Physics IGCSE Revision

Volume and Density

Mass
Density =
Volume

ρ(rho) = m
V
 Volume and Density
How to find the volume of an irregular solid?
• You need to fill up a measuring cylinder with
water and measure till where it is filled.
• Then lower the irregular solid into the
measuring cylinder and measure how much
the water has risen.
• Subtracting the two values that you have will
give you the volume of the substance.
 Speed

Distance
Speed =
Time
 Velocity
Change in
Average velocity
Acceleration =
Time
Taken

a= v-u
t
Negative v= final velocity
acceleration is u=initial velocity
called deceleration
or retardation
 Forces
• A force is a push or a pull.
• Force is measure in Newton's (N).
If no external forces are applied to an object:
- It will remain stationary
- It will keep moving at a constant speed.
What is Terminal Velocity?
It is when something is at its maximum speed.
 Forces

Force = Mass x Acceleration

F = m x a
 Friction
• Friction is a force that stops two materials from
sliding across each other.
• Static Friction resists the lateral (sideways)
movement of two objects.
• Dynamic Friction is the friction between two
objects that are moving. It heats up the material.
When something is moved against the force of
friction the kinetic energy is changed into thermal
energy.

STATIC FRICTION IS GREATER THAN DYNAMIC

FRICTION
 Gravitational Force
• All the masses attract each other.
• The greater the mass, the greater the force.
• The closer the mass, the greater the force.

• To every action there is an equal but opposite

reaction.
 Gravitational Force

Weight = Mass x Gravity

W = m x g
 The Parallelogram Rule

1. First you need to draw the two lines given to you. The
directions should be accurate and the length of each line
should be in proportion to the magnitude of each vector.
2. Then draw in two more lines to complete the
parallelogram.
3. Diagonal from ‘O’ and then measure its length.
 Centripetal Force
• It is an inward force needed
to make an object move in a
circle.
More centripetal force is
needed if:
- Mass of the object is
increased
- Speed of the object is
increased
- Radius of the circle is
increased.
 Moments
Moment of
a force = Force x Perpendicular
distance from
about a
the pivot
point

The Principle of Moments

Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments
 Hooke’s Law
A material obeys Hooke’s law if, beneath the
elastic limit, the extension is proportional to
the load.

Load = Spring x Extension

Constant

F = k x
 Pressure

Force
Pressure =
Area
 Pressure in Liquids
• Its in all directions
• It increases with depth
• It depends on the density of the liquid
• It doesn’t depend on the shape of the
container.
Pressure = Density x Gravity x Height

pressure = ρ(rho) x g x h
 Hydraulic Jack*

Output Force Output Piston area

=
Input Force Input Piston area
 Pressure in Air
• Pressure decreases as you rise through it.
• It acts in all directions.
Barometer: Measures atmospheric pressure
Manometer: Measures the pressure difference
 Gas Law
• When studying a gas, the following things should be
considered:
a) Pressure
b) Volume
c) Temperature
• Gas Law:
For a fixed mass of gas the pressure times the volume
divided by the temperature is constant

PxV = Constant
T
 Energy
Work = Force x Distance moved
Done in the direction
of the force

W = F x d
 Different Forms of Energy
• Kinetic energy
• Potential energy
• Gravitational energy
• Elastic energy
• Chemical energy
• Electrical energy
• Nuclear energy
• Thermal energy
• Radiated energy
 Energy
• The law of conservation of energy
Energy cannot be made or destroyed, but it
can change from one form to another.

Gravitational =m x gx h
potential energy

Kinetic Energy =½ mv 2

Gain in kinetic energy is a loss in potential energy V = Speed

 Scalar and Vector Quantities
Scalar: has magnitude Vector: has magnitude
but no direction and direction.
-Speed (magnitude of -Energy
velocity) -Displacement
- Time -Velocity
-Acceleration
- Mass
 Efficiency and Power

