UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
A History of Architectural Conservation
Based on the book “History of Architectural Conservation” by
Jukka Jokilehto
England, Morality and Restoration
The Gothic Revival and Restoration
•
th
Towards the end of the 18 century many architects
who had classical training were commissioned by their
patrons to design mansions and villas in gothic style
• Jeorge Wyatt and Sir Jeffry Wyatville were
commissioned by Geroge III and George IV respectively
to remodel the Windsor Castle in Gothic Style at the
th
end of the 18 century and in 1824-1840
• Pugin Jr. became one of the key figures in the
development of the Gothic Revival in England
• The ‘National Society for the Education of the Poor in
the Principles of the Established Church was founded in
1811.
• In the 1820s to 1830s a number of cathedrals where
repairs were carried out with varying results
• Roman cement were widely used and paper mache was
used for the Ripon Cathedral for transept’s vaults
• Pugin’s concept of Restoration
• Everything about English churches is Catholic, it is lost
because English society became Protestant
• There should be a full understanding of the ‘intrinsic
principles’ of the traditional form and arrangement of
the church
• He rejected the word ‘style’ because there is one way
to build truly Christian architecture
• The value of art and architecture on the grounds of
moral worth of their creator
• He was concerned on the preservation of the original
idea not on the actual original materials
• The Ecclesiologists
• In 1839, John Mason Neale (1818-69) and Benjamin
Webb (1819-85) founded the Cambridge Camden
Society to promote the Catholic ritual, proper building
and knowledgeable restoration.
• Refounded as the Ecclesiological Society in 1845.
• Anthony Salvin, J. L. Pearson, William Battlefield and
Sir George Scott were members
Sir George Gilbert Scott
• 1840s- a new debate began between the restorers and
the anti-restorationists
• Restorers were mainly concerned about ‘faithful
restoration’ and if necessary reconstruction of the
original architectural form emphasizing on the practical
and functional aspect.
• The anti-restorationists were conscious of the historic
time insisting that each object or construction
belonged to its specific historic and cultural context,
that it was not possible to recreate this with the same
significance in another period: the tasks is to protect
and conserve the authentic original material of the
cultural heritage
• The protagonists of the debate were Sir George Gilbert
Scott (1811-78) and John Ruskin (1819-1900)
• Sir George Gilbert Scott, most successful Victorian
architect, church restorer following the Camdenian
principles
• 800 building
• From 1845-1865, 200 restoration projects
• Travelled in France and Germany studying Gothic
• He proposed for Governmental protection (Committee
of Inquiry 1841)
• E. A. Freeman (1823-93) authored a Book on the
Principles of Church Restoration:
• three approaches:
• destructive;
• conservative;
• and Eclectic.
• Sir George Gilbert Scott principles of ‘faithful
restoration’
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
Principles of Conservation
• He tried to do ‘some good’ making an appeal on behalf
of amore ‘tender and conservative way of treating’
ancient churches.
• Church development from basilicas as chain every link
of which is necessary to its future uses, vast treasury of
art, handed down , but given in trust to be transmitted
to future generation for knowledge and skill to use it
aright
• Saw the difference between medieval architects
(originating a style) and modern architects
(reawakening one style)
• He saw that it is not easy to be conservative, but
advocated Conservatism as the keynote of restoration
• The general rule was to preserve all various styles,
irregularities that indicated growth and history of the
building, which added to the interest of more modest
churches as well as to their picturesque character.
Exception may be used; an authentic feature though
late and poor, more worthy than earlier though finer
part conjecturally restored
• avoid individual caprice
• Constant coordination with the clergy and strict control
of execution of work
• Faithful restoration was based on respect for the
original design, not for the original material nor the
form from achieved through history
• Good documentation and archeological evidence
justified restoration, rebuilding of what have been lost
or damaged- and additional evidence could be looked
for in the region
John Ruskin
• From 1860s to 1870s, there was a growing ‘anti-
restoration movement’ stimulated by John Ruskin
• Absolute defense of the material truth of historic
architecture
• He introduced the values of domestic buildings
• 1849 wrote the Seven Lamps of Architecture
– Truth in art and Theory of Beauty, perfect
beauty was in God, and reflected in nature
and art, typical (form and lines) and vital
Expressions, energy and life)
– Seven fundamental and cardinal laws to be
observed and obeyed by any conscientious
architect and builder, shown in age, (Classical
and Gothic)
• 1849 wrote the Seven Lamps of Architecture
• The concept of the quality of architecture
• Architect and builder should give his best and sacrifice
other pleasure for the sake of architecture
• Honesty of building materials and working methods, he
hated imitations, he fought against industrial methods
and promotes traditional workmanship
• Lamp of Memory
• Historical Values, poetry with architecture are
conquerors of time, principal duties: first is to create
architecture with quality that it could become
historical; secondly, to preserve as most precious of
inheritances, that of the past ages
• Divided architecture to 5 categories: devotional,
memorial, civil, military, and domestic
• Emotional Values; a man’s house is his life, love,
distress and memories a memorial for his children,
which had the duty to protect it; as the
church/Christianity . God is the owner and it is sacrilege
to destroy His altar
• Architecture will create continuity through various
events, and contributing to the nation’s identity.
• A national architectural inheritance including domestic
buildings and historic towns
• Picturesque Values; often used in connection of ruined
buildings (universal decay) but Ruskin called it
‘parasitical sublimity’
• To him it meant the combination of beauty and
sublime, expressed in different characteristics and
intentions in art
Principles of Conservation
1
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
• Gothic sculpture with shades and shadows
• for historic buildings, it was noble picturesque’, the
golden stain of time’, marks of ageing on the materials
giving it character,
• thereby careful choice of materials should be used
• Ruskin criticized Italian restorations, in Italy he found
the “whole nation employed in destroying the most
precious of its heritages, sinking deeper into apathy,
ignorance and sensuality –destruction of Giotto’s art,
scraping of St. Mark’s, and white-washing the Dodge
Palace
• He stayed to draw and documents these treasures
• Maintenance and care
• On deterioration of historic building fabric, repointing
and cleaning produced a copy, he suggested that ‘let
them take the greatest possible care of all they have
got, and when care will preserve it no longer, let it
perish inch by inch, rather than retouch it.’
