Soil Mechanics I

IN304

Course Description
• This course provides an elementary introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering, and provides the basic mechanics necessary for the detailed
study of Geotechnical Engineering.

• This course aims to provide an understanding of: the nature of soils as

engineering materials; common soil classification schemes; the importance
of water in the soil and the effects of water movement; methods of
predicting soil settlements.

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• ‘’Unfortunately, soils are made by nature and not by man,
and the product of nature are always complex... As soon as
we pass from steel and concrete to earth, the omnipotence
of theory ceases to exist. Natural soil is never uniform. Its
properties changes from point to point while our knowledge
of its properties are limited to those few spots of which the
samples have been collected. In soil mechanics, the accuracy
of computed results never exceeds that of crude estimate,
and the principal function of theory consists in teaching us in
what and how to observe in the field.’’
Karl Terzaghi

Course Outline
1. Soil Formations  (Phase Relationship)
2. Physical Properties
3. Soil Classification
4. Soil Structure
5. Water in Soil (Permeability, Darcy’s Law, Two
Dimensional Flow, etc)
6. Soil Compaction
7. Stress Distribution in Soil 
8. Consolidation and  Prediction of Settlement

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Suggested Textbooks
• Craig, R. F. (2004).  Soil Mechanics, 7th edition, Taylor & 
Francis.
• Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th
edition, PWS Publishing Company.
• Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to 
Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall.
• Coduto, D.P., (1999). Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and 
Practices, Prentice Hall, 1999.
• Uzuner, B.A. (2001). Çözümlü Problemlerle Zemin Mekaniği, 
Teknik Yayınevi. (In Turkish)
• Özaydın, K. (2002). Zemin Mekaniği, Birsen Yayınevi. (In Turkish)
• (Most of the books have been reserved in the library)

I.
Soil Formations

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 1. GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS
1.1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
• Effects of static loading on soil mass
• Shear failure of the foundation soil
• Settlement of structures
• Stability criteria (Solution)
• There should be no shear failure of the foundation soil.
• The settlement should remain within permissible limits.

• Firm Soil -> Spread Footing (Spread Foundation)

• Soft Soil -> Pile Foundation (Vertical members transferring
load of structure to ground i.e. rock)

1.1 Foundations to support Structures and Embankments

• Preventing the settlement • Soil improvement with

which can damage pre-loading
to the building

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1.1 Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
• Effects of dynamic loading on soil mass
• For design and construction of roads following must be
considered:
• Compaction Characteristics
• Moisture Variation

1.2. Soil as a construction material

• Subgrade of highway pavement
• Land reclamation
• Earthen dam

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1.2. Soils as a construction material

Cross-section of Cross-section of
a earthfill dam a highway

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1.2. Soils as a construction material

Dubai Palm City (Land Reclamation)

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 1.3. Slopes and excavations
• Major cause is the moisture variation resulting in;
• Reduction of shear strength
• Increase of moisture
• Increase in unit weight
• Excavation of trenches for buildings require braced
excavation.

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1.3. Slopes and excavations

•Landslide of a
parking area at the
edge of a steep
slope, mainly due to
increase in moisture
content.

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 1.3. Slopes and excavations

•Slope stability •Excavation and revetment system

•Pipeline and canal excavation

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1.4. Underground and retaining structure

• Earth retaining structure (e.g., Retaining walls) are constructed to
retain (holds back) any material (usually earth) and prevents it from
sliding or eroding away.

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 1.4. Underground and retaining structure
• It is necessary for the retaining structure designer to consider not only
how the various elements forming the underground structure will interact
and react as a whole structure, but also how the geotechnical design must
be consistent with the work of other disciplines.