Useful Work
done
Efficiency =
Total energy
input
 Power = Work done
Time Taken

Useful Power = Force x Speed

Output
 Thermal Power Stations
Fuel burner Thermal Boiler
Nuclear reactor Energy

Electricity
Generator Turbines

Carbon
Fuel + Oxygen
Dioxide + Water + Thermal
Energy
 Thermal Power Stations Problems
• Increased rate of global warming
• Sulphur dioxide causes acid rain
• Transporting fuels could lead to pollution due
to leaks
• Radioactive wastes are very dangerous
• Nuclear accidents
 Power Schemes
1- Pumped storage scheme – wind farms
2- Tidal power scheme
3- Hydroelectric power scheme
 Energy Sources
Renewable
Non-renewable Hydroelectric and tidal energy
Coal, oil, natural gas - Expensive to build
- Few areas are suitable
- Supplies are limited - May cause environmental damage
- Carbon dioxide Wind energy
- Large, remote, windy sites required
concentration is - Noisy, ruin landscape
increasing Wave energy
- Difficult to build
Nuclear fuels
Geothermal energy
- Expensive to build and - Deep drilling difficult and expensive
decommission Solar energy
- Sunshine varies
- Solar cells difficult to transport
 Thermal Effects
• Solids-fixed volume and shape
• Liquids-fixed volume but no fixed shape
• Gases-no fixed shape and no fixed volume.

• Internal energy: total kinetic and potential

energy of all atoms in a material.
Objects as the same temperature have the
same average kinetic energy per particle

Hotter material
faster the particles move
the more internal energy it has
 Absolute Zero
-273˚C= 0 Kelvin (0 K)

Kelvin Temperature/K = Celsius Temperature/˚C+273

This is the lowest temperature there is.

It is a thermodynamic scale. It is based on the
average kinetic energy of particles.
 Thermal Effects
• Thermal expansion: this is when a substance is
heated and its volume slightly increases.

The pressure law:

- When the Kelvin pressure doubles so does the pressure
- Pressure ÷ Kelvin temperature
always has the same value

Thermal Conduction:
Conduction is the process by which thermal energy is
transferred from the hot end to the cold end as the faster
particles pass on their extra motion to particles along the
bar.
 Thermal Effects
• More thermal energy is transferred if :
- Temperature difference across the ends is
increased.
- Cross-sectional area of the bar is increased
- Length of the bar is reduced.
 Convection

Hot air rises and cold

air sinks ☺
 Thermal Radiation
• This is when things that absorb this radiation
are warmed up.

To increase the rate of evaporation

- Increase the temperature
- Increase the surface area
- Reduce humidity
- Blow air across the surface
 Specific Heat Capacity
Specific
Energy = mass x
heat x Temp
Transferred change
capacity
Energy =m x c x∆t
Transferred

Specific heat capacity is

4200J/K kg for water
 Latent Heat of Fusion

Energy = Mass x Specific Latent

Transferred Heat

Energy = mL
Transferred
 Describing Waves
Amplitude

Wavelength
 Transverse Waves

• The oscillations are at right angles to the

direction of the wave.
• For example light waves.
 Longitudinal Wave

( Rarefactions)

• It consists of compressions and rarefactions.

• Oscillations are in direction of travel.
• For example: Sound waves.
 The Wave Equation

Speed = Frequency x wavelength

V = f x

= Lambda
Wave Effects: Reflection

The waves are

reflected from the
surface at the same
angle they hit it.
Wave Effects: Refraction

Plastic

Due to the plastic the

water becomes
shallower causing the
waves to slow down.
This effect is called
refraction.
 Wave Effects: Diffraction

• Diffraction is when the light bends around

obstacles.
• Wider gaps produce less defraction.
 Sound waves
• Sound waves are caused by vibration
• Sound waves consist of Longitudinal waves.
- Compression passes
Air pressure increases
-Rarefaction passes
Air pressure decreases
 Sound Waves
• Sound waves need a medium to travel in. For
instance the air.
• Sound waves can also be diffracted due to their
long wavelength.
• They can be displayed on an oscilloscope. The
sound enters via the microphone, a metal plate
vibrates, these vibrations cause electrical
oscillations producing a wave front.
IT IS NOT A
PICTURE OF THE
SOUND WAVE
BECAUSE SOUND
WAVES ARE NOT
TRANSVERSE
 Speed of Sound
• Temperature of air: Sound travels faster
through hot air.
• Does NOT depend on pressure: the pressure
may change but the speed of the wave will
remain the same
• The speed of sound is different through
different materials.
Ultrasound: sounds above the range of human
hearing which is between 20Hz & 20kHz
 How to Measure the speed of an
echo?
To measure echo
Take note here the
Distance distance is the
Speed = distance from to the
Time wall and then BACK !

