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Residual Stresses in Iron: Castings
Residual Stresses in Iron: Castings
fit thj.ypaperan attempt has been made lo mview criticnlly the metlzods cnzployed
iui the measurement of residual stresses, the teJt pieces used, causes of residual
:lresses in =dings, mechanism of residuui stress formation and relief of residual
dresser. ~t is concluded that the causes of residual stress formation are fairly well
:otdmtood,but the mechanism behind the stre.vs relief produced by different methods
is not as well understood. It is suggested that a detailed study of the various stress
,&f m&ds, independently or in combinafiun, is essential to ~n?dcrstandthc
niechanism.
Key words: Residual stress, iron castings.
Since the penetrating pocGer of x-rays used for diffraction work is small,
safely assume biaxial stress field. The diffraction inf~rmaeon
Ww from a layer of few e o n s thickness. Incidentally, this factor shows
328 C . BALASINGH
et al.
the importance of surface preparation. The accuracy with which stresses
can be determined depends on the accuracy with which small changes in
interplanar spacings can be measured. For this reason, high angle &f-
fraction lines are used. Lattfce faults and uniaxial plastic flow are found
to give spurious shifts. The f i s t one can be eIiminated by proper e*
mental procedure.
Either photo@aphic technique or diffractometer can be used. '&e
diEactometer is quite Wst and nowadays computer controlled stress diffractp
meters are being used in industries.
(ii) Ultrasonic method
Just like transparent mater:als are birefringent to a beam of polarised
light, stressed metals are birefringent to an ultrasonic (frequency of the
order of 5 MHz) sheer wave. A polarised shear wave passing througb surb
a material Is resolved into two componen.ts, which lie in the planes of the
primipal stresses. These two wave components travel at different velocitis,
which are dependent on the magnitude of the principal stresses. These
velocity changes are measured, and from that the stresses computed. How.
ever, complications atise due to the fact that birefringence is not only
ceused by stress, but is also produced s s a. result of anisotropy. There had
been many attempts to separate out the two effects and some are success-
ful. In futwe, this may prove to be a very powaful non-destructive methe
for residual stress analysis.
III. Chemical
Unde~this category, the main method is "stress corrosion method ".
Corrodents which cause cracking of the surface of certain metds w d
tensile stresses exist may be used to detect residual stresses. Though in
principle by controlling the conditions it is possible to get quantitativeda$,
it is highly unreliable in practice. Further, stresses below a particular vaf@
cannot be detected since no cracking will occur in that case. Since small
changes in composition of the metal or corrodent, temperature and xWd
anisotropy wr have large effect on the stress corrbsi~n behaviour, tfic
method is only qualitative,
Residual Stresses in Iron Cnstings 329
member prevents the rotation of the grid under the action of residual
stresses. The shape of the specimen suggested by Portcvin and Pomey2
is similar to the 0n.e used by Russell3 except tha.t the measuremen.ts mere
carried out on thinner members and that distance between two points before
and after cutting were measured instead of gav width. Triangular grid
castings were used by the Techwical S u b ~ o m m i t t e e ~(T.S.
0 ~ ~32)
~ appointed
by the Institute of British Foundrymen. A schematic drawing is shown
hFig. 5. The outer members and yoke, because of their high surface
e m to volume ratio, solidify fast and becom: rigid compared to the thick
centre member.
In the recta~gula~ as well as the triangular grids. strain gauges are
used to fuld out the stresses. One or two strain gauges are attached to
centre member and then it is sawed through. The strain indicated by
the w g e is straightaway used for the calculation of residual stress, if the
Wlue of Young's modulus is known. There are some diEculties in fixing
Em.4. G - 6 2 B RecWUlar framework used by Kasch and M~klonis.
b 1-: "
,
. .
FP. 5. Trianplar Grid,
Residual Stresses in e o n Castings 333
be co~,rectvalue of Young's modulus as will be evident from the discus-
,ions later. Kasch and Mikelonisl%suggest another method which could
be adopted by Foundries not in. a positio~?.to afford the strain gauge equip
mnt. Patterson and Dietzel,l9 in add.ition to determining the stresses
by the strain gauge techn.ique, also used a method called the deerence
,thod. However, the validity of the method is questionable.