•Retaining wall •Buried pipeline

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1.5. Special Problems

i. Effects of river water on soil mass
Scouring
Causes:
• Increased flow velocity due to obstruction
• Fineness of riverbed material
Stability criteria:
• The foundation of pier must be below the scour depth
ii. Land Erosion

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 1.5. Special Problems

iii. Effects of frost action on soil mass

• Reduction Of Shear Strength
• Settlement Of Structure In Summer
• Lifting Up Of Structure In Winter
Causes:
• Heaving (due to formation of ice lenses)
• Increase of moisture due to thawing (MELTING)

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1.6. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Problems

 Vibrations
 Earthquakes and explosions
• Local collapses and sinkholes

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Solving The Geotechnical Problems
• SOIL MECHANICS
• Stress-strain properties of soil (experimental studies)
• Theoretical analysis
• GEOLOGY, INVESTIGATION
- Lithology, soil formation
• EXPERIENCE
- The results of the earlier applications
• ECONOMY
- The applicability of solution routes + Engineering judgement
=
Solving The Geotechnical Problems

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2. Soil Formations and Deposits

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• To the civil engineer, soil is any uncemented or weakly
cemented accumulation of mineral particles formed by the
weathering of rocks as part of the rock cycle, the void
space between the particles containing water and/or air.
• Weak cementation can be due to carbonates or oxides
precipitated between the particles, or due to organic
matter. Subsequent deposition and compression of soils,
combined with cementation between particles, transforms
soils into sedimentary rocks (a process known as
lithification).

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• If the products of weathering remain at their original

location they constitute a residual soil.
• If the products are transported and deposited in a
different location they constitute a transported soil, the
agents of transportation being gravity, wind, water and
glaciers.
• During transportation, the size and shape of particles can
undergo change and the particles can be sorted into specific
size ranges. Particle sizes in soils can vary from over 100
mm to less than 0.001 mm.

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 2.1. Weathering of Rocks

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2.1. Weathering of Rocks

• Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by physical and

chemical process into smaller particles.

• There are two main types of weathering processes:

• Physical (or mechanical) Weathering
• Chemical Weathering

• Biological weathering is caused by activities of living organisms - for

example, the growth of roots or the burrowing of animals. Tree roots
are probably the most occurring, but can often be by animals!

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 2.1.1. Physical Weathering
• Physical (or mechanical) Weathering is the disintegration of rocks into
smaller particles through physical processes, including:
• The erosive action of water, ice and wind.
• Opening of cracks as a result of unloading due to
erosion of overlying soil and rock.
• Loosening through the percolation and
subsequent freezing (and expansion) of water.
• Thermal expansion and contraction from day to
day and season to season.
• Landslides and rockfalls.
• Abrasion from the downhill movement of nearby
rock and soil.

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2.1.2. Chemical Weathering

• Chemical Weathering is the disintegration of rock through chemical
reactions between the minerals in the rocks, water, and oxygen in the
atmosphere.
• Hydrolysis
• is the reaction with water
• will not continue in static water.
• involves solubility of silica and alumina
• Chelation
• Involves the complexing and removal of metal ions .
• Cation exchange
• is important to the formation of clay minerals
• Oxidation and reduction.
• Carbonation
• is the combination of carbonate ions such as the reaction with CO2

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 2.1.2. Chemical Weathering
• An example of the chemical weathering orthoclase to form clay
minerals, silica and soluble potassium carbonate follows:

H2O + CO2  H2CO3  H+ + (HCO3)-

2K(AlSi3O8) + 2H+ + H2O  2K+ + 4SiO2 + Al2Si5(OH)4

Orthoclase Silica Kaolinite
(Clay mineral)

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2.2. Rock Cycles

All rock at or near Earth's surface is

being modified by the processes of
metamorphism, melting,
crystallization, lithification and
weathering. These processes move
rock material through the states of
metamorphic rock, igneous
rock, sedimentary rock, melts and
sediment. The natural and
continuous cycling of rock
materials through these states is
known as the Rock Cycle.

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2.2. Rock Cycles

The final products due to weathering are soils

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2.3. Bowen’s Reaction Series

• The reaction series are similar to the weathering stability series.

•More stable
•Higher weathering resistance

(Das, 1998)

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 Question
What is the main mineral of the sand
particles in general?

Quartz

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2.4. Soil Formations

• Soil is generally formed by disintegration and decomposition
(weathering) of rocks through the action of physical (or mechanical)
and chemical agents which break them into smaller and smaller
particles.

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Different stages of weathering of rocks and formation of soil

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2.4. Soil Types

Soil types, based on geological and engineering view points, are
separately discussed below:

2.4.1. Geological Consideration:

Geologist classify soil into two major categories:
residual soils and transported soil

2.4.1.1. Residual Soils:

When the rock weathering is faster than the
transport process induced by water, wind and gravity,
much of the soil remains in place. It is known as residual
soil.

