to the development of a blunted notch as shown in Figs. l(d) and 1(e).
 Crack extension by alternating shear 699

In the two cases of alternating and simultaneous shear, the deformation process
should be entirely reversible at least in theory. However, in practice, the fact that the
freshly exposed crack surface is immediately oxidized in air (for most material) will
limit the amount of reversibility of the deformation at the tip.

(b) Doubly grooved tensile specimen

Figure 2(a) shows the slip line flow field of a doubly grooved, sharply notched, fully
plastic plane strain tensile specimen. The flow fields and strain distribution were
analyzed by WangfS] and also by McClintock[6]. The strain in the region directly
ahead of the crack tip is of the order of U/b, with no strain concentration present, while
that in the fan above and below the crack tip is of the order U/V2r.

Fig. 2. (a). slip line field for a sharply

notched, doubly grooved tensile specimen.
(b), slip line field for a blunt notch, doubly
grooved tensile specimen.

Symmetrical shear on both sides of the crack tip leads to the shape discussed by
Wang[S] who approximated it by a nearly circular root shape as shown in Fig. 2(b).
McClintock[7] has carried out the slip line analysis for the case of alternating shear
and it also shows a blunting of the crack tip. However, in both cases, the crack length
has been extended by half the crack flanks opening displacement. Regardless of
whether the blunting is obtained by alternating or simultaneous shear, there will be
regions of high strain and stress directly in front of the blunted crack in contrast with
the situation for a sharp crack. Following the theory of ductile fracture proposed by
McClintock[g], this large strain concentration leads to fracture by void initiation and
700 K. M. N. PELLOUX

growth which may in turn sharpen the crack tip and lead to further blunting by shear.
Repetition of this process leads to crack propagation.
In the general case of crack propagation for a given specimen geometry, the com-
plete slip line flow field within the plastic zone at the tip of a crack is not known, but
right at the tip of the crack it will be similar to the flow fields sketched in Figs. 2(a) and
2(b). Consequently, it can be expected that crack extension of a very sharp crack will
take place by alternating shear prior to blunting and by fracture by hole growth foilow-
ing blunting. The critical crack tip radius corresponding to the transition from rupture
to fracture cannot be calculated at this point. For a given material this radius will
depend on the amount of strain concentration needed to initiate fracture by void
coalescence at the tip of the crack.
Crack advance by rupture that is by alternating shear should be observed whenever
a sharp crack is present that is for instance at the tip of a fatigue, cleavage or stress
corrosion crack loaded under conditions which do not limit plastic shear at the crack
tip.

3. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE AND DISCUSSION

The fact that the solution obtained for crack extension by alternating shear works
reasonably well even for materials with some strain hardening is shown in Fig. 3
by the cross section of a deformed aluminum specimen. The dotted line indicates the
original notch depth. It can be seen that the tip of the notch remains fairly sharp with a
flank angle close to 90”.
Fully plastic doubly grooved tensile specimen of I 100 aluminum and pure copper
with a shank diameter of 2 in. and a notch root radius of 0~001 in. exhibited separation
by shear over a crack length of the order of 0.050-0.10 in. before fast crack propagation
by hole growth normal to the tensile axis took place. In the region of crack extension by
shear, the fracture surface is very flat even at high magnification as shown by electron
fractography on Fig. 4; the only fracture features are wavy slip markings normal to
the direction of crack propagation. Some elongated parabola associated with large
second phase particles present in the path of fracture are also observed but these
parabolas are incidental to the process of separation by alternating shear. Deformation
along the shear planes AB and CD (Fig. 1) is made possible only by the multiplicity of
the slip systems operating within each grain. Consequently, the orientation of the wavy
slip lines may change slightly across a grain boundary or a twin boundary (see Fig. 4).
However, the wavy slip lines always represent the successive positions of the crack
front.
A good example of the extension of a sharp cleavage crack by alternating shear is
shown in Fig. 5 which represents the fracture surface of a 606 1 aluminum alloy broken
in tension, It can be seen that ahead of the main crack front a large inclusion A fractured
by cleavage forming a sharp microcrack which extended in the matrix by alternating
shear (wavy slip lines) until it blunted and crack propagation by hole growth followed
starting along the line BC. The absence of fracture by voids around the inclusion could
also be explained by the absence of initiation sites due to a local depletion of precipi-
tates. However, a detailed examination of the micrographs shows that many precipitates
were present around the inclusions and did not initiate any voids.
Another example of the importance of rupture by alternating shear is observed on
Fig. 6 which shows the fracture transition zone between fatigue fracture and fracture by
hole growth in a fracture toughness test specimen of 2024-T3 aluminum alloy. The
 .