• He is not against repair, what he want to avoid is the
necessity of restoration
• Proper care and maintenance makes them last longer
• In 1854, He proposed for an Association, organized to
maintain as active watchers and agents in every town,
document and report state and changes of monuments
• Funding to assist owners to keep them up and prevent
unwise restoration and unnecessary destruction
• In 1855 the Executive Committee conditions for funds,
circulars were given on the basis of his principles, but
the paper met on opposition from the Church as it as
an insult to those in recent done their best to improve
God’s house for his glory and to accommodate the
increasing population
• Scott ‘s reaction on Ruskin’s principles, it is applicable
to antique sculptures or ruined buildings not on
buildings that were monuments but had to be used.
• He divided ancient architectural remains into 4
categories: mere antiquities (Stonehenge); ruins of
ecclesiastical and secular buildings; buildings in use,
and fragmentary remains in modern buildings
• He agreed with Ruskin on the aim of preservation of
the greatest possible amount of ancient work intact
• George Edmund Street , restorer must document
minute details and must be personally involved in all
phases of the detailed inspection
• Development of Conservation Principles
• as archeological societies felt the influence of Ruskin
and Scott and draw attentions to the manner in which
repairs and restorations were carried out.
• Restoration was defined as “putting something into a
state different from that which we find it; but similar to
that which it once was”
• First, Try not to restore but consolidate, avoid
deception and respect authenticity, avoid scraping, use
style intended and avoid confusing forms
The Anti-Restoration Movement
• RIBA Guidelines for Conservation
• Scott suggested that legal guardians of churches should
consult with recognized professionals, to avoid
‘wholesale restorations’ as being done in France
• In 1865 a Committee was appointed, and published
practical rules and suggestions (Conservation of
Ancient Monuments and Remains), this document
contributed to the new approach to the conservation
of historic buildings
• 1860s to 1870s was period of an active discussion
about restoration and anti-restoration.
• 1873-75, Scott served as President of RIBA, Ruskin
refused his Gold Medal Award
• Sydney Colvin – emphasized on historic value: a
building is a work of art, bearing the marks of time, the
older, the greater the historic value and interest
• J.J. Steveson criticized Lord Grimthorpe on the
restoration of the St. Alban’s Cathedral
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
Principles of Conservation
• 1877, William Morris published The Athenaeum,
opposing destructive restoration and proposing an
association in defense of historic buildings
• In 1861 Morris with Webb set up a firm to provide
services as ‘Fine Art Workmen in Painting, Carving,
Furniture and the Metals’
• The concept of historical context of art as art is a
product of all historical development.
• On March 20, 1887 the Society for the Protection of
Ancient buildings was founded. Its influenced was felt
in other countries (Italy, Germany, Egypt and India)
• The SPAB formed the basis for modern conservation
policy: by implication protection was not limited any
more to specific styles, but based on a critical
evaluation of the existing building stock
• a conservative repair
• To stave off decay by daily care
• Repair of historic building became a highly specialized
branch of architecture (architects and workmen need
special preparation
• SPAB published Guidelines (1903) and in handbooks
(1911-36) on Repair of Ancient Buildings
• In the 1870s to 1880s a fresh action was taken to
obtain legal protection for ancient monuments in
England
• Sir John Lubbock prepared a Parliament Bill since 1871
• Ancient Monument Act of 1882 was passed
Restoration Influences in Italy
Stylistic Restoration in Italy
• Italy has long history of protection of ancient
monuments, legislation to control excavations and
export of works of art.
• In 1820, Cardinal Pacca renewed the same orders.
• 1821 the Commissioner of Antiquities was reinforced.
• In Lombardy a provision of protection was made
• After the unification of Italy in 1860-70, old laws were
reconfirmed for each particular regions
• It took relatively long before the interest in the
protection of medieval and later buildings
• Italians were able to draw from the experience of other
countries, England, France, and German
• Different attitudes causing debate on these questions
• Italian approach emerged, being partly on the
• principles established in the restoration of
archeological monuments,
• in part on German romanticism,
• on the principles of the French Government,
and
• on the approach shown in England by Ruskin
and the SPAB
th
• In the early 19 century, tradition still prevailed of
completing and changing historic buildings in fashion of
the time
• 1823 San Paolo fuori le Mura was badly damaged by
fire. Valadier proposed for a modern form but in 1825
Pope Leo XII decided to rebuilt it in its earlier form. Belli
(1725-1833) commenced it, finished by Poletti (1792-
1869) in 1869.
• 1830 brought economic improvement, urban renewal
programmes in Milan and Florence, such as widening
of streets and construction of new buildings resulted in
the destruction of historic fabric deplored by Ruskin
• Carlo Cattaneo (1801-69) contributed to the national
revival,
• concept of the ideal city based on the Middle
Ages
• 1839, Founded the periodical Il Politeenico to
defend historic towns and against modern
traffic
• Railways linking Milan and Venice must be
outside the historic towns
• In 1862,Proposed the foundation of an
association
• Pietro Selvatico Estense (1803-80), the first important
exponent of Gothic Revival in Italy
Principles of Conservation
2
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
• 1840, Town Hall of Cremona restored in its
th
13 century original style
• His aim is to establish “a national
architecture in conformity with Christian
thinking” (medieval style)
• 1850-56, professor of architecture at the
academy of Venice, his student was Boito
• In 1840, new proposals were prepared for the west
front of the Santa Croce and Santa Maria del Fiore,
earlier in 1837 done by Nicolo Matasin neo-classical
th th
style, in 1854 in Tuscan 13 and 14 century Gothic
became thebasis for the façade in 1857-62.
• In 1885, Guiseppe Dominico Partini (1845-95) was
appointed in surveyor of the Cathedral and worked
until his death in 1892.
• Restoration of the nave windows and burned roof. He
took liberties in the restoration
He was invited to repair and restoration of the Siena Cathedral
from 1863-65
The Conservation Movement in Italy
• From 1815-1866, during the Austrian Rule in Venice,
many large undertakings were initiated: railway,
bridged and improvement of the harbour.