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 2.4.1.1. Residual Soils:

• In some areas, the top layer of rock is decomposed into

residual soils due to the warm climate and abundant
rainfall.

• Engineering properties of residual soils are different

with those of transported soils

• The knowledge of "classical" geotechnical engineering is

mostly based on behavior of transported soils. The
understanding of residual soils is insufficient in general.

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2.4.1.2. Transported Soil:

i. Glacial Soil: This type of soil is developed, transported and

deposited by the actions of glaciers. These deposits consists
of rocks fragments, boulders, gravels, sand, silt and clay in
various proportions (i.e., a heterogeneous mixture of all sizes
of particles).
ii. Alluvial Soil: This type of soil (also known as fluvial soil or
alluvium) is transported and deposited to their present
position by streams and rivers.

Coarser or  Higher 
Heavier 
Particles Reaches

Fine  Lower 
Particles Reaches
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 2.4.1.2. Transported Soil:

iii. Aeolian Soil: The soil transported by geological agent ‘wind’

and subsequently deposited is known as wind blown soil or
Aeolian Soil.
iv. Colluvial Soil: A colluvial soil is one transported downslope by
gravity. There are two types of downslope movement – slow
(creep – mm/yr) and rapid (e.g., landslide)
v. Lacustrine and Marine Soil:
• Lacustrine Soil is deposited beneath the lakes.
• Marine Soil is also deposited underwater i.e., in the Ocean.

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2.4.2. Engineering Consideration:

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2.4.2. Engineering Consideration (MIT):
i. Clay: ( < .002mm)
• In moist condition, clay becomes sticky and can be rolled into
threads.
• High dry strength, low erosion, low permeability, good workability
and compaction under moist condition. Also susceptible to shrinkage
and swelling.

ii. Silt: (.002mm < Size < .06mm)

• High capillarity, no plasticity and very low dry strength
• It possesses properties of both clay and sand.

iii. Sand: (.06mm < Size < 2mm)

• Particle shape varies from rounded to angular
• No plasticity, considerable frictional resistance, high permeability
and low capillarity
• Abundant quantities of sand are available in deserts and riverbeds

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2.4.2. Engineering Consideration (MIT):
iv. Gravels: (2mm < Size < 60mm)
• They form a good foundation material.
• The gravels produced by crushing of rocks are angular in shape while
those taken from riverbeds are sub-rounded to rounded.

v. Cobbles and Boulder:

• Particles larger than gravels are commonly known as cobbles and
boulders.
• Cobbles generally range in size 60mm to 200mm.
• The materials larger than 200mm is designated as boulders.

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2.4.2. Engineering Consideration (BSCS):

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 3. Phase Relations

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3.1. Three Phases in Soils

S = Soil Particles
W = Water Relative amount of each phase will affect
A = Air behavior
(if not saturated)

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Soil: A 3-Phase Material

•Air
•Water

•Solid

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The Mineral Skeleton

•Solid Particles

•Volume

•Voids (air or
water)

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Three Phase Diagram

•Air

•Water

•Solid

•Mineral Skeleton •Idealization:

•Three Phase Diagram

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Fully Saturated Soils

•Water

•Solid

•Mineral Skeleton •Fully

Saturated

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 Dry Soils

•Air

•Solid

•Mineral Skeleton •Dry Soil

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Partly Saturated Soils

•Air

•Water

•Solid

•Mineral Skeleton •Partly Saturated Soils

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53

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 Structural properties (Some concepts)

• wn : Natural water content

• n : Porosity
• e : Void ratio
•  : Bulk density
•  : Unit weight (γ, γs, γsat, γd, γ’)
• S : Degree of saturation
• G : Specific gravity

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3.2. Three Volumetric Ratios

• (1) Void ratio e (given in decimal, 0.65)

Volume of voids (Vv )

e
Volume of solids (Vs )
• (2) Porosity n (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Vs e e Volume of voids (Vv )

n  n
Vs (1  e) 1  e Total volume of soil sample (Vt )

• (3) Degree of Saturation S (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )

S 100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )

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 Volumetric Relationships

• Volume Components:
• Volume of Solids = Vs
• Volume of Water = Vw
• Volume of Air = Va
• Volume of Voids = Va + Vw = Vv