You could use:

- Echo-sounder
- Electronic tape measure (Works like an echo-
sounder)
- Radar
 Features of Light
1. Form of radiation
2. Travels in straight lines
3. Transfers energy
4. Transverse waves
5. Can travel through vacuum
6. 300,000 000 m/s
 Law of reflection
• i˚=r˚
• i, r and normal lie on the same plane.
 Total Internal Reflection

• Anything greater than the critical angle does not

have a refracted ray. Which means that all the
light is reflected thus leading to TOTAL internal
reflection.
 Lenses
Convex Lens Concave Lens

Convex lenses are used in projectors

as they form large, inverted, real
images on the screen
When the object is less than F1

Refracted Original Object

Object
Refracted image is
-Upright
-Larger
-Virtual

-It is also on the same side as F1

When the object is at 2F 1

Refracted image is
-At 2F2
-Inverted
-The same size
-Real
When the Object is between F1 and 2F1

Refracted image is
-Beyond 2F
-Inverted
-Larger
-Real
When the object is beyond 2F1

Refracted image is
-Between F2 and 2F2
-Inverted
-Smaller
-Real
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves are emitted when a

charged particle oscillate or loose energy in some
way.
 Electricity
• Rubbing materials does not MAKE charge, it only
separates charges that are already there.
• Induced charge: this is the charge that ‘appear’
on an uncharged object because of the charged
object nearby.

Charge is
measured in
Coulombs.
 Electricity*
• Electrostatic precipitators: are fitted into
chimneys in order to reduce pollution
 Electricity
• When there are no ions in the air it is a good
electrical insulator.
• When there are ions present in the air it is a
good conductor

Current is measured in amps.

 Current
• Current remains the same at all points round a
simple circuit.

Charge = Current x Time

Conventional Current flows from positive to
negative.
Electron flow is from negative to positive.
 Potential Difference (Voltage)
• The highest potential difference is when it is
not in a circuit and it not supplying current.
This is also known as the Electromotive force.

• In a simple circuit, the sum of the PD’s across

the components is equal to the PD across the
battery.
 Resistance
PD (Voltage)
Resistance =
Current (A)

V
R =
I Ohms Law
The current is
proportional to
the PD.
 How can resistance be increased?
1- Length : Doubling the length increases
resistance
2- Cross-sectional area: halving the surface area.
(thin wire is more resistance than a thick one)
3- Material
4- Temperature: resistance increases with
temperature
 CIRCUITS
Parallel Circuit
- Gets full PD from the battery
- One bulb removed the other
still works
- Total current = Sum of the
currents in the branches.
- Resistance:
Series Circuits
- Bulbs share PD
- One bulb removed, the
other one goes out.
- Current through each
component is the same
- Resistance:
 CIRCUITS
Parallel Circuit Series Circuits
 Power

