Matter is an entity which occupies space, has mass and provides resistance.

There are 3 states of matter solids, liquids and gases.

Solid substances have particles tightly packed together closely. The forces between the particles are
strong enough that the particles cannot move freely, they can only vibrate in their mean positions.
As a result solids have definite shape and volume.

Liquid substances have particles which are packed closely to each other. Hence liquids show fluidity,
and they have definite volume but indefinite shape, meaning liquids take the shape of the container.
Liquids have more kinetic energy than solid particles, that is what allows liquids to flow.

Gaseous substances have very weak interparticle forces of attraction, hence they have indefinite
shape and volume. They are compressible, and they can expand to fill their container, and they can
occupy more space than liquids.

Plasma is a hot ionised gas consisting of approximately equal number of positively charged ions and
negatively charged electrons.

Bose-Einstein condensate is a state of matter of dilute gas of low densities called bosons cooled to
low temperatures very close to absolute zero.

Kinetic molecular theory:- is a model used to explain the behaviour of matter. It is based on a series
of postulates.

1) Matter is made up of particles that are constantly in continuous random motion, this energy
in motion is called Kinetic energy.
2) The amount of KE of the particles in a substance is directly proportional to the temperature.
3) Molecules of a gas attract each other.
4) There is space between particles. The amount of space between particles is related to the
substance’s state of matter.
5) The matter changes when the temperature sufficiently changes.

Matter is classified into two types of pure and impure substances.

Pure substances:- Is a substance which has only 1 or same kind of constituents.

Pure substances are divided into two types, elements and compounds.

An element is the basic form of matter, there are 118 elements in the periodic table, 92 elements
are found in nature, 26 elements are man-made. An element cannot be broken down into its
components using chemical methods. An element is made up of similar type of atoms. Properties of
an element are similar to its constituent atoms.

A compound is a substance which is made up of two or more elements chemically combined in a

fixed proportion by weight.

A molecule is the smallest unit of a compound. Compounds cannot be separated into its
components by physical methods. Properties of a compound are entirely different from those of its
constituent elements.. Energy is usually either given out or absorbed during the formation of a
compound. The composition of a compound is fixed, the constituents are present in a fixed
proportion.
A mixture is a combination of 2 or more substances that are in close contact but not chemically
united and can be mixed together in any proportion. The components of a mixture can be separated
by simple chemical means.

The substances present in a mixture are called components of the mixture. A mixture may be
homogeneous or heterogeneous depending upon the nature of the substances present.

A homogenous mixture has an uniform composition throughout its mass. It has no visible boundaries
of separation between various constituents. Moreover homogenous mixtures are true solutions. A
heterogenous mixture has non-uniform composition throughout its mass. It has visible boundaries of
separation, between the various constituents.

A mixture shows the properties of all constituents present in it. Energy change may or may not take
place during the formation of a mixture. A mixture does not have a definite melting or boiling point,
The composition of a mixture may vary, the constituents can be present in any proportion by weight.
A mixture can be separated into its constituents by a physical process. In the formation of a mixture
there is no chemical reaction.

Properties of true solutions

True solution:- Is a homogenous mixture in which the solute particles are uniformly distributed
throughout the solvent.

1) True solutions are homogeneous in nature

2) The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nanometer in diameter, so they cannot be seen
by the naked eyes.
3) Because of a very small size they do not show the optical property of Tyndall effect.
4) True solutions are stable

Properties of suspensions

Suspensions:- A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the small particles of a solute are
spread throughout the solvent non-uniformly, without dissolving in it.

1) The size of solute particles in a suspension are greater than 1 micrometer in diameter
2) Suspensions are formed by substances which do not dissolve in which do not dissolve in
water.
3) They can be separated using the process of filtration
4) They show the optical property of Tyndall effect
5) They are unstable , and the particles can be seen by the naked eyes.

Properties of Colloids

Colloids:- Is a solution in which in which the size of the solute particles are bigger than the size of
true solution but smaller than suspensions.

1) Appear to be homogeneous but are heterogeneous in nature.

 2) Can be separated by chemical means but not by using simple filter paper.
3) Colloids show the optical property of Tyndall effect.
4) Are unstable

Tyndall Effect:- The scattering of light by colloidal particles is called Tyndall effect. This effect is a
property of all colloids, and can be used to distinguish a colloidal solution from its true solution.

Colloidal systems

A colloidal system consists of two phases, a dispersed phase and a dispersed medium.

