Journal of Behavioral Health and Medicine 2010, 1, 43-51 Number 1 (Spring 2010)

THE RELATIONS BETWEEN SELF-EFFICACY, COMPETITION

SUCCESS, DELIGHT, SELF-ESTEEM, AND BODY-CARE AMONG
ELITE ARTISTIC ROLLER SKATERS
Harald Barkhoff
University of Hawai’i at Hilo

Elaine M. Heiby
University of Hawai’i at Manoa
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

This study explored whether elite artistic roller skaters grouped as low or high
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self-efficacy differed in terms of competition success. Correlates of self-

efficacy, the emotional state delight, trait self-esteem, and sensory-motor skills
were also inspected. Self-report measures were obtained from 29 athletes before
an Artistic Roller Skating World Championship competition. Successful skaters
who won a medal at this competition reported a higher level of self-efficacy be-
fore competition compared to skaters who did not. Compared to artistic roller
skaters with low self-efficacy ratings, those with high self-efficacy ratings re-
ported more delight, higher self-esteem, and more body-care before competition.
Results suggest that future studies investigate the impact of variables posited to
increase self-efficacy.
Keywords: Artistic roller skating, World championship competition, Self-
efficacy, Delight, Self-esteem, Body-care
_____________________
Artistic roller skating is seen as a creative scoring takes performance efficiency into
and aesthetic individual sport, in which the account but also assesses the appearance,
athletes are requested to present their pro- body shape, and individual charisma of the
grams alone in the spotlight of the audience athlete. That is why the athletes’ bodies serve
and the judges. This sport demands certain as both “instruments” to succeed in the tech-
types of athletic performance, including nical accomplishments, such as the triple
jumps, spins, and artistic expression (Bark- jumps, and also as aesthetic objects used to
hoff, 2000). While the efficiency of artistic elicit an emotional reaction from the audience
roller skating is scored by more objective and the judges during competition (Barkhoff,
measures such as performance norms (e.g., .4 2001; Gabler, 1999). The aesthetic reaction is
deduction for falling down), it is difficult to scored via the judges’ marks for artistic ex-
quantify artistic expression precisely. In aes- pression. Criteria for artistic expression are
thetic sports, such as artistic roller skating, the athlete’s: (a) attitude, (b) expression and
___________ combination of movements, (c) specific cho-
Address Correspondence to: reography used, and (d) interpretation of the
Harald Barkhoff, Ph.D. music (Barkhoff, 2000). Prior research (Bark-
Kinesiology & Exercise Sciences
Social Sciences
hoff, 2000; Barkhoff & Heiby, 2004a) found
University of Hawaii at Hilo that competitive artistic roller skating inher-
200 W. Kawili St ently has barriers to optimistic self-efficacy
Hilo, Hawaii 96720-4091 expectations, eliciting delight, maintaining
Phone: +1- 808-974-7604 self-esteem, and exhibiting body-care.
Fax: +1-808-974-7737
E-Mail: harald@hawaii.edu
Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) is defined as
expectations regarding one’s ability to suc-