• 1818 the Commission of Artistic Property was
established
• From 1843, long term restoration programmes for St.
Mark’s and the Ducal Palace were commenced.
• In 1856, Prof Selvatico was invited to report on the
building and repairs.
• From 1860 -75 the responsibility was entrusted to
Giovan Battista Meduna (1810-80) also the restorer of
the Fenice Theater in Venice
• In 1871, Viollet-le-Duc approved of the restoration
approach
• In 1876, Ruskin was in despair
• In 1877, Count Alvise Piero Zorzi (1846-1922)
conceived St. Marco not as an ‘architectural
monument’ but as a ‘museum of architecture’ so it
needed special treatment
• He differentiated restoration from conservation:
• Restoration presupposes innovations according to
needs, it is applicable to anything that has no
archeological importance but purely artificial
• Conservation exclude innovations, it aims at
safeguarding from decay of what , for its antiquity for
historic reasons, has a merit superior to art, even more
important when it has archeological interest and
artistic value
• He did not agree with the restoration approach on St.
Mark’s
• SPAB and Morris reacted too
• Giacomo Boni (1859-1925), archeologist and architect,
he remained in continuous correspondence with the
English about the St. Mark’s. Prepared a historical
survey.
• In 1879, he was employed to restore the Ducal Palace,
Venice
• He wrote with fifty artists, a letter on Venetian
monuments to the government in 1882.
• In 1885, he made a stratigraphic excavation around the
foundations of the Campanile of St. Mark’s
• In 1888, Boni was invited to Rome, to prepare
regulations for the conservation of antiquities, he was
appointed first architect for the conservation of historic
buildings as General Direction of Antiquities.
• He fought against demolitions of historic buildings in
order to open new streets
• He was actively involved in various schemes to develop
modern technology for use in conservation
• He was interested in the consolidation of stone and the
use of stainless steel
• His concept of picturesque is admiration of classical
antiquity and defend their authenticity
• He was involved In the campaign for the Forum
Romanum and the Palatine
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
Principles of Conservation
“Restauro filologico” in Italy
• During the process of unification, there were various
initiatives for national legislation and protection.
• In 1881, the General Directorate was established and in
1882 prepared guidelines for the restoration of historic
buildings signed by Guiseppe Fiorelli, an archeologist
working on the excavation on Pompeii
– Instructions to promote a better knowledge
of the monuments in order to avoid
unnecessary destruction, and errors
– It is essential that:
• Restoration based on survey and
study, its construction and all
modifications that had occurred
• Critical evaluation provide the basis
of judgment of what was important
as history or art, and thus must be
conserved and what could be
removed without damage to the
monument
• To understand the ‘normal state’ of
the building originally and what was
its ‘actual state’ at present and to
‘suppress the difference,
reactivating and maintaining as far
as possible the normal state in all
that has to be conserved
• Restoration of lost or damaged
features was accepted o condition
that clear evidence of the original
form or existed or even – if it was
justified by the need of structural
stability
• If later additions were not
important from the historic or
artistic point of view, their
demolition could be justified,
• Reconstruction should be kept to
the minimum, and the main
attention be given to the
conservation of the original
• Camillo Boito (1836-1914), Eclectism architect,
professor in Venice. He presented a paper to a congress
of engineers and architects in 1879 resulted to the
1882 circular.
rd
• In 1883, he presented a new paper in the 3 Congress
summarizing the seven points thus forming the First
Italian Charter of conservation, it was submitted to the
Ministry of Education.
• Camillo Boito published a revised edition of the Charter
in 1893
– Ancient monuments are to be considered as
documents that reflect the history of the past
in all their parts
– He insisted that one had to do everything
possible and impossible, in order to maintain
the old picturesque aspect of the monument,
and falsifications should be out of the
questions
– He divided architecture into three categories
• Antiquity- archeological restoration
• Medieval – pictorial restoration
• Later buildings- architectural
restoration
• Camillo Boito compared
– Restoration-superfluous and dangerous while
conservation the only wise thing to do.
– He laid the foundations of modern
conservation policy in Italy
• 1889, twelve General Commissioners of Arts were
established
• 1891, regional Superintendents were commissioned
responsible for art galleries, excavations and museums.
Principles of Conservation
3
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
• Bills were prepared since 1860, 1870s, 1888, but
approved only in 1902 and modified in 1904,1906 and
1909.
• 1939 a new law replaced the old one.
• His principles were recognized later in international
recommendations
• Contemporaries influenced by Bioto were:
– Alfonso Rubbiani (1848-1913) restorer in
Bolgna
– Antonio D’Andrade (1839-1814) restorer in
Liguria and Piedmont
– Luca Beltrami (1854-1933) active in Milan and
Rome worked on the Hotel De Ville
“Restauro Storico” in Italy
• Luca Beltrani’s principle of Restauro Storico or
‘historical restoration’ based on documentation
– Restoration must not be based on
imagination but on concrete data on the
monument itself
– Monuments can be recomposed if there are
fragments to define the lines of the whole
architectural form
• In 1902 the Campanile of St. Mark collapsed
– The original fragments were saved and were
re-used for its restoration
• Beltrami was also commissioned to reconsolidated the
St. Peters Cathedral in 1920
• Urban renewal was felt in Italy
• In 1864 control of appearance and height of buildings
in historic sites were passed to conserve the integrity of
the style.
• In 1870, Rome became the capital of the United
Kingdom of Italy
• The Ministry of Education prepared a listing of
historically and aesthetically of national importance
• 1873 (revised in 1887 and 1912) the building code
reinforced protection of historic monuments
• The Associazoine Artisctica was formed in 1890
• From 1887-1920s saw the interests in archeological
restoration such as Pompeii and Herculaneum, Palatine
and Acropolis
• In 1910, Giovannoni (1873-1947) an architect, engineer
and urban planner, he draw attention to the ‘minor
architecture’ as part of the historic urban fabric
• In 1913 he published an article an the concept
“diradamento edilizio” or thinning out of urban fabric,
(He saw the conflict between history and life).