Vv
Void Ratio, e 
Vs
Vv
Porosity , n(%)  100%
VT

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Volumetric Relationships

• Volume Components:
• Volume of Solids = Vs
• Volume of Water = Vw
• Volume of Air = Va
• Volume of Voids = Va + Vw = Vv

Vw
Degree of Saturation, S (%)   100%
VV

If S < 100%, then “unsaturated”

If S = 100%, then “saturated”

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 59

3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)

Typical values

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

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 3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)
Simple cubic (SC), e = 0.91
contraction

Loose soils (high e) will contract

when sheared and are relatively weak

Cubic-tetrahedral (CT), e = 0.65

dilation
Dense soils (low e) will expand (dilate)
when sheared and are relatively strong

Link: the strength

i of rock joint

Shear strength   n tan(  i )

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3.2.1. Engineering Applications (e)

• Hydraulic conductivity
• Which packing (SC or CT) has SC
higher hydraulic conductivity?
e = 0.91

CT
e = 0.65

The fluid (water) can flow more easily

through the soil with higher hydraulic
conductivity
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3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)

Filter
SC
e = 0.91

The finer particle cannot

•Clogging pass through the void

CT
e = 0.65

Critical state soil mechanics

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3.2.2. Engineering Applications (S)

•Completely dry soil S = 0 %
•Completely saturated soil S = 100%
•Unsaturated soil (partially saturated soil) 0% < S < 100%

Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )

S 100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )

•Demonstration:
•Effects of capillary forces

•Engineering implications:
•Slope stability
•Underground excavation

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3.2.2. Engineering Applications (S)

• 80 % of landslides are due to

erosion and “loss in suction”
• The slope stability is significantly
affected by the surface water.

(Au, 2001)
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3.2.3. Engineering Applications (w)

• For fine-grained soils, water plays
a critical role to their engineering
properties (discussed in the next
topic).
• For example,
• The quick clay usually has a water
content w greater than 100 % and
a card house structure. It will
behave like a viscous fluid after it
is fully disturbed.
Clay
particle

Water

(Mitchell, 1993)

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3.3. Density and Unit Weight
Mass
• Mass is a measure of a Density,  
body's inertia, or its Volume
"quantity of matter". Mass Unit weight ,  
Weight Mass  g

is not changed at different Volume Volume
places.
g : acceleration due to gravity
• Weight is force, the force
of gravity acting on a body.     g    9.8 m 2
sec
The value is different at
various places (Newton's Water ,   9.8 kN 3
second law F = ma) (Giancoli, 1998) m

s s  g  s
• The unit weight is Gs   
frequently used than the w w  g  w
density is (e.g. in calculating
the overburden pressure).

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3.4. Relative Density and Index Density

emax  e  d   d (min)
Dr  X 100% Id  X 100%
emax  emin  d (max)   d (min)

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 69

3.5. Weight Relationships

(1) Water Content w (100%)

Mass of water ( M w )
w 100%
Mass of soil solids ( M s )

• For some organic soils w>100%, up to 500 %

• For quick clays, w>100%

(2) Density of water (slightly varied with temperatures)

 w  1g / cm3  1000 kg / m3  1Mg / m3

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 3.5. Weight Relationships
(3) Density of soil
•a. Dry density
Mass of soil solids(M s )
d 
Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
•b. Total, Wet, or Moist density (0%<S<100%, Unsaturated)
Mass of soil sample( M s  M w )

Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
•c. Saturated density (S=100%, Va =0)
Mass of soil solids  water(M s  M w )
sat 
Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
•d. Submerged density (Buoyant density)
'  sat   w

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•Archimedes’ principle: Upward buoyant force exerted on

the body immersed in the fluid is equal to the weight of
the displaced water.