43
 44 HARALD BARKHOFF AND ELAINE M. HEIBY
cessfully perform a given behavior. Self-
efficacy can be viewed as expectations re-
garding the feasibility of adjusting behavior in
relation to contingencies of externally-
controlled reinforcement. This would include
one’s perceived ability to exhibit the perform-
ance required to receive a medal at an elite
athletic competition. Bandura (1977) suggests
that a person with a high level of perceived
self-efficacy is more likely to successfully
perform a particular behavior than a person
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with a lower level of perceived self-efficacy.
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There is a large body of research supporting
the effect of optimistic self-efficacy cogni-
tions upon successfully performing a range of
voluntary behaviors (Bandura, 1990, 1997).
In addition, self-efficacy skills are trainable
and can be enhanced through the use of a
guided mastery intervention (Scott & Cer-
vone, 2003).
The relation between high self-efficacy rat-
ings and performance has been supported in
sporting activities, such as amount of exercise
(McAuley, 1992; McAuley & Blissmer, 2002;
Mortiz, Feltz, Mack, & Fahrbach, 2000) and
quality of sports performance (Cleary &
Zimmerman, 2001; Feltz, 1992; Feltz &
Lirgg, 1998; Kistsantas & Zimmerman,
2002). However, the relation between self-
efficacy ratings and performance by artistic
roller skaters has not yet been established.
Staats (1996) has interpreted the positive
effect of optimistic self-efficacy upon per-
formance in terms of the verbal-emotional
nature of the cognitions involved. Effective
self-efficacy cognitions elicit positive emo-
tional states and help maintain a positive
mood. Positive emotions function as dis-
criminative stimuli for sensory-motor
behavior and are reinforcing events. Staats
(1996) has shown that the affective compo-
nent of self-efficacy influences the activities
that a person chooses to approach, the effort
expended on such activities, and the degree of
persistence under challenging contingencies.
This research is also consistent with Morgan’s
mental health model of performance (Morgan,
1985; Morgan et al., 1988; Raglin & Morgan,
1994) and the mood-model by Thayer (1996)
and suggests that emotional state, emotional
trait, and sensory-motor correlates of self-
efficacy may elucidate its mechanisms.
Studies have found a relation between self-
efficacy ratings and various positive emo-
tional states among a range of types of
athletes (Abele & Brehm, 1984; Feltz, 1982;
Feltz & Mugno, 1983; Kavanagh & Hausfeld,
1986; LeUnes & Burger, 2000; Skinner &
Brewer, 2004; Stevens & Lane, 2001; Terry,
1995; Terry & Lane, 2000; Thayer, 1996). In
addition, Barkhoff and Heiby (2004b) found
that elite artistic roller skaters reported more
delight before and after competition compared
to elite inline speed skaters. However, the
relation between the positive emotional state
of delight and self-efficacy among artistic
roller skaters remains unexplored.
Self-esteem as a positive emotional trait has
been shown to be related to some sports per-
formance abilities and competencies,
including the ability to deal with the demands
in training and competition (Barkhoff, 2000;
Gould & Damarjian, 1996; Gould, Finch &
Jackson, 1993). Barkhoff and Heiby (2004a)
found that successful elite artistic roller and
figure skaters reported more positive self-
esteem compared to unsuccessful skaters.
However, the relation between self-efficacy
and self-esteem was not inspected.
Body-care is a complex sensory-motor skill
that involves hygiene, fitness, and other
health habits that affect the appearance re-
quired in aesthetic sports. Body-care has been
shown to play an important role in competi-
tive sports performance (Franzoi & Herzog,
1986; Mrazek, 1987; Späth & Schlicht, 2000).
In addition, Barkhoff and Heiby (2004a)
found that successful artistic roller and figure
skaters reported a higher level of body-care
compared to unsuccessful artistic roller and
figure skaters. The relation between self-
 SELF-EFFICACY AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE
efficacy and body-care among artistic skaters,
however, has not been inspected.
To date, the generalizability of the relation
of self-efficacy and its emotional and sensory-
motor correlates (Bandura, 1997; Morgan,
1985; Staats 1996) has not yet been tested
among elite artistic roller skaters. This re-
search addressed four hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1: Elite artistic roller skaters who
win a medal at a World Championship com-
petition will report higher self-efficacy ratings
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than skaters who do not win a medal.
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Hypothesis 2: Skaters with higher self-
efficacy ratings will report more delight prior
to competition than skaters with lower self-
efficacy ratings.
Hypothesis 3: Skaters with high self-efficacy
ratings will report more positive general self-
esteem than skaters with lower self-efficacy
ratings.
Hypothesis 4: Skaters with high self-efficacy
will report more general body-care skills than
skaters with low self-efficacy.
METHOD
Subjects
Participants were a convenience sample of
31 top-level elite artistic roller skaters from
eight different countries including Croatia (n
= 2), France (n = 2), Germany (n = 4), Great
Britain (n = 4), the Netherlands (n = 1), Slo-
venia (n = 2), Switzerland (n = 1) and the
USA (n = 15). Skaters ranged in age from 15-
25 years (M = 18.28; SD = 2.91). Twelve
skaters were male and 19 were female. To be
proficient in English reading and speaking
skills was an inclusion criterion for participa-
tion in this study. To be included in the study
skaters had to mark “very much” on the item
“I fully understood the above questions”. Us-
ing this criterion two subjects had to be
excluded from the study (N = 29).
Nine athletes were competing in “dance