– Major Traffic must flow outside the historic
core
– Introduce gardens for hygienic conditions
(demolished slums)
• In 1939, Giovannoni presented his restoration theory
“Restauro Scientifico” in the International Congress in
Athens
• Through his teaching and
• writings Giovannoni consolidated the modern Italian
conservation principles, emphasizing the critical,
scientific approach, and thus providing a basis for
‘restauro scientifico’(‘scientific restoration’).
– This policy was applied not only to
‘monuments’, but also to historic buildings in
general, and even initiated a new approach to
historic urban areas.
• Giovannoni identified four types of restoration (1936):
– 1. restoration by consolidation;
– 2. restoration by recomposition (anastylosis);
– 3. restoration by liberation; and
– 4. restoration by completion or renovation.
Germanic Countries ‘Denkmalkultus
Early Protection in Austrian Empire
th
• In the 19 Century, the Austrian Empire covered a large
area of Central Europe
• 1802, an order for forbidding the removal of objects
from old castles and ruins
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
Principles of Conservation
• In Lombardy and Venice, Special Commissions were
established
• Central Commission for the Research and Historic
Monuments was formed in 1850 in 1873 its coverage
include all artistic and historic buildings
• Adalbert Strifter was the first Conservator in Austria
Conservation in Germanic Countries
th
• The romantic movement of the 19 Century started the
preservation of historic monuments pushed always
further towards restoration, completion and
reconstruction
• 1938, Hans Hermann in his Methodik der
Denkmalpflege introduce the alternative approach of
the French
• 1856, August Reichensperger stated “the first main
rule in restoration is: to do as little as possible and
unnoticeable as possible”
• In 1852, the archbishop of Munich promoted the
restoration of the Frauenkirche, in order to return it to
its earlier ‘beautiful shape’. When the newly shaped
church was presented to the public, in 1861, it caused
an outcry of strong accusations in the press.
• Wilhelm Lübke, who wrote about the ‘restoration
fever’ during recent years, he argued, this had gone too
far; restoration had become a fever that in its rage
risked the destruction of the magnificent monuments
and their characteristic features
• Hermann Muthesius (1861–1927), an architect who
loved classical music and literature – especially Goethe
introduced English approach.
• Maintenance instead of reconstruction; that is the
general aim of conservation.
• Additions in the sense of an artistic completion of the
ruined or missing can in no way be allowed.
• These could only be temporary measures, and should
clearly be marked as such, i.e., not to pretend any
artistic forms, and least of all anything that apes the
architecture of the monument. (Muthesius, 1902)
• In the early 1900s also, Paul Clemen, the Conservator
of Rhineland since 1893, wrote articles about Ruskin
and the English conservation movement. He admired
the masterly skill of Viollet-le-Duc in the restoration of
Notre-Dame of Paris.
• 1933-‘Conservation, not restoration!’
• Later in his life, Clemen moved toward symbolic and
strongly nationalistic values as a justification for
conservation.
• In 1899, when Die Denkmalpflege, the new magazine
dedicated to conservation, article drew attention to the
capital value that the beauty of a historic town
represented by bringing in visitors.
Die Denkmaltage
• 1900-20s Regular meetings were organized for the
conservationists of all German states, these events
were called Tage für Denkmalpflege (‘Days for
Conservation’), and became a yearly events
• In the 1900 meeting in Dresden, Baurath Paul Tornow-
Metz, one of those who favoured restoration in the
‘spirit of the ancients’, proposed some principles that
aimed at the preservation of the historic character and
a full respect for the original.
• The only exception would be ‘the correction of
structural errors, and the unquestionable improvement
of the technical value’ of the building.
• C. Weber, from Danzig, in his paper on the question of
style in integrations, in Trier in 1909
• The division of historic buildings to two categories; the
dead and the living
• On dead buildings:
• 1) ‘pure ruins’ with no specific artistic value could be
left with minimum protection;
• 2) ‘dead buildings’, still with a roof but no use, should
be maintained so as not to become ruins;
• 3) ‘dead buildings’ of great artistic and historic value,
such as the castle of Heidelberg, needed to be
Principles of Conservation
4
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
considered in detail case by case, but to leave them to
‘beautiful death’ would be ridiculous.
• The division of historic buildings to two categories; the
dead and the living
• Dealing with ‘living buildings’, i.e.,
• buildings used for their intended function,
• priority should be given to artistic values;
• ‘the aim of any such restoration must be, that at the
completion of the works – and I think of churches –
when the building is handed over to the parish, the
impact on the layman, to whom the work is intended
anyway, must be the same as when looking at a new
church’
• ‘Historical school’ approach to reviving a historic
building in its artistic appearance at the cost of its
historic and archaeological values,
• Professor Georg Gottfried Dehio (1850–1936) was
opposed to the reconstruction of the castle of
Heidelberg, done by Karl Schäfer
• ‘to conserve and only to conserve! to complete only
when conservation has become materially impossible;
what has fallen can only be rebuilt under quite specific
and limited circumstances’.
• Dehio was convinced of the need to educate and train
architects and technicians in the treatment of historic
structures.
Alois Riegel
• From 1856, the activities of the Central Commission of
Austria were published in a regular newsletter.
• In January 1902, its editorship was confirmed to Alois
Riegl (1857–1905) together with Wilhelm Kubitschek.
• In 1903, Riegl was invited to join the Central
Commission, and appointed General Conservator.
• key issues in Riegl’s thinking was Kunstwollen, of which
the translation ‘will to form’ or ‘will to art’, ‘a
teleological conception of art’ (i.e., identifying its final
causes)
• Riegel defines values and concepts related to modern
conservation, distinguishing between an ‘intended
monument’ (gewollte Denkmal), and an ‘unintended
monument’ (ungewollte Denkmal).
th
• From the 19 century. His values were divided in two
main groups:
• 1. memorial values: age value, historical
value, and intended memorial value); and
• 2. present-day values: use value, art value,
newness value and relative art.
• A debate about Nationalist-socialistic values between
Dehio and Riegel occurred
• Max Dvorak became one of the leading conservators
promoting conservation of nature and environment
International Concern in Cultural Heritage
Protection in other Countries
th
• Later part of the 19 Century and early decades of the
th
20 Century
• Various countries in Europe as well as outside,
established an administrative structure and legal
protection for historic buildings and ancient
monuments
• Portugal:
• earliest laws were dated 1721 and revised in 1802,
• National Library.