•Saturated State: Bucket of

marbles filled with water
•Buoyant State: Bucket of marbles with sufficient
holes submerged in the water

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3.5. Weight Relationships

•Submerged unit weight:  '   sat   w

Ws  Vs   w Ws  (Vt  Vw )   w
•Consider the buoyant  (S  100%)
force acting on the soil Vt Vt
solids: 
Ws  Vt   w  Ww
Vt
Ws  Ww  Vt   w

Vt
  sat   w

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3.5. Weight Relationships

• Weight Components:
• Weight of Solids = Ws
• Weight of Water = Ww
• Weight of Air ~ 0

Ww
Water Content , w (%)   100 %
Ws

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75

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Soil Unit weight (lb/ft3 or kN/m3)

• Bulk (or Total) Unit weight

 = WT / VT
• Dry unit weight
d = Ws / VT
• Buoyant (submerged) unit weight
b = - w

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3.6. Other Relationships
(1) Specific gravity •Proof:
s  s S  e  w  Gs
Gs  
w  w S e 
Vw Vv Vw
 
Vv Vs Vs
Ms
(2)  w  S  e  w   s M w s M w Vs Vw
w  Gs     
S  e  w  Gs M s w M s M w Vs
e or n
Vw
w

•May be used to plot void ratio

(or porosity) profile
In homogeneous saturated deposits
(assume Gs, S)
z z
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 81

3.7. Specific Gravity

Weight of a Subs tan ce

Specific Gravity 
Weight of an Equal Volume of Water

Unit Weight of a Subs tan ce

Specific Gravity 
Unit Weight of Water
• Unit weight of Water, w
• w = 1.0 g/cm3 (strictly accurate at 4° C)
• w = 62.4 pcf
• w = 9.81 kN/m3

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3.7. Specific Gravity

• Iron 7.86
• Aluminum 2.55‐2.80
• Lead 11.34
• Mercury 13.55

• Granite 2.69
• Marble 2.69
• Quartz 2.60
• Feldspar 2.54‐2.62

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3.7. Specific Gravity

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

(Goodman, 1989) 84

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3.8. Solution of Phase Problems

• Remember following simple rules (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981):

1.Remember the basic definitions of w, e, s, S, etc.

2.Draw a phase diagram.
3.Assume either Vs=1 or Vt=1, if not given.
4.Often use wSe=ws, Se = wGs

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 87

Example 1

• Determine void ratio, porosity

and degree of saturation of a
soil core sample
Data:
• Weight of soil sample = 1013g
• Vol. of soil sample = 585.0cm3
• Specific Gravity, Gs = 2.65
• Dry weight of soil = 904.0g

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 Example 1

134.9cm3 Wa~0
Air
W =1.00
243.9cm3
109.0cm3 Water 109.0g

585.0cm3 1013.0g
s =2.65
341.1cm3 Solid 904.0g

Volumes Weights

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Example 1

134.9cm3 Air
W =1.00
243.9cm3 Vv 243.9
109.0cm3 Water e   0.72
Vs 341.1
585.0cm3
Vv 243.9
s =2.65 n(%) 100%  100 41.7%
VT 585.0
341.1cm3 Solid Vw 109.0
S(%) 100%  100 44.7%
Vv 243.9

Volumes

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 Example 2

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Example 3
Field density testing (i.e., sand replacement method) has
shown bulk density of a compacted road base to be 2.06
t/m3 with a water content of 11.6%. Specific gravity of
the soil grains is 2.69. Calculate the dry density,
porosity, void ratio and degree of saturation.

The rest is very simple

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Example 4

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 95

My Solution

Se  wGs S = 1
w =25.7
e = 0.668

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Example 5

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 99

My Solution

From wGs  Se..........e  0.835

( Se  Gs )
From   w ..........  1633Kg / m 3
1 e
G
From  d  s  w ..... d  1378kg / m 3
1 e

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4. Standards

•Standards
• ASTM D854-92 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity of
Soils

• ASTM C127-88 (Reapproved 1993) Test Methods for Specific

Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate.

• BS 1377: Part 2:1990

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5. References
• Main References:
• Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th edition, PWS
Publishing Company. (Chapter 2)
• Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering, Prentice Hall. (Chapter 2)
• Others:
• Giancoli, D.C. (1998). Physics, 5th edition, Prentice Hall.
• Goodman, R.E. (1989). Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 2nd edition, John
Wiley & Sons.
• Head, K. H. (1992). Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 1: Soil
Classification and Compaction Test, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons.
• Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. (1979). Soil Mechanics, SI Version, John
Wiley & Sons.
• Mitchell, J.K. (1993). Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, 2nd edition, John Wiley
& Sons.
• Introduction to Env. Soil Physics by Daniel Hillel (Elsevier Academic Press)

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