skating” and 10 in “figure skating.” Six were
competing in “free skating,” one in “inline
artistic,” one in “pair skating,” and two in
45
“precision skating.” Seven participants re-
ceived a medal whereas 22 did not.
Measures
Performance. The judges at the competition
determined performance outcome. Perform-
ance was measured in terms of whether the
skater won a medal at the Artistic Roller Skat-
ing World Champion competition
investigated in this study.
Self-efficacy, delight, self-esteem, and
body-care were measured by a 23-item Likert
scaled, English language questionnaire that
was a composite of one item developed for
this study and three subscales that were trans-
lated from German to English using the
standard back-translation method (Brislin,
2000). These German measures were em-
ployed because they were successfully used in
prior studies with elite figure and artistic
roller skaters as well as inline speed skaters
(Barkhoff, 2000; Barkhoff & Heiby, 2004b;
Barkhoff, Pagano & Heiby, 2007).
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy regarding per-
formance at the competition was assessed
with the item “I am certain of my ability to
perform my best at this World Champion-
ship”. The item was rated on a four point
Likert-scale providing the options “not at all”,
“somewhat”, “quite”, and “very much” with
low scores reflecting less self-efficacy. Meas-
urement of self-efficacy by using one self-
report item has been shown in other studies to
yield acceptable stability reliability and con-
struct validity estimates (e.g., Frank, Heiby, &
Lee, 2007; Gayton, Matthews and
Burchstead, 1986; Kitsantas & Zimmermann,
2002; Weiss, Wiese and Klint, 1989).
Delight. The positive emotional state delight
was assessed with a subscale of the Be-
findlichkeitsfragebogen (BEF; Kuhl, 1997),
which is designed to measure situational
states, such as delight. This inventory was
developed using Thayer’s (1989) “activation-
deactivation adjective check list”. The delight
subscale consists of the three adjective items
 46 HARALD BARKHOFF AND ELAINE M. HEIBY
“happy”, “pleased”, and “cheerful” rated on a
four point Likert scale. Higher scores reflect
greater intensity of the mood state of feeling
delighted. The subscale has excellent internal
consistency with coefficient alpha estimated
to be .91. Construct validity of the instrument
is good (Barkhoff & Heiby, 2004b; Kazen,
2006; Kazen, Baumann & Kuhl, 2005).
Self-esteem. The 10-item subscale of the
Frankfurter Selbstkonzept Skalen (FSKN;
Deusinger, 1986) was used to measure self-
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esteem on a six point Likert scale. Higher
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
scores indicate more positive self-esteem. A
sample item is "I am content with myself".
Internal consistency and construct validity of
the measure are good (Eysenck & Eysenck,
1964; Fahrenberg, Hampel, & Selg, 1989).
Body-care. Body-care was measured by a
subscale of the body-concept inventory
Frankfurter Koerperkonzept Skalen (FKKS;
Deusinger, 1998). The subscale body-care of
the FKKS consists of eight items rated on a
six point Likert scale with higher scores indi-
cating more positive body-care. A sample
item is "I do a lot to look my best". Internal
consistency reliability and test-retest reliabil-
ity are good. Construct validity has also been
established (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964;
Fahrenberg, Hampel, & Selg, 1989).
Procedure
Permission to conduct the study during the
Artistic Roller Skating World Championship
competition was obtained from the President
of the International Artistic Rollerskating
Federation (CIPA) as well as the President of
the International Roller skating Trainer Asso-
ciation (IRSTA). Informed consent was
obtained from subjects prior to the beginning
of the study. Assessment took place on one
occasion three to eight minutes before their
performance in competition. Questionnaire
completion shortly before competition is im-
portant considering emotional states by
definition change over time (Hill & Hill,
1991).
Data Analysis
Analysis of differences in self-efficacy, de-
light, self-esteem, and body-care due to sex
and age was conducted using eight
ANOVA’s. Participants were classified into
two groups in regard to the self-efficacy
scores. No participant marked either “not at
all” or “somewhat” on the four-point self-
efficacy item. One group included partici-
pants indicating “quite” on the item and were
classified as “low self-efficacy” group (n =
17). The other group included participants
indicating “very much” on the item and were
classified as “high self-efficacy” (n = 12)
group.
To determine if the assumptions of normal-
ity had been met, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test was conducted on each variable.
To test if medal winners (n = 7) differed
from no medal winners (n = 22), an ANOVA
was conducted with medal as the independent
variable and self-efficacy as the dependent
variable (Hypothesis 1).
Because delight, self-esteem, and body-care
might correlate significantly, Pearson correla-
tions (2-tailed) among these variables were
computed. Significant correlations indicated
the use of MANOVA for hypothesis testing of
effects of self-efficacy upon delight (Hy-
pothesis 2), self-esteem (Hypothesis 3), and
body-care (Hypothesis 4) before competition.
RESULTS
Female and male athletes did not differ sig-
nificantly on ratings of self-efficacy (F(1,28)
= .52, p = .478), delight (F(1,28) = .23, p =
.617), self-esteem (F(1,28) = .16, p = .690),
and body-care (F(1,28) = 3.29, p = .081).
Also, no significant differences were found
regarding age and self-efficacy ratings
(F(1,28) = 2.97, p = .096), delight (F(1,28) =
.45, p = .507), self-esteem (F(1,28) = .26, p =
.612), and body-care (F(1,28) = .01, p = .947).
Therefore, subsequent analyses combined
participants in terms of these demographics.
 SELF-EFFICACY AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE 47

