How do digital cameras illustrate the SHE element Application and Limitation?

Digital cameras, one of the major inventions to come

out of the 20th century, were first invented in the 1970s
and provide a portable alternative to capturing images
(Aldred, 2016). Amongst many other innovations such
as solar panels and photocopiers, the development of
digital cameras was also heavily influenced by the
understanding of the photoelectric effect. As such,
they particularly underline the interaction between
science and society. Specifically, the SHE element
application and limitation is illustrated as the
application of the photoelectric effect is crucial for the
processes conducted by the image sensors that are
present in digital cameras. The limitation characteristic
of the aforementioned SHE element is also highlighted
by the current drawbacks of digital cameras which
include significant light loss and slow readout speeds.
Consequently, foremost corporations are regularly Figure 1,the linear relationship between light frequency
administrating research studies in hopes of and the kinetic energy of released electrons.
overcoming the present limitations.
Further observations concluded that for the emission
What Is The Photoelectric Effect? of electrons to occur, light has to meet a minimum
The photoelectric effect, first observed by German frequency, also known as the threshold frequency
physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1887, is a phenomenon that (Khan Academy, 2020). The threshold frequency differs
refers to the ejection of electrons on a solid’s surface in and is dependent on different types of materials.
when light is shone upon it (Elert, 2020). Materials that An example of this can be seen in figure 1, which
can demonstrate this occurrence are described as showcases that red light that does not meet the
photoemissive. Initially, 19th-century physicists were threshold frequency of a particular metal does not
unable to explain the photoelectric effect through the cause the ejections of electrons. In comparison, green
classical description of light as a wave (Khan Academy, light which has the minimum frequency required
2020). subsequently triggers the release of electrons.
18 years after its discovery, the photoelectric effect Moreover, blue light has a higher frequency, and in
was finally described by Albert Einstein in 1905 (Khan accordance with figure 1 causes an increase in the
Academy, 2020). To explain the phenomena, Einstein kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.
proposed an entirely new model of light which
depicted it as being composed of tiny particles that are
now known as photons (Khan Academy, 2020). In
addition, this model also did not challenge light’s wave-
like characteristics. Therefore, this description of light
not only explained the photoelectric effect but also
supported phenomena such as diffraction and
interference which required light to have wave-like
Figure 2, the photoelectric effect of a particular metal, depicting the
properties. relationship between the frequency of light and the kinetic energy of
photoelectrons.
The photoelectric effect occurs when a photon
encounters a photoemissive surface. After making
contact with the surface, its energy is absorbed by an Since its discovery, understanding of the photoelectric
electron present on the surface. Also, physicists have effect has been crucial in the development of various
determined that the frequency of light is linearly innovations. Digital cameras, in particular, are the most
proportional to the kinetic energy of the emitted prominent form of modern technology that requires
electrons (Khan Academy, 2020). The frequency of light the direct application of the photoelectric effect.
is relative to its energy hence an increase in the amount
of energy of light results in an increase in the kinetic
energy of the discharged electrons. This linear
relationship is represented in figure 1.
How Is The Photoelectric Effect Applied To Digital
Cameras?
The application of the photoelectric effect is apparent
in the image sensors present within digital cameras.
The most common forms of image sensors that are
used currently are either charge-coupled devices (CCD)
or complementary metal-oxide semiconductors
(CMOS) (Scientific Curiosity, 2006). CCDs are far more
common due to their resistance to noise and higher
sensitivity to light. In recent times, however, CMOS
sensors are gaining popularity as they are significantly
more cost-effective.
CCD sensors were first developed in 1969 by physicists
William Boyle and George Smith, who based this
technology on their understanding of the photoelectric
effect (Scientific Curiosity, 2006). The basic function of
CCD is to convert the incoming light into electrical
signals that can later be amplified, digitalised, and
processed. Specifically, CCD sensors in digital cameras
are silicon chips and are covered by electrical
conductors referred to as photosites. These photosites
are photoemissive and are often referred to as pixels
as every one of them corresponds to an individual pixel
in the final image (Scientific Curiosity, 2006).
Prior to capturing a picture, the camera charges the
surfaces of photosites with electrons (Corning, 2018).
In accordance with the photoelectric effect, when light
shines on the photosites, electrons are emitted.
Furthermore, the released electrons are trapped as the
photosites only allow the light to travel inside through
a ‘gate’ (Corning, 2018). These gates permit a one-way
transfer of energy and as a result, trap the released
electrons. Afterwards, the accumulated charge of the
emitted electrons is converted into a digital value by an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) which systematically
measures the amount of charge and transforms it into
binary form (Corning, 2018).