• Spain:
• the “Monument Commissions” was established by a
Royal Decree in 1844
• Code of Regulations (1865)
• The Cathedrals of Leon Burgos and Segovia were
restored or reconstructed with unity in style influenced
by France.
• Since 1920’s a conservative approach was adopted.
• L. Torres Balbas, the conservator of Alhambra
represented this attitude
• Belgium
• 1823 Decree in East-Flanders
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
Principles of Conservation
• 1835, the “Commission Royale des Monuments”,
enlarged in 1912 to include sites
• Town Hall of Louvain (1829-40) and Bruges (1854-71) in
stylistic restoration.
• Baron de Bethume (1821-94) promoter of Gothic
Revival
• In 1860’s-70’s direct influence of Viollet-le-duc was felt
, he was nominated an associate member of the
Academy of Antwerp, and consulted in the restoration
of the town hall of Ghent in 1871.
• The theory of stylistic unity was favored towards the
end of the century.
• Engr. Louis Cloquet (1849-1920) promoted Gothic as a
rational structural system
• He divided monuments into ‘dead monuments’
(pyramids, temples, and ruins) having documentary
values, and ‘living monuments’ (churches, palaces,
manor houses, buildings that have contemporary use
• Conservation (English formula)rather than restoration
for dead monuments
• Netherlands
th
• Gothic revival was echoed in the middle of the 19
century
• Promoters were J. A. Alberdingk Thijm, a
follower of Montalembert and Pugin
• He wrote the Christian aspects and treatment
of medieval art
• Influences from Germanic countries
• Arch. Alfred Tepe of Utrecht, a member of
the ‘Sint Bernulpuhus gilde’ a society for
Catholic art
• Gothic revival
• Dr. Petrus Josephus Hubertus Cuypers (1827-
1921) from Roermond, worked in
Amsterdam, was a follower of Viollet-leDuc
and known as the “Dutch Viollet-le-Duc
• Restored in pure Romanesque form the
exterior of Munsterkerk, Roermond
• Rebuilt the ruined Medieval Kasteel de Haar.
• Churches of St. Odilienberg and Susteren.
• Dr. Jan Kalf (1873-1954) introduced a new and
conservative approach, in his 1911 publication he
attacked Cuypers and de Stuers, and considered
stylistic restoration a fake, he emphasized the
documentary value of the original material
• In 1917 he wrote an introduction to the new
conservation law
• He favored the continuous use of historic buildings, any
additions should be made in style of the time in order
to avoid falsification
• Victor E.L. de Steurs published in 1873 his cri-de-coeur,
“Holland at its Narrowest” complaining that historic
buildings were not taken cared of
• Following the outcry the Advisory Council of Historic
and Artistic Monuments was established in March
1874. It was chaired by D. Fock and C. Leemans.
• In 1938, Prof. Canon Rayond Lemaire published La
Restauration des Monuments anciens.
• He divided the approaches and treatment of historic
buildings into two groups:
• The maximalist: Montalbert, Pugin, Tornow
or Merimee, who aimed at a unity in style.
• The minimalist: Ruskin and other that aim
was the conservation of the original
archeological and documentary values of the
monuments
• Prof. Canon Rayond Lemaire categorized buildings into
four types of values:
• Use-value
• Artistic value
• Historical-archeological
• Picturesque value
• Restoration must aim was to maintain or augment each
others values as far as possible. When one value is
Principles of Conservation
5
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
diminished the result should be judged from the point
of view of benefit to the whole.
• He accepted the division of ‘living’ and ‘dead’ historic
buildings.
• Northern Europe (Sweden)
• In 1806, Friedrich von Schlegel book on his trip to the
Rhine was translated in Swedish to stimulate further
studies and repair of old churches
• The Swedish Academy and the National Antiquary
th
existed since the 17 Century v=but related mainly
with academic studies. In 1828 anew National
Antiquary was appointed.
• J.G. Liljengren (1826-37) brought the German
Romanticism in Sweden
• The 1666 Ordinance on Ancient Monuments were
revived and replaced by a new ordinance in 1828, later
all decrees and ordinances were summed up in a
decree in 1867, 1873 and 1886
• This lead to the Central Office of National Antiquities to
care for the cultural monuments.
• P.F. Robinson, (1776-1858), an English architect rebuilt
in Gothic Revival style the Riddarholm Church in
Stokholm after the fire of 1835.
• Georg Brunius (1793-1869), first representative of
Medieval Revival in Sweden
• A Professor of Greek and Rector in Lund
University
• Active in Nordic archeological studies
• Structural repairs of the masonry of water
canals.
• Involved in the repairs and restoration of the
Lund Cathedral
• 50 buildings, churches, mansions and manor
houses
• member of the Cathedral Council till 1859
• In 1836, Published a monograph on the
building’s history and architecture
• He promoted the protection of medieval
structures against all too frequent
destruction
• Nikolaus Zettervall
• a young architect who travelled from
Germany, France and Northern Italy
• Aware of Viollet-le-Duc theories of
restoration
• Studied in Swedish Academy in Stockholm
• Became a Director of Superintendent of
Antiquities in 1860.
• Became the leading restoration architect in
the northern countries and Sweden
• Restored the Townhall of Malmo (1865-69);
Cathedrals of Kalmar (1879), Uppsala (1885-
93) and Skara (1886-94)
• Northern Europe (Denmark)
• In Denmark, patriotic feelings emerged after its decline
th
as world power in the 19 century
• Niel Lauritz Hoyen (1798-1870) promoted research on
medieval architecture, he translated Victor Hugo’s
Guerre aux demoliseurs into Danish
• Became the leading art-historian in Denmark
• From early 1830’s he studied national antiquities
• Niel Lauritz Hoyen (1798-1870) Made plans for the
Viborg Cathedral to remove the construction after the
1726 fire, to restore it to its original medieval
appearance, it was only applied until 1863. and
initiated by him and N.S. Nebelong and completed by
H.B. Stork. The reconstruction was in a Romanesque
form.