Table 1: Means, Standard Deviations, and Cronbach’s Alpha’s of Delight, Self-Esteem, and
Body-care for Athletes with Low and High Self-Efficacy

Low Self-efficacy (n High Self-efficacy (n All

= 17) = 12) (n = 29)
Subscales alpha M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Delight .71 8.65 (1.69) 10.42 (1.44) 9.38 (1.80)
Self-esteem .97 42.88 (12.64) 53.92 (5.79) 47.45 (11.62)
Body-care .87 34.65 (5.42) 39.83 (3.41) 36.79 (5.30)
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Results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test indi- DISCUSSION

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cated no significant deviation from normality
as all p values were greater than .05 (delight p
= .091, self-esteem p = .397, and body-care p
= .244), indicating that use of ANOVA and
MANOVA meets this diagnostic criterion.
The medal winner group differed signifi-
cantly compared to the no medal winner
group regarding self-efficacy (F(1,28) =
22.16, p = .000). The medal winner group (M
= 4.00; SD = .00) reported higher levels of
self-efficacy going into the competition com-
pared to the no medal winner group (M =
3.23; SD = .43). The mean, standard devia-
tion, and Cronbach’s alpha on scale scores of
delight, self-esteem and body-care are re-
ported in Table 1.
Table 2 shows significant positive correla-
tions between delight and self-esteem and
between self-esteem and body-care. The
MANOVA yielded a significant main effect
of self-efficacy based on Pillai's Trace esti-
mate (F = 870.87, p = .000). Univariate F’s
for delight (F(1,28) = 9.95, p = .004), self-
esteem (F(1,28) = 4.45, p = .044), and body-
care (F(1.28) = 5.96, p = 021) were also sig-
nificant.
Table 2: Results of Pearson Correlations Among Delight, Self-esteem, and Body-care
One purpose of this study (Hypothesis 1)
was to explore whether elite artistic skating
athletes with low and high self-efficacy rat-
ings differed in terms of success during an
Artistic Roller Skating World Championship
competition. Self-efficacy was measured in
terms of the athletes’ reported certainty of
being able to exhibit peak performance at the
competition. Success was equated with win-
ning a medal at the competition under
investigation. The three other purposes were
to explore whether high self-efficacy was
related to a higher level of the emotional state
delight (Hypothesis 2), trait self-esteem (Hy-
pothesis 3), and the sensory-motor skills
involved in body-care (Hypothesis 4). These
correlates of self-efficacy follow from theo-
ries stating that self-efficacy expectations of
reinforcement contingencies are more effec-
tive if they elicit positive emotional states,
maintain positive emotional traits, serve as
discriminative stimuli for sensory-motor be-
havior, and contribute to the reinforcing
effectiveness of consequences (Bandura,
1997; Morgan et al., 1988; Staats, 1996).
It was found that the skaters who won a