Thus, digital cameras and in particular CCD sensors
demonstrate the application of scientific
understanding of the photoelectric effect and
emphasise the SHE element application and limitation.
Figure 3, a CCD image sensor.
What Are The Drawbacks Of Digital Cameras?
Despite recent advancements, digital cameras like any
other form of technology have certain shortcomings.
As such, the disadvantages of digital cameras embody
the limitation aspect of the already mentioned SHE
element. In particular, their drawbacks emphasise that
conclusions derived from science are often limited by
several complex variables.
One such flaw of digital cameras is the implementation
of Bayer filters. Most image sensors such as CCD and
CMOS are monochromatic and only generate black and
white images (Butler, 2017). As a result, the mentioned
filters have to be placed on top of photosites for colour
images. These filters enable only red, green, or blue
light to be captured and measured by the photosite
and recreate a full-colour image. Consequently,
however, a significant part of the incoming light is
blocked from reaching the sensor. A standard Bayer
filter is known to block up to 50-70% of the inbound
light (Tomkins, 2013). The lack of detail in low light
pictures captured by digital cameras with the Bayer
filter particularly highlights the consequences of this
light loss. The significance of this light loss is further
accentuated by the low light performance of
monochrome cameras such as the ones produced by
Leica. Leica’s monochromatic models, that do not
include a Bayer filter, are known to be more sensitive
to light and consequently capture sharper and more
detailed pictures in a low light environment (Tomkins,
2013).
Figure 4, the pattern created through Bayer Filters.
Another constraint of digital cameras with CCD sensors
is their reduced readout time. Readout time describes
the time it takes for the ADC converter to convert the
electrical energy present within the discharged
electrons into binary form (George, 2018). The ADC
converter is placed in the corner of the CCD sensor,
which increases consistency as each photosite is
measured and converted in an identical manner.
Nevertheless, this results in a reduction in readout time
which is noticeably faster in CMOS sensors. In contrast,
a typical CMOS sensor contains ADC converters for
each of its photosites thus increasing the readout time.
However, this results in a reduction in the sensor’s
sensitivity to light as the ADC converters take up
valuable space on the photosites (George, 2018).
Further Development Of Digital Cameras
Major digital camera manufacturers are constantly
investigating and developing ideas to overcome the
aforementioned limitations. For instance, to prevent
the occurrence of light loss due to Bayer filters,
Panasonic is conducting research studies in hopes of
finding a more efficient alternative (Tomkins, 2013). In
a recently publicised study, Panasonic has revealed
their intentions to replace the Bayer filters with a layer
of micro colour splitters. Additionally, the company
claims that these proposed colour splitters can be
utilised in both CCD and CMOS sensors. In comparison
to Bayer filters which block a portion of the incoming
light, these proposed splitters instead separate the
light. Panasonic further claims that this colour splitter
would theoretically employ 100% of the light (Tomkins,
2013). Subsequently, this would increase the sensor’s
sensitivity to light and would result in sharper images.
Additionally, some companies such as Sigma have
already implemented replacements of Bayer filters in
some of their camera models. In particular, Sigma have
implemented Foveon sensors, which in contrast to
Bayer filters provide more colour resolution and similar
to Panasonic’s proposed solution are much more
efficient in terms of light loss (Butler, 2017). As seen in
figure 5, these Foveon sensors do not have colour
filters and instead use three layers of photosites that
capture the different wavelengths of light.
Nonetheless, like many scientific discoveries, there is
still much room for improvement as Foveon technology
is not without drawbacks either. Specifically, in order
to increase image sharpness it sacrifices the colour
accuracy that Bayer filters provide (Butler, 2017).
Figure 5, illustration of how Foveon sensors capture
colour.
Conclusion
The development of digital cameras was heavily
influenced by the scientific interpretation of the
photoelectric effect. Particularly, the phenomena is
directly applied to the image sensors that power the
digital cameras. Therefore, through the application of
the photoelectric effect, digital cameras encapsulate
science’s close connection with society by particularly
embodying the SHE element of application and
limitation. The limitation aspect is also epitomised by
digital cameras as they like every other scientific
innovation have disadvantages. Nevertheless, a rule of
science is that it is ever-growing and digital cameras are
no exception. Major manufacturers like Panasonic are
continually conducting research and are hoping to
advance digital cameras to their next stage in the very
near future.
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