• Hoyen’s idea of bringing old
• churches back to its ‘original style’ was expressed in
the Danish Law of February 19, 1861. later removed in
1922, where treatment of historic buildings must be
based on careful building archeological studies.
• H.B. Storck (1839-1922)became known as the
“Denmark’s Zettervall”
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
Principles of Conservation
• His fame started with his work on the Helligandskirken,
Copenhagen form 1878-80, and followed by
restorations of Danish churches.
• Restoration for him meant “keeping the style and
character of the monument…hand in hand with
restoration often go reconstructions of lost part.
• Danish architects and artists were active abroad
contributing to the restoration of ancient monuments
in Greece.
• The 1861 Law include orders for annual inspections,
and the establishment of a special board of experts, an
historian and two architects for professional
consultancy during church restoration
• Cathedral of Viborg, Aarhus, Ribe and;
• Roskilde (1859) were restoration considered
the historical-scientific as well as the scientific
aspect
• Northern Europe (Norway)
• The separation of Norway from Denmark and its union
with Sweden in 1814, brought out strong patriotic
feelings
• Also in 1814, the unfinished Cathedral of Trondheim of
medieval origin was named Norway’s Coronation
Church, plans were made by Heinrich Ernst Schimer
(1814-87) to complete the cathedral.
• In 1869, the restoration started with the repairs to the
Chapter-house and completed by Captain Otto Krefting
in 1872.
• The work was taken over by Eilert Christian Brodtkorb
Christie (1832-1906) continued by others.
• During the same time medieval stave churches were
pulled down to provide more space for the
congregations
• Kaupanger Church were provided with more windows
and covered with new wooden boarding in 1862.
• J.C. Dahl, an artist and Professor at the University of
Dresden founded the Society For the protection of
Ancient Buildings in Norway in 1841.
• In 1870’s an open-air museum was established in Oslo.
• Northern Europe (Finland)
• Finland which had been part of Sweden until 1809 had
become a Grand Duchy of Russia.
th
• Around the middle of the 19 century there developed
a strong patriotic movement
• Finnish culture, Finnish National language and Finnish
literature
• In 1870 a Society of Antiquities was founded to study of
churches, medieval paintings, and other works of art
and history.
• as part of Sweden , it had been affected by the Law of
1666.
• In 1872 a bill was presented to the Parliament for a
new law for the protection of ancient monuments
• In 1877 the Board of Antiquities was established
• And a law was approved in 1883 to protect ancient
remains of forts, churches, or other public buildings as
well as inscriptions, paintings and decorations.
• The original technology and material that had
documentary value must be preserved.
• Finland heard echoes of stylistic restoration, many
churches and main castles were restored
• The Turku Cathedral founded in the Middle Ages had
undergone many transformations was subject to
various proposals and restorations.
• In 1870, a publication illustration of the Notre-Dame
was brought to Finland to serve as a model for the
Turku Cathedral.
• Northern Europe
th
• Towards the end of the 19 century a debate about
restoration principles brought voices against drastic
reconstructions and more conservative treatment.
Condemned restorations were that of Lund, Uppsala
and Trondheim.
Principles of Conservation
6
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
• Verner von Heidenstam was the early anti-
restorationist in Sweden, he published a book in 1894
on Modern Vandalism.
• Lars Sonck (1870-1956) emphasized the importance of
respecting historic stratification.
• Bertel Jung referred to conservation policy of
Heidenstam and Ruskin as leading authorities that
strongly opposed the rebuilding of St. Mark’s campanile
after its collapse in 1902.
• Armas Lindgren (1874-1929), a colleague of Eliel
Saarinen referred discussions related to conservation of
historic buildings, at an international meeting of
architects in Brussels in 1897,
• No answer to the problem of how to treat
“errors” in historic buildings,
• recommendations were made in enlargement
of historic buildings could be allowed if done
prudently
• Removal or demolition of any parts of the
building with the excuse of achieving stylistic
unity must not be allowed under any
condition
• Gradually the debate had an impact on the official
principles in of protection of historic buildings,
th
• in the early 20 Century these concepts were
influenced by German and Austrian Conservation
Theories; an emphasis on the inventory and
documentation, as well as to repair and consolidation
of historic structures as they were.
• In Sweden, principles of the treatment of historic
buildings were re-established in new-legislation
• The administrative structure was renewed as the
Central Office of National Antiquities
• New generation of conservators was represented by
Sigurd Curman, he was appointed as National
antiquary in 1923 until 1945.
Conservation Movement in France
• In France, there were various administrative changes in
the Service des Monuments historiques and the
administration of Edifices diocesains
• In 1887, a national law was passed , this formed the
reference to many countries: North Africa, Algeria,
Tunis and Morocco, which soon adopted similar
measures
• Various differences and opinions on methods and
principles between architects and archeologists
• Awareness on the need to avoid unnecessary
demolition
• In 1879, William Morris’ Manifesto was translated into
German, Dutch and Italian
• Critics disagreed with Merimee and Viollet-le-Duc such
as Cote R. de Lasteyrie, Andre Michel and A. Guillon
• In 1892, Antonin Proust reported that useless
restorations are avoided, to concentrate more on
repairs that are strictly necessary
• Anatole France (1844-1924) emphasized the
importance of preserving national memory in the
authentic stones of the historic buildings as well as
historic towns, these served as the mother of
civilization
• Various differences and opinions on methods and
principles between architects and archeologists
• Awareness on the need to avoid unnecessary
demolition
• In 1879, William Morris’ Manifesto was translated into
German, Dutch and Italian
• Critics disagreed with Merimee and Viollet-le-Duc such
as Cote R. de Lasteyrie, Andre Michel and A. Guillon
• In 1892, Antonin Proust reported that useless
restorations are avoided, to concentrate more on
repairs that are strictly necessary
• Anatole France (1844-1924) emphasized the
importance of preserving national memory in the
authentic stones of the historic buildings as well as
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
Principles of Conservation
historic towns, these served as the mother of
civilization
• In 1904, the Le Musee, Revue d’Art, editeo Georges
Toudouze referred to the concepts of restoration and
restitution
• In 1905, a great debate was posted on the intended
restoration of the Parthenon.