Work done
Power =
Time taken
 Power

Power = Current x Voltage

P = Ix V
 Power

Power = Current x Resistance

2

P =I x R
2
 Electrical Energy Equation

Energy = PD x Current x
Time
Transformed

E = V x I x t
 Brief Intro on Magnets
Magnetic material- is a type of material that
can be magnetized and is attracted to other
magnets.
Strong metals contain
1- iron
They are called
2- nickel “Ferromagnetics”
3- cobalt Iron and alloys of iron are
called ferrous. (Ferrous in
Latin means iron)
Aluminium, copper, and other
non-magnets are called non-
ferrous.
 Properties of magnets:
• Have a magnetic field around them
• Has two poles exerting forces on other
magnets.
– Like poles repel
– Unlike poles attract
• Attract magnetic materials by inducing
magnetism in them.
 What is induced magnetism?
Some metals like iron and steel are attracted to other
magnets because if there is a magnet near by, they
themselves get magnetized. Magnetism is INDUCED in
them.
– When steel is pulled away from a magnet, it keeps its
induced magnetism causing it to become a permanent
magnet.(hard magnet)
– When iron is pulled away from a magnet, it looses its
induced magnetism meaning that iron was only a
temporary magnet.(soft magnet)
 Magnetic Effects of Current
• When an electric current is passed through a
wire an magnetic field is produced. The
features of this magnetic field are:
– They are circles
– Field is strongest close to the wire
– Increasing current
increases strength of field.
Right-hand grip rule
 Electromagnets
• These are types of magnets that can be
switched on and off.

Coils
Iron core

The strength of the magnetic field can be increased by:

- Increasing the current.
- Increasing the number of turns in the coil
 Magnetic Relay

Metal
contacts.

• When electricity is passed through the coil end

wires, it induced a magnetic field in the iron
ROD. This attracts the iron STRIP causing both
metal contacts to touch.
Circuit Breaker
Circuit breaker- it is an
automatic switch cutting off
the current within a circuit if
it rises above a specified
value.
- In the case on the left, the
pull of the electromagnet has
become so strong that it has
attracted the soft iron
armature. This causes the
contacts to open and stop the
current.
- If u press the reset button,
the contacts close once again.
 Magnetic force on the current
• Copper is a non-
magnet
feels no
force of the magnet
But..
• If it has a current
passing through it,
there will obviously be
a force on the wire.
The wire moves ACROSS
the field. It is not Force is increased if:
-Current is increased
attracted to it. -Stronger magnet is used
-Length of wire in field is
increased.
Flemings Left Hand Rule
 Electric motors
An electric motor transfers electrical energy to
kinetic energy.
• A motor is made up from a coil of
wire which is positioned between
the two poles of the magnet.
• When the current flows through
the coil, it creates a magnetic field.
This magnetic field that is
produced interacts with the
magnetic field produced by the 2
permanent magnets.
• The combination of these two
magnetic fields exert a force,
pushing the wire at right angles to
the permanent magnetic field. Improve turning effect
 Increasing Turning Effect
• Increase the current
• Use a stronger magnet
• Increase the number of turns on the coil
• Increase the area of the coil.
 Electromagnetic Induction
• A magnetic field can be used to produce
current.
When the wire is moved across the
magnetic field a small EMF(voltage) is
created. This is called electromagnetic
induction.
“EMF is induced”

Induced EMF increased by:

-Moving wire faster
-Using stronger magnet
-Increasing length of wire.
 Induced Currents
Fleming’s right hand rule:

Difference between the left hand and the right hand rule:
-When current causes motion
the left hand rule applies
-When motion causes current
the right hand rule applies
 Generators
• The coil rotates
• Magnetic fields are cut
• EMF is generated
• Causes current to flow
• Coil rotates– upwards,
Increasing EMF:
downwards, upwards - Increasing the number of
causing the current to turns on coil
flow backwards, - Increasing area of coil
forwards, backwards. - Use stronger magnet
- Rotate coil faster
 Coils and Transformers
• Moving magnet induces EMF
• Magnetic field SAME effect.
• Mutual induction: when coils are magnetically
linked so that changing current in one coil
causes an induced EMF in the other.
 Simple Transformer

- Alternating current flows

through primary coil
- This sets up an altering
magnetic field in the
core.
- Coils of the secondary
coil ‘cut’ the altering
magnetic field thus
output voltage Turns in output coil inducing an alternating
= voltage in the output coil.
Input voltage Turns on input coil
Step-up and Step-down transformers
Step-up: this is when the
number of output coils is
greater than the number
of input coils which means
that there will be a greater
output voltage as opposed
to input voltage.