N delight delight self-esteem

X X X
self-esteem body-care body-care
29 0.389* 0.248 0.728**

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
 48 HARALD BARKHOFF AND ELAINE M. HEIBY
medal at an Artistic Roller Skating World
Championship competition reported a higher
level of self-efficacy compared to the skaters
who did not win a medal, supporting the first
hypothesis. Greater certainty of one’s ability
several minutes prior to competition seems to
be related to exhibiting better performance
during competition. This finding is consistent
with prior studies investigating the relation
between self-efficacy and successful perform-
ance in sports other than artistic skating
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(Cleary & Zimmermann, 2001; Feltz, 1992:
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Kitsantas & Zimmermann, 2002), including a
marathon (Gayton et al., 1986) and competi-
tive gymnastics (Weiss et al., 1989).
Compared to skaters with low self-efficacy,
artistic skaters with high self-efficacy re-
ported more delight, supporting the second
hypothesis. This result is consistent with the
hypothesis that a positive emotional state
(e.g., delight) is associated with self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1997; Staats, 1996). The finding
also converges with Abele and Brehm's
(1984) postulate that in a situation which de-
mands more creativity, a positive emotional
state such as delight is closely related to suc-
cessful performance. In addition, the finding
regarding delight converges with Morgan's
(1985) postulate that vigour and Thayer's
(1996) postulate that calm energy emotional
states are associated with successful sports
performance. This result is also consistent
with other findings regarding the association
of positive mood and successful performance
in other sports (Lowther & Lane, 2002; Mor-
gan, 1985; Morgan et al., 1988). Furthermore,
this result is consistent with findings by Bark-
hoff and Heiby (2004b) that successful
performance in the creative sport of artistic
roller and figure skating may be associated
with more positive emotional states (including
delight) before competition.
The results of the study also revealed that
artistic skaters with high self-efficacy re-
ported higher trait self-esteem before
competition compared to skaters with low
self-efficacy, which is consistent with the
third hypothesis. The findings for self-esteem
are consistent with those reported in a study
involving elite artistic roller and figure skaters
(Barkhoff & Heiby, 2004a) as well as studies
involving other sports (Gould et al., 1993;
Gould & Damarjian, 1996).
Finally, the high self-efficacy group re-
ported a higher level of the sensory-motor
skills involved in general body-care, support-
ing the fourth hypothesis. The finding that
skaters with high self-efficacy reported
greater body-care compared to the skaters
with low self-efficacy also is consistent with
findings in regard to body-care reported by
athletes in artistic roller and figure skating
(Barkhoff & Heiby, 2004a) and other sports
(Franzoi & Herzog, 1986; Mrazek, 1987;
Späth & Schlicht, 2000). Body-care may be
particularly important for the aesthetic sport
of artistic roller skating where not only fitness
but also attractiveness affects success.
These findings must be viewed within the
limitations of this study. The small sample
size (n = 29) limited generalizability of the
findings. Small samples sizes are inherent to
investigations with elite athletes at top level
performance as so few athletes by definition
can reach this level. Replication across events
is critical to evaluate whether the findings are
robust with elite artistic roller skaters as well
as generalize to other sports. Assessment of
correlates of self-efficacy was restricted to
measures of delight, self-esteem, and body-
care. Psychometrics properties of these meas-
ures have not been established with elite
athletes. Furthermore, self-efficacy was as-
sessed with only one item. However, prior
studies used one item successfully (Cleary &
Zimmermann, 2001; Kitsantas &
Zimmermann, 2002). Finally, competition
success was equated with winning a medal at
the competition under investigation, neglect-
ing the possibility that someone might have
shown his/her personal best, but did not win a
medal.
 SELF-EFFICACY AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE
The present study provides preliminary
support for theories positing that high self-
efficacy is related to successful performance,
feeling a sense of delight, having positive
self-esteem, and exhibiting body-care (Ban-
dura, 1997; Morgan et al., 1988; Staats,
1996). Findings suggest generalizability of
the effects of self-efficacy to elite artistic
roller skaters during a World Championship
competition.
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