• N. Balanos was interviewed and described as a man of
secure science and prudent taste
• The First International Congress on Archeology was
held in Athens, discussed was the restoration of the
Acropolis
• The Restoration was carried out from 1898-1902 for
the west front of the temple; from 1923-1933, the
reconstruction of the northern colonnade under
Balanos. In 1940’s under Professor Anastasios Orlandos
the second “Anastylosis” of the Temple of Nike .
International Developments
• The concept of ‘universal heritage’ reach its formal
expressions in international agreements and
conventions.
– Emmerich de Vattel (1714-67) touched on
the questions of works of art being a
common heritage of mankind, and even in
warfare these must be spared
• The principles of Vattel were followed by the U.S.
• Dr. Francis Lieber (1800-72) drafted A Code for the
Government of Armies in 1863, for the codification of
protection in the case of warfare.
• In August 27, 1874, after the Franco-Russian war of
1870-71, the first international conference was held in
Brussels to discuss “ A Project of an International
Declaration Concerning the Laws and Customs of War”
• In 1899 and in 1907, in Hague a charter was
formulated, the convention emphasized the
protection of buildings dedicated to religion, art,
sciences and historic monuments.
• Hague Convention Charter for the Restoration of
Historic Monuments was not sufficient to prevent
cultural disasters during the First World War (1914-18).
– Burning of the University Library of Louvain,
Belgium and other historic towns
– Bombardment of the Rheims Cathedral and
other historic buildings in Central Europe
• In 1914 the German army attached special ‘art officers
to units to identify and protect cultural property (P.
Clemen)
• In 1919, the Belgium government initiated restoration
and reconstruction, a law guaranteed compensation to
those who suffered damages
• Debates about reconstruction were expressed.
• In France, forces were mobilized for the reconstruction
and restorations of damaged structures: Rheims and
Soissons Cathedrals, Hotel de Ville, and the Notre-
Dame, Paris.
• In the post-war restoration, no question of keeping
strictly to conservation but to accept reconstruction of
the destroyed part of the damaged buildings
• This led necessarily to reconsideration of both
principles and techniques applied.
• Modern technology was applied and use of reinforced
concrete.
International Meeting in Athens
th
• 19 Century
• Questions relating to history of art and architecture
had been discussed in Numerous international
meetings (1900- Lubeck and 1921-Paris)
• As a result of the General Assembly of the German
Societies of Antiquities, Strasbourg in 1899, a decision
was made to arrange an annual meetings to discuss
matters related to the restoration and conservation of
monuments
• 1904-Madrid Congress (stylistic restoration)
• 1919- Paris Peace Conference (league of Nations,
Geneva)
Principles of Conservation
7
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
• 1922- International Committee on Intellectual Co-
operation of the League of Nations
• 1926-International Museums Office predecessor of the
International Council of Museums (ICOM) 1946. 1927-
the periodical “Mouseion” was published
• October 1930- International Conference for the Study
of Scientific Methods for the Examination and
Preservation of Works of Art, Rome later held in Athens
in 1931.
• Athens Charter (abandoning stylistic
restoration, emphasizing on conservation of
authentic historic monuments and works of
arts and providing guidelines and
recommendations aiming at the preservation
of cultural heritage)
• A model for the Italian National Charter for
Conservation
• 1933 – CIAM held a meeting on Athens to discuss the
principles of modern town planning dealing with
historic towns, preservation of historic values, refusing
any modern constructions and style, considering social
and hygienic problems as well as traffic. Published
anonymously in Paris as La Charte d’ Athenes in 1941
by Le Corbusier
Towards International Guidelines
The Second World War
• In 1939, the German Army attached Poland, this
initiated the Second World War. It involved the whole
of Europe and other continents. It ended in 1945 after
two atomic bombs were dropped on Japan.
– 55 million died
– Cultural treasures lost in London, Berlin,
Dresden, Warsaw, Saint-Malo, Florence, etc.
– 460,000 buildings destroyed in France, 1270
historic buildings damaged
– 75% of Warsaw was destroyed, 95% of
historic buildings lost
• 1944-1953- Reconstruction of Warsaw based on
reference on measured drawings, prints, paintings and
pre-war documents
• Reconstruction followed in Europe. Debates started
how it could be carried out.
• In London, around St. Paul the area was rebuilt
completely modern
• In Belgium, attention was given more to restoration
and cleaning with coherent planning structure
th th
• 1963, In Louvain , 16 and 17 century buildings were
integrated with new structures but built in traditional
materials
• In France, a compromise was adopted, the Strasbourg
was rebuilt in modern forms guided by acceptable scale
for historic structures.
• Saint-Malo, was rebuilt as a replica of the historic town
• Modern building technology was applied, grouting,
reinforced concrete, and steel structures
• Adaptation of historic structures to contemporary
functions
• Considering vast destructions, a reference was made to
the work of Viollet-le-Duc
• Respect for eventual reconstitution of the artistic
character of historic buildings and their setting
• Use of replicas produced in original type of material to
harmonize with artistic whole and allow natural
weathering
• In Germany, similar efforts were made in order to save
and restore surviving historic buildings
• Dresden, Berlin, Leipzig –ruined urban fabric were
demolished for political reasons
• Nuremberg and Munich- rebuilt in modern
architectural forms but respecting scale and urban form
of the lost historic areas
th
• Munich-some 19 Century buildings were restored
with respect to the original material
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
Principles of Conservation
‘Restauro Critico’ in Italy
• Benedetto Croce (1866-1952) formed the conceptual
basis for later restoration theory ‘restauro critico’ as
expressed by Argan, Pane, Bonelli and Brandi
• Influential in the formulation of the principles of
International Charter for Restoration in 1964 –the
Venice Charter
• 1938- Central national institute for the conservation of
works of art was formulated by Guilio Carlo Argan in
Rome
• Inspector in the General Directorate of Fine
Arts and Professor of History of Modern Art.
