Inflected Language

Summary

21. What is inflection? 

22. Declension and Conjugation 

23. Particles 

24. Stem 

25. Root 

26. How the stem is formed? 

Changing or lengthening its vowel. 
By the addition of a simple suffix. 
By two or more of these methods. 
By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the 
language. 

27. Base 

29. The three genders 

30. Kind of genders 

Natural gender 
Grammatical​ gender 

Gender rules- 

Cases 
Nominative 
Genitive 
Dative 
Accusative 
Ablative 
Locative 

36. How the declension is produced? 

37. How to distinguish the five cases 

How to find the stem 

38. General Rules of Declension: 

21. What is inflection?
Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its grammatical
relations.
a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or
at the beginning, but oftener in its termination.
b. Terminations of inflections originally had independent meanings
which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of
prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English. Thus, in
vocat​, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in ​vocis​, to the
preposition ​of;​ and in ​vocet​ the change of vowels signifies a change
of mood.
c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of
tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in
English.
i. ​frangit ​He breaks
ii. ​fregit ​He broke

22. Declension and Conjugation

The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles to denote
gender, number, and case is called ​Declension​, and these parts of speech
are said to be ​declined​.
The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and person,
is called ​conjugation​, and the verb is said to be ​conjugated​.

23. Particles
Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections are not inflected and
are called Particles.
 Sometimes the term ​Particle​ is limited to such words as ​num, -ne, an (​ interrogative),​ non, ne
(negative)​, si​ (conditional), etc, which are used simply to indicate the form of a sentence.

24. Stem
​ he body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called ​stem​.
T
It contains the idea of the word without relations. It cannot be used without
terminations to express something (unless it's the first part of a compound
as, ​arti-fex, artificer​).
The ​stem​ ​voc- ​denotes voice; with the ​-s​ becomes ​vox​ (the voice). With ​-is
it becomes ​vocis,​ meaning ​of a voice.​

25. Root
The ​root​ is the simplest form attainable by separating a word into
component parts. It contains the main idea of the word in a ​very general
sense​.
The root of the ​stem​ ​voc-is ​is VOC. It does not mean ​to call​ or ​calling​, but
it merely expresses the idea of ​calling​, and cannot be used as a part of
speech without terminations.
With ​a-​ ​becomes ​ voca-,​ that is the ​stem​ of ​vocare ​(to call). And etc… this
shows that the ​stem​ is not as simple as the ​root.

26. How the stem is formed?

The ​stem​ may be the same as the root but it's more frequently formed from
the ​root b​ y:
1. Changing or lengthening it's vowel.
a. ​scob-s​ (sawdust; SCAB, shave)
b. ​reg-is​ (of a king; ​REG,​ direct)
c. ​voc-is​ (of a voice; ​VOC,​ call)
2. By the addition of a simple suffix.
a. ​fuga-​ (flight; FUG + ​a-)​
b. ​reg-is ​(you role; REG + stem ending e/o-​
​ )
 c. ​sini-t​ (he allows; SI + ​ne/o-​
​ )
3. By two or more of these methods.
a. ​duci-t​ (he leads; DUC + stem-ending e/o​
​ )
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of
development peculiar to the language.

27. Base
The base is that part of a word which is unchanged in inflection:
1. ​serv-​ in ​servus.​
2. ​mens- ​in ​mensa​.
3. ​ign- ​in ​ingnis.​

a) The base and the stem are often identical, as in many consonant stem
of nouns. If, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in
the base

consonant stem of nouns- as, ​reg-​ in ​reg-is

vowel stem of nouns as, in

The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting the case ending; if a vowel stem,
by substituting for the case ending the characteristic vowel.

28. ​Inflectional terminations are variously modified by combination with

the final ​vowel​ ​or ​consonant​ of the Stem, and thus the various form of
Declension and Conjugation developed.