The drawbacks of the grid castiqs are : (i) Th: microstructure of thick
thin members are usually not identical with the result that the value
Young's modulus may not be the same for different park. (ji) YoungYs
wldulusis not a constant for cast iron., but it depcn-dson the strain. Assump-
tion of a mean. value for Young's modulus may lead to errors. (iii) There
is always the likelihood of some bending of the members, which cannot be
taken into acc0un.t by employing the present methods of calculation of
stress.
The second drawback can be overcome by plotting a stress-strain
curve and reading off the stress corresponding to the strain observed.
%ere. is another procedure which doesn't involve the measurement of
strains. The centre member 1s sawn slowly until fracture occurs, If
the area of fracture is a, thc stresa a is calculated using the formula
where P and A are the tensile strength an.d the area of cross-section res-
pectively of the centre member.
Usually cylindrical rods were poured along with the grids. From
these rods specimens for tensile test and bending test were machined.
Average value of E (Young's modulus) c m be determined from eech test.
In addition to these, the value of E can be calculated from the graphite
content also. Patterson and Dietzel used these 3 E values for the calm-
lation of stress and tried to arrivc at a best fit which will gi3e smooth varia-
tion with other variables studled.
TWOother types of specimens can also be included in this group.
first is the double flanged barsz0 used by T.S. 32 to study the effect of
W ~ l dhindrance on the magnitude of residual stress. Next is the large
T %tion castings used by Girschovi& and S ~ ~ n o v s ktoi i investigate
~~
fhsting distorrion,
334 C . BALA~INGH
ef al.
The type of speciniens coming under group 11 are usually either
cylinders or hollow cylinder^.^ All the specimens were cast to approxi.
mate sizes, machined to final dimensions and subjected to an initial thermal
stress-relief treatment. Patteison and others used the cylindrical samples
to study the effect of various quenching operations on the magnitude of the
residual stresses, and also to investigate how the mechanical propertier
were altered by the residual stresses. The hollow cylinders, after heating
to a particular temperature were cooled differently and the effect of theje
on the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses studied.
Under group I11 we can list the ring specimens used by Hallett and
Wing,z3 Kotsyubinskii et and Zeppehuer and BrezinaZ5 and the
rectangular bars @ent transversely by a stinup using distance pieces at
ends) used by Benson and Allisonzs and Tattle.=' The ring specimens
were machined from hollow cylinders. A slit was made in the ring and a
wedge introduced so that known amount of stress can be introduced. In
this loaded condition the rings were subjected to various relief treatments.
From a measurement of the width of the slit before and after treatmmt
the percentage of stress relief can be easily calculated. Hallet and Wing13
used the following formula
A. Causes
The residual stresses in castings arise due to inhomogeneous plastic defor-
m~tions.While cooling to room teqperature, in order to enable the parts
of the casting to fit together elastic strains corresponding to the residual
stresses are introduced. Non-uniform deformations can be expected he
to the following reasons.
(i) Va~iationsin cooling in different parts of the casting.
(ii) Hindrance to free contraction by the mould material-often referred
to as mould restraint.
(iii) Phase transformations accompanied by volume changes.
Residual stresses can also be set up due to temperature gradients
existing from the surface to the centre of casting during cooling. Here
stresses are related to the overall rate of cooling of the casting. The sttessa
arising due to this cause attain appreciable magnitude, only under eon&
tions of rapid cooling (for example, quenching). Compositional and
structural heterogeneity can also cause stresses.
The relative contributions of the.above three factors to the final residual
stress depend on the shape and material of she casting, and other found0
variables. Phase transfbrmations and mould hindrance can cause, appre-
ciable amount of stress only if temperature difference exists bet- pa*
of the casting while cooling.
Po~~ringTemperature
Angus end Tortkl observe that low pouring temperalures give rise t o
h g 2nd blow hole d-efects. These defects czn provide stress raisers and
i~itiatecracks. According to them, relatively high p o u ~ % ~ temperature
g
will tend to reduce temperature differences due t o difference in sections
md slow down the overall cooling rate. Patterson end Dietzel also put
formrd the same ergument.
However, the results obtained 2.re just the I-everse. Dodd14 observed
P. slight increase in residual stress with incsease in pouring temperature
(A{ alloy). T.S. 32 in their work with A1 alloy and steels0 observed an
increase in residual stress with increase in pouring temperature. Girscho-
rich eral. observed increase in deflection of their r section. castings (coat
iron) with increase in pouring temperature.
,tion. This results in a lower residual stress in the centre member corn-
pared to that with a lowel ratio of Cross-sectional area. This is clearly
&monrtrated by the experiments of Dodd14 in case of At alloy castings in
mould (Fig. 7). The trend of result should equally hold good for
orher materials, though numerical values may be diffe~ent.