• Scientific character of restoration, historical
and technical competence and great
sensitivity
• Distinguished ‘conservative restoration’ and
‘artistic restoration’
• In 1977 -80 he became the Mayor of Rome
and promoted conservation of the whole city
• Post war reconstructions in Italy
• A Meeting at Perugia in 1948
• Guglielmo De Angelis D’ Ossat divided the cases of war
into three categories;
• Buildings with little damage which could be
repaired
• Buildings that have suffered major damage-
reconstruction and restoration
• Buildings that were destroyed
• Conserved what was left and lost part
reinterpreted)
• Loggia de Mercanzia, Bologna
• Santa Chiara, Naples
• San Franceso, Viterbo
• Method of anastylosis (rebuilt using original
elements)
• Temple of Augustus, Pula
(Yugoslavia)
• Two bridges in Verona
• Ponte Pietra, Rome
• Templo Malatestiano, Rimini by
Alberti
• SS. Annuziata, Genoa
• San Lorenzo fuori le Mura portico,
Rome
• Imruneta, Florence, to its earlier
Renaissance appearance
• For urban historic areas. Reconstruction
following the outlines of the general typical
pattern of destroyed buildings
• Ponte Vecchio, Florence
• Roberto Pane (1897),
• born in Taranto
• Professor at the Faculty of Architecture,
University of Naples
• Condemned Viollet-le-Duc’s approach
• Commended Giovannoni’s charter
• Accepted the principle of limiting
reconstructions of anastylosis and making
difference between old and new in
restorations
• “each monument should be seen as a unique
case, because as such it is as a work of art,
and as such must be restored”
• “restoration itself is a work of art”
• Renato Bonelli
• Born 1911
• Professor of History , University of Rome
• “a critical mehod and then a creative act, the
one as intrinsic premises of the other”
• “possess it fully, participating in the
recreation of its form as far as to add or
remove some parts of it in order to reach that
formal quality which corresponds to the
architectural ideal of the present period”
• ‘a unity of line’ (unita di linea),
Principles of Conservation
8
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
• ‘a function of art’ (funzione d’ arte)
th
• Removal of row of 15 century
shops to appreciate the Ferrara
Cathedral, a medieval Monument.
• Cesare Brandi (1906)
• Born in Siena
• Studied law and humanities
• Sopritnedenza of Monuments and Galleries
• Worked in the Administration of Antiquities
and Fine Arts
• Lecture in 1934 at the University of Rome
• 1939, he founded the Central Institute of
Restoration, he further developed the theory
of restoration of works of art
• Reintegration of the lacunae
• Since 1948, acted as expert to Unesco
• 1961, nominated Professor at the University
of Palermo
• He distinguished between restoration of
works of art and of ‘industrial products’
• Use-value- a work of art was conceived in its
material, aesthetic, and historic aspects
• He summarized the essential concepts of
conservation in relation to the works of art
• He emphasized the role of historical critical
definition as a basis for any intervention and
underlined the importance of authenticity in
conservation
• International Recommendations
• The destruction caused by second World War had
shown the world that it is necessary to provide efficient
international organizations
• Settle eventual misunderstandings between
nation without armed conflicts
• Promote educational, scientific, and cultural
cooperation at an international level
• Assists in providing means for the protection,
conservation, restoration of cultural heritage
• After 1945, the League of Nations gave way to the
United Nations Organizations and the International
Committee of Intellectual Cooperation was succeeded
by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (Unesco)
• 1946-the International Museum Office was formed into
the International Council of Museums (ICOM)
• 1949 -Unesco called a Meeting of Experts on Historical
Sites and Ancient Monuments in Paris. They established
an International Committee on Monuments.
• Its statues were approved in 1951.
• First principle: “you only conserve the
material of the work of art”
• Second principle: “restoration must aim at
the re-establishment of the potential unity of
the work of art, so far as this is possible
without committing a fake, and without
cancelling traces of its history”
• Reintegration should always remain
recognizable on close inspection
• Use of reversible method of reintegration
• Removal of later additions should always be
considered as an exception, aesthetic values
should dominate over historic in the case of
conflict
• In 1950, the foundation, International Centre for the
Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Property (ICCROM) was proposed and officially
approved in 1956 in New Delhi
• 1954- The Hague , 39 countries ratified the
‘Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in
the Event of Armed Conflict, it established an
‘International Register of Cultural Property under
Special Protection’
• It defined cultural heritage covering movable or
immovable property of great importance to the
cultural heritage of every people, such as monuments
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS, College of Architecture
Principles of Conservation
of architecture, art or history, whether religious or
secular; archeological sites; groups of buildings which,
as a whole, are of historical or artistic interest” as well
as archives and their covering buildings. Universal
Value pointing to “World Heritage Convention of 1972.
• 1957 Meeting in Paris- the International Meeting of
Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, It
discussed the training and collaboration of various
professions in the conservation of architectural
heritage
• Technical means, problems of maintenance, and
harmonization of the new with the old
• May 25-31, 1964, Venice: The IInd International
Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic
Monuments was organized, attended by:
• Unesco delegations
• Council of Europe
• ICCROM
• ICOM
• Intituto Internationale dei Castelli
• Italia Nostra
• 61 countries from Europe, the Americas,
Africa, Asia and Australia
• 500 participants
• Resolutions of the meeting- The International Charter
for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments
and Sties known as the Venice Charter
• (guidelines for architectural restoration
including the urban or rural setting,
emphasis was laid on the necessity to
respect and maintain authenticity of historic
monuments as well as to safeguard them in
appropriate use
• 1975- Amsterdam Charter: Protection and
Rehabilitation of Historic Centers-integrated
conservation for conservation planning in historic
towns.
• The Burra Charter (1981, 1988, 1999, 2000): introduce
the concept of ‘Place”
• Influences on significance of the common heritage
• Four principal headings:
• Monuments as memorials
• Stylistic restoration
• Modern conservation
• Traditional Continuity
References:
• Jokiletho, Jukka. A History of Architectural
Conservation. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 2002.
• http://xenohistorian.faithweb.com
• www.wikipedia.com
• Microsoft Encarta 2006
Prepared by:
ARCH. WILLA R. SOLOMON June 2009
Principles of Conservation
9