Step-down: this is when the

number of output coils is less
than the number of input coils
which means that there will be
less output voltage as opposed to
input voltage.
 Power Through a Transformer

Input x Input = Output x Output

voltage current voltage current
Generator (Electric Motor):
Current + Magnetic Field = Motion

Electromagnetic Induction:
Magnetic Field + Motion = Current
 Thermionic Emission

• Basically what happens in thermionic emission is

that the tungsten filament is heated to 2000
degrees Celsius. Some electrons that are hot
enough escape the surface of the white hot
surface. These then pass through the vacuum and
on the screen.
 The Oscilloscope

• The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope uses (as mentioned on

previous slide) an electron gun and the X and Y plates
to adjust where the stream of electrons go.
• The X-Plates move the beam horizontally (Left or Right)
• The Y-Plates move the beam vertically (Up or Down)
• The Y-plates are connected to a Y input
terminal. These are connected to an AC
supply.
Examples of things that use electron beams:
- Television
- X-ray tube
Atoms
Nuclear Radiation
Alpha

Alpha particles are made of 2 protons and 2
neutrons.

This means that they have a charge of +2,
and a mass of 4.

Alpha particles are relatively slow and
heavy.

They have a low penetrating power - you
can stop them with just a sheet of paper.

Because they have a large charge, alpha
particles ionize other atoms strongly
Beta
•Beta particles have a charge of
minus 1, and a mass of about
1/2000th of a proton. .
•They are fast, and light.
•Beta particles have a medium
penetrating power - they are
stopped by a sheet of aluminum
•Beta particles ionize atoms that
they pass, but not as strongly as
alpha particles do.
Gamma
•Gamma rays are waves, not particles.
This means that they have no mass and no
charge.
•Gamma rays have a high penetrating power -
it takes a thick sheet of metal such as lead, or
concrete to reduce them significantly.
•Gamma rays do not directly ionize other
atoms
•We don't find pure gamma sources - gamma
rays are emitted alongside alpha or beta
particles. Strictly speaking, gamma emission
isn't 'radioactive decay' because it doesn't
change the state of the nucleus, it just carries
away some energy.
In a Magnetic Field
 What is Background Radiation?
• Background radiation comes from naturally
decaying substances such as soil, rocks, air,
food and drink.
• It is detected by a Geiger Muller Tube
Radioactive decay- Alpha Decay
Radioactive decay- Beta Decay
 Half-Life
• This is the amount of time taken for the nuclei
of a radioactive substance to decay.
 Nuclear Fusion

This does not take place on Earth so far. It is the process that powers the stars.
Nuclear Fission
 What can Radioactivity be used for?
1. Tracers
2. Radiotherapy
3. Testing for cracks
4. Thickness monitoring
5. Carbon Dating- after an organism dies the amount of
C-14 inside it begins to decay. It can be used to find
out how old a substance is.
6. Dating Rocks
This is the physics syllabus Complete

Best of luck for

your IGCSE exams

IMPORTANT:
Come to school during study leave and ask your questions
 EXTRA
NOT IN SYLLABUS
 Important electronic components
1. Resistors – keep currents + voltages at levels
desired by the electronic component
2. Capacitor – store small amounts of electric
charge
3. Diodes – allow the current to flow in only one
direction
4. Light-emittingg diodes (LED) – glow when a
small current is passed through them.
 Continued…
5. Transistors – used to amplify signals
6. Integrated circuits(micro-chips)– contain complete circuits with :
a) Resistors
b) Transistors
c) Other components

7. Relays– electromagnetic switches.

 Diodes
• Can be used to change AC to DC

Rectification
• Lets forward parts of the AC through but
blocks the backwards part.
• Forming a DC

Input 1 Output
resister
 Potential Divider
• A potential divider only delivers a portion of
the voltage.
 Reed Switch
• A reed switch is operated by a magnetic field.
 Transistors as switches
• It is a Collector

semiconductor
device made of
silicon.

Base

Emitter
 The NPN resistor

1000 ohms c 6V
b

• In the diagram above there are actually two circuits put together as one. The first
circuit is the one with the base and the emitter ( input circuit) and the second is
the circuit with the collector and the emitter (output circuit).
1. Two input connections joined together
no current flow
2. Input the base greater than 0.6V
lamp switches on
3. 1000 ohm resister is present to protect the input to the resistor, allowing input to
be higher than 0.6V to 5V without harming transistor.
4. Little current is needed in the input circuit.
Logic Gates