2
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'S
in
2
f2
I
%
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E
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.TEHPEIl*IURE DIFFERENCEc:.
on the final vzlue of residual stress. However, while cooling from higher
temperatures, the deformations associated with the higher temperatures are
not completely reversed, which adds to the final value of stress.
Now coming to mould hindrance, as in the case of phase transfor-
mations, the final values of residual stresses are altered only if sufficient
temperature difference existed while cooling so that one part plastically
deformed compared to the other. Parkins and Cowan16 did a series of
experiments with rectangular grid castings of different materials using sands
of different strength. They summarise the results as follows : In non-
ferrous alloy frameworks, the stresses may be entirely attributed to the
temperature differences developed while cooling. In grey iron castings
the contributions due to phase transformations and sand hindrance may
be of the same order as that due to temperature differences.
T.S. 32 did experiments on cylindrical samples with heavy flanges at
each end, cast in horizontal position. After removing from the mould,
change in length occurred, but no residual stress could be observed. This
confirms the earlier arguements that elastically balanced strains should
disappear.
TIME . DAY5 .-
Em. 9. Distortion of vibrated specimens.
~p overload factor increased from 20 to 50 (factor of 2.5) the subsequent
distortion reduced by a factor of 10. In their second investigation also
they found identical resulti. The surprising result is tht in spite of differ-
ences m the initial stress values and vibrational amplitudes, the distortion
curves correspond strictly to the K value. Whenever K L 0.45 there is
practically no distortion. Hence to fully stabilise the castings correct
choice of K is essential.
If the initial stress value is known, immediately one can fix the vibra-
tion amplitude to get the correct K value, subject to the condition that the
farigue limit is not crossed. For this the authors classify the castings into
two groups: (a) the case where the residual stresses are below 0.25 times
the tensile strength. Here vibration treatment with appropriate overload
c?.n be straightaway applied. (b) The case where the residual stress exceeds
0.25 times the tensile strength of the iron. Two alternative procedures are
recommended in such cases: (i) Apply the vibration amplitude above the
fatiwe limit for a short duration. The time should be low. This procedure
W'be necessary especially in castings with a high level of residual stress.
@)Where the residual stresses are in the range 0.25-0.75 the tensile strength,
first subject the castings to thermal annealing treatment so that the resi-
dual stress is brought to the 0.1 to 0.25 tensile strength range. Then
subkt them to vibrational t~eatmentwith appropriate K factor.
Accordirg to Lokshin40 useful effects of vibration are to be expected
only when the object undergoes strain with every cycle of vibration. ~h~
component should be clzmped in such a way that it is free to deform under
elastic vibrations. The points of support should be as localised as possible.
If the component performs simply recip~ocatory motion along with the
vibrator, no strcss relaxation could be expected. Alloys with lo^ relamtion
criteria will respond more readily to vibration treatment. Lokshin's eqerj-
ments were mainly with aluminium alloy specimens. He observed sipi-
ficant reduction in residual stress (up to 74%) of components vibrated
under resonant conditions. According to him vibration treatment under
sub-resonznt conditions is not that effective.
Now let us consider a case where the vibration was applied to aproto-
type casting. The pzrt chosen by Skaznenmikal was the top trble of a
circular grinder of Sch 21-40 iron. The rough casting weighed 175kg.
which came down to 118-5kg after machining. The slideways were
machined 2v.d finish ground prior to vibretion ageing, leaving 2n inllow
znce of 0 - 3 mm for finishing. After vibrating under 3 different condi-
tions, the cestings were set up on special racks for impection and measure-
ment of distortion. Simultar.eously observations werc also carried out on
specimens (a) which were not given zny treatment a t all and (b) which were
subjected to thermal ageing. The distortion in untreated samples (natural
ageing) continued for 18 months or more; in thermally aged samples it
continued for a period of 6-7 months whereas in samples subjected to vibrz-
tion treatment, the distortion stopped after 33 months. Thus for &is
particular component, u~lderthe above-mentioned conditions of vibratioa
treatnient, the time required for the cessation of distortion was half that
required alter thermal ageing and a quarter of ihat required for nzturd
ageing.