Dispersed phase/Discontinuous phase:- It is present in a small amount, similar to the solute in a

solution.

Dispersion medium/ Continuous phase: -It is present in a large amount just like a solvent in a
solution

Dispersed Phase Dispersion medium Type of colloid Example

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, Mist, cloud

Solid Gas Solid aerosol Smoke, dust
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, Face cream, Ice-
cream
Gas Liquid Foam Whipped cream,
shaving cream
Gas Solid Solid foam Foam, Rubber, Sponge
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid Solid Solid Sol Rocksalt, Milky glass
Solid Liquid Sol Mud, Milk of
magnesia

Separation Techniques:- A mixture consists of two or more components mixed together in any
proportion. Since the components retain their individual identities, it is possible to separate them by
employing various methods. The method chosen is made on the basis of the difference in the
properties of the components of the mixture.

1) To remove any harmful substances.

2) To obtain useful constituents.
3) To obtain a pure sample of a substance.

1) Handpicking:- Bigger visible components of a mixture can be separated using the method of
handpicking
2) Sieving:- In some cases a bigger component of a mixture can easily be separated using a
sieve. A sieve is a mechanical device in which a mesh is attached to the frame.
3) Seperation by a magnet:- If the mixture contains any magnetic constituents then a magnet is
employed to separate it from the mixture
 4) Sedimentation:- If a mixture of a liquid and an insoluble solid is allowed to stand still for
sometime, this settling of the insoluble solid is known as sedimentation.
5) Decantation:- The process of separating a liquid without disturbing the settled solid particles
is called decantation.
6) Filtration:- Sometimes the process of sedimentation followed by decantationfails to separate
very minute solid particles from the mixture.In such cases complete separation is done by
filtration. In this method the mixture is allowed to pass through a filter. A filter is a medium
with fine pores. The insolublesolid particles are retained by the filter and the clear liquid is
collected as the filtrate. For good filtration the pores of the filter should be smaller than the
size of the particles being separated.
7) Centrifugation:- Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very small and pass through a
filter paper. Such mixtures are separated using centrifugation. Centrifugatiion is a methodfor
separating the suspended particles of a substance from a liquid in which the mixture is
rotated at high speeds in a centrifuge. In this method for separating the suspended
particles.The mixture is taken in a centrifuge tube and is rotated rapidly for sometime. As
the mixture rotates rapidly, a force acts on the heavier particles in it brings them down to
the bottom of the test tube. The clear liquid being lighter remains on top.

Applications:-

1) Used in washing machines, to squeeze out the water from wet clothes.
2) Used for separating cream from milk and butter from curd, in diaries or at home.
3) Used in diagnostic laboratories for testing blood/urine.

8) Evaporation:- Seperates the volatile component from its non-volatile solute by the method
of evaporation.
9) Crystallisation:- The crystallisation method is usd to purify solids. To remove impurities, the
process of crystallisation is used. Crystallisation is a process that seperates a pure solid in the
form of its crystals from a solution. The process of crystallisation begins with evaporating the
liquid mixture, by heating, but its continued till dryness. Rather when the solution becomes
sufficiently concentratehe techniqued, heating is stopped and the hot concentrated solution
is allowed to cool slowly. After sometime, the crystals of the pure solid substance appears in
the solution.
10) Chromatography:- The technique used for separation of those solutes that dissolve in the
same solvent but to different extents is called chromatography.
11) Distillation:- In distillation, components of 2 miscible liquids are separated. The liquid having
lower boiling point distils over first, and the liquid having the higher boiling point distils later.
12) Fractional Distillation:- If the difference in boiling points of 2 liquids is not much, simple
distillatioin cannot be used to separate them. The vapours of such liquids are formed with
the same temperature range and then condensed simultaneously. The technique of
fractional distillation is use in such cases. So to separate a mixture of 2 or more miscible
liquids for which the difference in boiling points is less than 25K, the process of fractional
distillation is used. IN this technique, vapours of a liquid mixture are passed through a
fractionating column is full of little glass rods, which provide a high surface area. Since the
column is very tall it is cooler at the top than the bottom. If some other undesirable liquids
get evaporated . AS they rise up the fractionating column and come in contact with glass
 rods which are much cooler than their boiling point, they condense back into the liquid and
fall back into the flask.
13) Seperating funnel:- A mixture of 2 immiscible liquids can be separated using a separating
funnel. This method is based on the difference in the densitiesof the 2 liquids. This methid is
used for separating two immiscible liquids such as oil from water.