Fig. 3. Cross section showing deformation in a singly grooved bar

of annealed aluminum after horizontal tension. (The dotted line
indicates the original notch depth (x50).)

Fig. 4. Wavy slip lines on a fracture surface created by alternating

shear in a sharply notched doubly grooved fully plastic tensile
specimen of pure copper. (The direction of crack propagation is
indicated by an arrow (2000x).)
[Facingpag~700]
Fig. 5. Fracture surf’kc of u 606 I aluminum alloy showing rupture
by alternating shear around the cleavt~gc fracture of an intermetallic
inclusion at A. (The direction of wick propagation is indicated by
an arrow f I X00X).)

Fig. 6. Fracture transition ~onc between fatigue fracture and frac-

ture by hole growsth in a fracture toughness test specimen of 2024-
T3 aluminum alloy. The wavy slip lines show that the transition
zone was the result ~tfrttpiure by alternating shear.
Fig. 7. Fracture transition zone between fatigue fracture and
fracture by hole growth in a fracture toughness test specimen of
2024-T3 aluminum alloy. The wavy slip lines show that the tran-
sition zone was the result of rupture by alternating shear.

Fig. 9. Fatigue fracture surface of a 2024-T3 aluminum alloy. The

load program shown in the insert can be related to the striation
spacings measured on the fracture surface.
Fig. II. Fracture surface of 2024-‘13 fatigue in air, in vacuum of 5 X IO ”
torr. and in air. The region without fatigue striation5 is due to 2 16 load cycle5
in vttcuum. (The direction of crack ~rop~l~ati~~n is indicated by an arrow.)

Fig. 12. Fracture surface of copper showing a large component of crack

extensions by alternating shear (wavy slip region) following fracture by hole
growth.
 Crack extension by alternating shear 701

fatigue crack is introduced as a sharp stress raiser for the tensile test which measures
the critical load to fracture. During monotonic loading, crack extension at the fatigue
crack front first took place from AB to CD by alternating shear as shown by the wavy
slip lines and the absence of voids in the band between the crack fronts AB and CD.
This first stage of crack extension resulted in crack tip blunting or rounding as confirmed
by stereo pairs of electron micrographs and by a study of the change of the shadowing
contrast of the replicas. After CD, the crack propagated by void coalescence. Figure 7
shows at a higher magnification the details of the wavy slip in the transition zone. The
average width AC or BD of the transition zone should be related to the crack tip open-
ing displacement necessary to create crack tip blunting. Since the crack tip opening
displacement is equal to the plastic zone size time the yield strain, the width of the
transition zone should be also proportional to the plastic zone sizes at instability. The
ASTM committee on fractography[9] has reported some measurements of the transi-
tion zone in different alloys and found that it is indeed related to the plastic zone sizes.
The mechanism of stage II of fatigue crack propagation has been called by Laird
[lo] a mechanism of fracture by ‘plastic blunting’. Since crack tip resharpening always
occurs during the unloading part of a load cycle, the flow field at the tip of a fatigue
crack is identical to the flow field of Fig. 2(a). As a result upon reloading, the crack
front will advance by a process of alternating shear or rupture by an amount theoreti-
cally equal to one half the crack tip opening displacement. The relationship between
crack tip opening displacement and rate of fatigue crack growth had been pointed out
by McClintock[l I] and calculated values of crack tip opening displacements and
measured rates of fatigue crack growth in cases where the propagation is known to take
place uniformly by striation formation show that the two dimensions are within an
order of magnitude of each other [ 111.
Figure 8(a) shows the broad bands of data representing the relationship between
fatigue crack growth rates and amplitude of the stress intensity factor for some alumi-
num alloys, titanium alloys and a 4340 steel. The crack tip opening displacement 2Vy
corresponding to an amplitude of the stress intensity factor AK can be calculated with
the two following equations

(AK)*
(1) plastic zone size R = 2nt2yJ2

(2) crack tip opening displacement

(AK)*
2Vy = 27T(2Y)E

(Y is the yield strength and E the modulus of elasticity).