IF. this method the compon-ent is loadcd in the static conditiol1.4~ The
directionof the applied load (called overloed) sh.ould be i i ~ the same direc-
tion 8s the residual stress. Kotsyubinskii e,t alas compz~ing the static
overloadingand vibration techniques, found out thzt for the same over-
b;ud, h e percentage of stress reduced by vibr~tionis higher than thet
by static overloading. However, the seme degree of stress-relief
be ob~inedby increesing the m a g ~ i t u d eof edditional imposed static
Jwd. The advantage of this method over th.e vibration techl~.iq~e is that
one need not be haunted by tb.e fear of crossii~.gthe fztigue limit. T i is only
nrcessary thet the RS -I-static load should be with.kJ. the stetic skength
of the materials, which is high.
Static overloading, like in the casc of vibrational ageing, is work
hrdened so that stress relaxation uesjstarl.ce 1s increased.29 In a casting
ofcomplex shape, it is rether v e q difficult to estimate the sti-essesin different
sectioos and thcn apply static loading of the same sign as the residual stress
at different sections. The method doesn't seem to be popular.
N o ~ i c h k o v ~summarises
~ what different treatme17ts achieve. The
parameters considered are residual stress level, stress relaxation resistance
and potential energy.
Process Residual Stress relax- Potentla1 Remarks
stress ation resistance energy
L L L.-12
356 C. BALASIN
GH et ai.
Heatkg ir the piesence of vibration has 811 the good qualities. Thou*
beset with prsctical difficulties it may be worthwhile to explore &is fie!$
further. Novichkov recommends another procedui'e ; ihe~'malcyc~p.~ in
the temperature range 200 to 280° C. According to him this is mwh
more effwtive in giving dimensioml stabilisation to the castings th;m
ing at high temperatutes.
Adoyan et ~ 1 also
. ~recommend
~ low temperature 220-300" C to get
better dimensionzl stability. They say, hect txatment below 3mec
produces substantid stren.gthening. Residual str:ss is lowered by about
8% orrly.
Summing up, we see th2.t ciifferent methods have different adVaF,.
t a p . Though beset with precticzl d.ifEculties, combination of two or
more methods seems to be more effective. Though the mechanismof
stress-relief by various met.ho0s is not clearly understood, it is legitimte
to expect the graphite particles to play some role in the relief of residud
st1,esses. The influerxe of gi-aphite particles on tbe plastic defo?mti~
of iron castings has been analysed in
Some practical hints to produce stress-free castings
Rather than producing castings with high stresses and then subjecw
them to stre~sr~elieftreatment, the ideal thing will be to produce castins
without any or very low residual stress. The detailed analysis of causes
and the mechanism of residual foi'mation are helpful in this regard. Alsc
a ffiorough kit-owledge of how the residual stresses are altered by diffaeot
parameters will help to choose conditions wherein residual stresses are
minimum.
It has already been established that temperature diffeie~ceexistiq
in the casting while cooling is the main cause for the fo~mztionof reslduq
stless. b - y step taken during casting t o reduce this temperature differam
will result in a reduction of stress. One of the techniques usually adopted
is casting into hot moulds. T.S. 32 has found substan.tla1 reduction bj'
this procedure. When (grey cast iron) cast into moulds at room t e w
rature, 200" C and 400"C residual stresses of 8 - 90 ton~lin.~, 5.18 tonsrm.'
and 3.59 tons/in.~espectively were observed. Knock-out is already
cussed. Other procedures are: using sand of 5igh thermal conductiktf
, or metallic chills around heavy portions, running the casting through
thinner portions, etc. Some of these steps m y create other fou&
problems. So one has to be choosy. Kotsyubinskiirn has devdoped a
Residual Stresses in Iron castings 357
,!$tern which will measure temperature at different parts of
,hped castings 2nd apply forced cooling wherever necessary.
23, Halktt, M. M. and Prac. Inst. Brit. Foundrymen, 1949, 42, M8-3s.
Wiaz, P. D.
24. Kotsy.~binskii,0. YE., Russ. Cast. Prod., 1962, p. 190.
Obernun, I. Y a . and
Grechikov, A. M.
25. Zeppelzluer, K. and Giesserei-Praxis, 1966, 8, 141-147.
Brezin~,P.
26. Benwn, L. E. and Proc. Inst. Brit. Foundrymen, 1937-38, 31, 124.
Allison, H.
31. Rewri of Subwmmittee Proc. Insf. Brit. Faundrymen, 1949, 42, A61-77.
T.S. 18
47. Warpov, A. Ya. et al. Russ. Carf. Prod., 1972, pp. 366-367.