Gender

29. The three genders

There are three genders in Latin: Masculine, feminine and Neuter.
30. Kind of genders
The gender of Latin nouns is either ​natural o​ r ​grammatical​.
Natural gender
a. A natural gender denotes the sex of an objetct.
i. ​puer
ii. ​puella
iii. ​rex
iv. ​regina

​ auta​) usually, thoygh not necessarily, male are

Many designations of (as n
always trated as masculine. Siilarity names of tribles and peoples are
masculine

Pet names of girls and boys are in neuter form.

Name of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender.
Noun neuters used to designate persons as belonging to a class.

Gramatical gender
b. Grammatical gender is formal distinction as to sex where no actual
sex exists in the object. It's shown by the form of the adjective joined
with the noun.
i. ​lapis magnus
ii. ​manus mea

Gender rules-
1. It's ​masculine-​ Rivers, winds, months, mountains and names of
masculine things.
a. ​pater
b. ​Iulius
c. ​Tiberis
d. ​auster

The excessions are some names that came from Greek.

 2. It's ​feminine-​ Cities countries, plants, trees, gems, and the most part
of the animals (birds are even more common) and the most of the
abstract qualities.
3. It's ​common gender​- The ones that the same word can mean both of
the genders.
a. For example: Bos- ​Ox, Cow.
Several animal names have a grammatical gender, independent of sex, These
are called ​epicene.​ Thus l​ epus i​ s always masculine, and v​ ulpes​ always
feminine.
4. The infinitives, indeclinable nouns, terms or phrases are ​Neuter​.
a. ​fas
b. ​nihil
c. ​gummi
d. ​triste vale

35. Number and case

Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and participles are declined in ​two numbers
(singular and plural) and in ​six cases​ (​Nominative, Genitive, Dative,
Accusative, Ablative, Vocative)​ .

The six cases

Nominative
The ​Nominative​ is the case of the subject of a sentence.
Genitive
The ​Genitive​ may generally be translated by the English possessive,
or by the objective with the preposition ​of.​
Dative
The ​Dative​ is the case of the indirect object. It may usually be
translated by the objective with the preposition ​to​ ​or ​for​.
Accusative
The ​Accusative ​is the case of the direct object of a verb. It's used also
with many of the ​prepositions​.
 Ablative
The ​Ablative​ may be usually translated by the objective with ​from​,
by, with, in, ​or ​at​. It's often used with ​prepositions​.

-All the cases, except the Nominatine and Vocative, are used as object cases; and are
sometimes called c​ asus obliqui.
Locative
In names of towns a few other words appear traces of another case,
the ​Locative,​ denoting the place ​where:​
i. ​Romae
ii. ​ruri
There is also another case, the I​ nstrumental​, ​it appears in a few adverbs.

Rules of noun declension

36. How the declension is produced?

Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to
different forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic
corruption in the language have given rise to the several declensions. Most
of the case endings, as given in Latin, contains also the final letter of the
stem.
Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to
be classed with them; but they have several peculiarities of inflection.
37. How to distinguish the five cases
Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished by the final letter
(​characteristic​) of the ​Stem,​ and by the case-ending of the ​Genitive
Singular.​
​Declension Characteristic Genitive Singular
1st ā ae
2nd ŏ ī
3rd ĭ ​or consonant ĭs
4th ŭ ūs
5th ē ēī
How to find the stem
The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting the
case ending; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case ending the
characteristic vowel.
38. General Rules of Declension:
a. The vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the
singular of nouns and adjectives of the 2nd declension ending in ​-us,​
which have ​-e​ in the ​Vocative​.
b. In ​Neuters​ the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and end
in ​-ă​ in the plural.
c. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in ​-m​;
the Accusative plural ends in ​-s.​
d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the
Dative singular ends in ​-ī​.
e. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.
f. The Genitive plural always ends in ​-um
g. Final ​-i,​ ​-o​ of inflection are always long; final ​-a​ is short, except in
the Ablative singular of the 1st declension; final ​-e​ is long in the 1st
and 5th declensions, short in the 2nd and 3rd. Final ​-is​ and ​-us​ are
long in plural cases.