The calculated crack tip opening displacements corresponding to the data of Fig. 8(a)
plotted vs. crack growth rates are shown in Fig. 8(b). It appears that there is a unique
relationship between crack tip opening displacements and fatigue crack growth rate.
Note however that the data for 7075-T6 falls outside the general trend which could be
due to a structural instability of that alloy. The correspondence between crack opening
702 R. M. N. PE1.LOUX

$3 Inches

Fig. 8(a). Fatigue crack growth rates vs. change of stress intensity
factor for aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, and 4340 steel.

o-~ 4340 Steel

D--C 2024T3
Wfitaniom Alloys
-7075 Tb
Y
” IO-6 J I I I

e IO-7 IO-6 105 10-d IO-3 10I.2

v
Fatigue Crack Growth Rate-Inches

Fig. 8(b). Crack tip opening displacements vs. fatigue crack growth
rates for aluminum alloys. titanium alloys and 4340 steel.

displacements and growth rates is not linear as it was predicted but it can be written

growth rate = constant x (opening displacement)~.

The discrepancy between calculated and observed relations cannot be explained at this
time. However it can be expected that for a given crack tip opening displacement, the
amount of crack extension by alternating shear will be strongly dependent on the
mechanical properties of the material such as ductility under triaxial conditions planar
or wavy slip character and work hardening exponent.
Further evidence that fatigue crack propagation occurs by a mechanism of alterna-
ting shear and that growth rates are proportional to crack tip opening displacements is
shown on Fig. 9. There is a one to one correlation between the spacings of the fatigue
striations and the load ampljtudes and maximum load levels of the load program shown
in the insert. A change of load amplitude or of foad level results in an immediate (no
 Crack extension by aiternatin~ shear 703

delay) change of striation spacings showing that the amount of crack extension is
directly related to the amount of crack tip opening displacement. The fact that fatigue
crack propagation proceeds by alternating shear rupture on a microscopic scale also
accounts for the complete absence of voids or hole growth within the fatigue striations
when the width of a fatigue striation is larger than the average size of the voids which
would be created by ductile fracture as it is the case with most aluminum alloys for
large fatigue crack growth rates.
Recent tests[ 131 of fatigue crack propagation of aluminum alloys in air and in
vacuum have shown that the growth rate in vacuum is about 4 of the rate in air and that
fatigue striations are not observed in vacuum. These observations can be explained by
the reversibility of the shear defo~ation at the crack tip when there is no oxide film
present. When an oxide film blocks reversed slip, the two fracture surfaces form a
striation during closure of the crack tip by a mechanism shown on Fig. 10. Figure 11
shows the fracture surface of a 2024-T3 aluminum alloy tested in fatigue in air, then in
a vacuum of 5 x 10e6 torr for 2 16 cycles and in air again. Fatigue striations which are
present in air are completely absent when the test is done in vacuum.

>

i ’
2 Cycles
(a) No Reversed Slip (b) Reversed Slip
(Oxidation)

Fig. IO. Comparison of crack tip extension after 2 load

cycles in air and in vacuum (a) in air there is RO re-
versed slip, striations are formed; (b) in vacuum with
reversed slip. no striations are formed.

in the preceding examples crack extension was shown to take place mainly by
sliding off. In general. for a given crack tip opening displacement, the amount of crack
extension can be separated into two components: A rupture or sliding off component
and a fracture component. Figure 12 shows the two components of crack extension in
a ductile fracture of copper. The spherical cusps around the inclusion correspond to the
fracture component and the region of slip is due to sliding off. To understand toughness
704 K. M. N. PELLOUX

and ductility it would be worthwhile to measure the average ratio of these two com-
ponents. The problem is technically very difficult.

4. CONCLUSIONS
It was shown that crack tip extension by alternating shear is a mechanism of rupture
which plays an important part in fracture. It is the result of deformation by shear at the
tip of a sharp crack. The extent of crack extension by alternating shear is limited by the
subsequent blunting of the crack tip. Crack extension by alternating shear is charac-
terized on a microscale by wavy slip markings running along a direction parallel to the
crack front. Crack extension by alternating shear was observed at the tip of cleavage
and fatigue cracks. Fatigue crack propagation is in part the result of repeated cyclic
crack extension by alternating shear.

Acknowledgement-The author wishes to thank Professor F. A. McClintock for many helpful discussions.

REFERENCES
[I] C. Crussard et al.. Fmcture, p. 524. (Swampscott Conf.) MIT Press (1959).
[2] I. G. Palmer and G. C. Smith, paper presented at the 2nd Bolton Landing Conf. Oxide Dispersion
Strengthening. Lake George, New York ( 1966).
[3] H. C. Rogers, Fracture, p. 46. (Swampscott Conf.) MIT Press (1959).
[4] C. D. Beachem and D. A. Meyer, ASTM Preprint No. 41, ASTM Mtg. Boston ( 1967).
[5] A. J. Wang, Q, crppl. Mech. 11,427-438.
[6] F. A. McClintock, Res. Mem. No. 105. Mechanical Engineering Department, MIT ( l’jf~~).
[7] F. A. McClintock, Local criteria for ductile fracture. Presented to Int. Conf. Fracture. Kiruna, Sweden
(I 967).
[8] F. A. McClintock, A criterion for ductile fracture by the growth of holes. Accepted for publication by
J. appl. Mech.
[9] V. E. Wolff, Microfractographic features of fracture toughness specimen. Memo report to ASTM
Subcommittee on Fractography ( 1967).
[IO] C. Laird. Fatigue crack propagation. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub/. No. 415. p. I3 I, ( 1966).
]I I] F. A. McClintock. Fatigue crack propagation. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub/. No. 415, p. 170 (1966).
[I21 J. C. McMillan and R. M. N. Pelloux, Fatigue crack propagation. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub/. No. 415,
p. 505 ( 1966).
[ 13) D. A. Meyer, Rep. of NRL Progr.. p. 22 ( 1967).

(Received I 2 April 1968)

Resume-Une comparaison du champ d’ecoulement des lignes de glissement a I’extremite dune fissure
pointue et d’une fissure Cmoussee montre qu’il est possible d’allonger par cisaillement alterni une fissure
pointue jusqu’a ce que le bout s’emousse. L’emoussage du bout de la fissure est associi a la concentration
ClevCe et a la fracture par agrandissement du trou et par coalescence. L’extension de la fissure par cisaille-
ment alter& a ett obtenue sur des echantillons entitrement plastiques, a rainure simple et double, et a
encoche aigiie en tension plane. La fractographie des electrons montre I’extension de la fissure par cisaille-
ment alter& a la pointe de fentes par fatigue. II est dtmontre que la propagation des fissures par fatigue
resulte d’une extension cyclique rep&e de la fissure par cisaillement alterd.

Zusammenfassung- Ein Vergleich des Fliesslinienbereiches an der Spitze eines scharfen Risses und eines
stumpfen Risses zeigt. dass ein scharfer Riss durch wechselnde Schubbeanspruchung verlangert werden
kann bis er stumpf wird. Die Abstumpfung der Risspitze ist verbunden mit hoher Dehnungskonzentration
und Bruch durch Hohlraumzuwachs und -Vereinigung. Die Rissverfangerung durch wechselnde Schub-
beanspmchung wurde in vollplastischen. scharf gekerbten. Zugproben im ebenen Dehnungszustand mit
einfacher oder doppelter Kerbe erhalten. Elektronenfraktographie zeigt eine Rissverliingerung durch
wechselnde Schubbeanspruchung an der Spitze von Spalt- und Ermtidungsrissen. Es wird dargelegt, dass
das Wachstum von Ermtidungsrissen das Ergebnis wiederholter zyklischer Rissverfangerung durch wech-
selnde Schubbeanspruchung ist.