MATH 31.

2 - Mathematical Analysis IB Online Learning Module, June-August 2020

TOPIC 3 - FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS

Textbook Reference: Section 4.3 on pages 320-326
YouTube Videos: Part 1 Part 2 Part 3
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) gives the precise inverse relationship between the deriva-
tive and the integral. We use this theorem to compute areas and integrals very easily without having
to compute them as limits of sums.

The first part of the FTC deals with functions defined by an equation of the form
Z x
g(x) = f (t) dt
a

where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and x varies between a and b. Observe that g depends only
on x, which appears as the variable upper limit in the integral. (See figure below where f (t) ≥ 0 on
[a, b].)

Rx
If x is a fixed number,
Rx then the integral a
f (t) dt is a definite number or a constant. If we then let x
vary, the number a f (t) dt also varies and defines a function of x denoted by g(x).

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1 (FTC1):

If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by
Z x
g(x) = f (t) dt a ≤ x ≤ b
a

is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and g 0 (x) = f (x). (See page 322 for the proof.)

Remark: In the theorem above, we call g as the antiderivative of f . Using Leibniz notation for
derivatives, we can write FTC1 as
Z x
0 d d
g (x) = [g(x)] = f (t) dt = f (x)
dx dx a

when f is continuous. This equation says that if we first integrate f and then differentiate the result,
we get back to the original function f , which is also the derivative of g.
Z x√
Example 1: Find the derivative of the function g(x) = 4 + t2 dt.
0
√
Solution: Since f (t) = 4 + t2 is continuous everywhere, then by FTC1, we have
Z x√ √
0 d
g (x) = 4 + t2 dt = 4 + x2
dx 0

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MATH 31.2 - Mathematical Analysis IB Online Learning Module, June-August 2020

Z x4
d
Example 2: Find tan t dt.
dx 1

Solution 1: Note that we have to be careful to use

R x the Chain Rule in conjunction with FTC1 because
the upper limit is x4 . The outer function is the 1 tan t dt and the inner function is x4 . Let u = x4 ,
then by FTC1, we have
Z x4 Z u
d d
tan t dt = tan t dt
dx 1 dx 1
Z u 
d du
= tan t dt ·
du 1 dx
du
= tan u ·
dx
d
= tan (x4 ) · x4


dx
= tan (x ) · 4x3
4

Solution
R x 2: We may also use the Chain Rule without changing the variable. Since the outer function
4
is the 1 tan t dt and the inner function is x , then by Chain Rule and FTC1, we have
Z x4
d d
tan t dt = tan (x4 ) · x4


dx 1 dx
= tan (x4 ) · 4x3

0 √
Z
d
Example 3: Find 1 + cos t dt.
dx x

Solution: Notice that the lower limit is x and the upper limit is 0, but in FTC1, the lower limit is a
constant a and the upper limit is a variable x. So we have to use the property of definite integrals that
switches the limits of integration. Thus, by FTC1 and the property of definite integrals, we have
√ √
Z 0  Z x 
d d
1 + cos t dt = − 1 + cos t dt
dx x dx 0
√
Z x
d
=− 1 + cos t dt
dx 0
√
= − 1 + cos x

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MATH 31.2 - Mathematical Analysis IB Online Learning Module, June-August 2020

Exercises: Use FTC1 to find the derivative of the following functions.

Z x2 Z 0 √ Z x p
3
1. f (x) = 3
t sin t dt 2. f (x) = 2
1 + z dz 3. f (x) = x 2
t4 + sin2 t dt
2 sin2 x π

Solutions:

1.
!
Z x2
d
f 0 (x) = t3 sin t dt
dx 2

d
= (x2 )3 sin(x2 ) · x2


dx
= x6 sin(x2 ) · (2x)
= 2x7 sin(x2 )

2.
0 √
Z 
0 d
f (x) = 1 + z 2 dz
dx sin2 x
!
Z sin2 x √
d
= − 1 + z 2 dz
dx 0
q
2 d
= − 1 + sin2 x · sin2 x


dx
p
= − 1 + sin4 x · (2 sin x · cos x)

3.
 Z x 
0 d 2
p
3
4 2
f (x) = x t + sin t dt
dx π
Z x p  Z xp
2 d 3 3 d
2
t4 + sin2 t · x2


=x · 4
t + sin t +
dx π π dx
p Z xp
3 3
= x2 x4 + sin2 x + 2x t4 + sin2 t
π

Practice: (Textbook) Section 4.3 page 327: 12, 13, 17, 18.

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MATH 31.2 - Mathematical Analysis IB Online Learning Module, June-August 2020

In Section 4.2 we computed integrals from the definition as a limit of Riemann sums and we saw that
this procedure is sometimes long and difficult. The second part of the FTC, which follows easily from
the first part, provides us with a much simpler method for the evaluation of integrals.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 2 (FTC2):

If f is continuous on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)
a
0
where F is any antiderivative of f , that
Z is, a function F such that F = f . (See page 324 for the proof.)
2
Example 4: Evaluate the integral x3 dx.
−4

Solution: Note that the function f (x) = x3 is continuous on [−4, 2] since it is a polynomial. However,
continuity is not a requirement for a definite integral to be defined. Since a particular antiderivative of
4
x3 is F (x) = x4 , then by FTC2, we have
Z 2
24 (−4)4
x3 dx = F (2) − F (−4) = − = −60
−4 4 4

Remarks:

1. FTC2 says we can use any antiderivative F of f . So for Example 4, we may as well use the
x4 x4
simplest one, namely F (x) = , instead of + C, where C is a constant.
4 4
2. We often use the notation
b

F (x)  = F (b) − F (a)
a

so the equation in FTC2 can be written as

Z b
b

f (x) dx = F (x)  where F0 = f
a a

Example 5: Find the area under the graph of y = x2 from 0 to 1.

R1
Solution: This problem is the same as evaluating the integral 0 x2 dx because the function f (x) = x2
x3
is nonnegative on [0, 1]. Since F (x) = is a particular antiderivative of x2 , then
3
Z 1
2 13 03 1
x dx = F (1) − F (0) = − =
0 3 3 3

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 4 Version 1 (lco)

MATH 31.2 - Mathematical Analysis IB Online Learning Module, June-August 2020

Exercises:

1. Find the area under the graph of y = 3 cos x from 0 to π/2.

R π/2
Solution: This problem is the same as evaluating the integral 0 3 cos x dx because the function
f (x) = 3 cos x is nonnegative on [0, π/2]. Since F (x) = 3 sin x is a particular antiderivative of
3 cos x, then
Z π/2
3 cos x dx = F (π/2) − F (0) = 3 sin(π/2) − 3 sin(0) = 3
0

Z 5
2. Evaluate |x − 3| dx.
2

Solution: Note that f (x) = |x − 3| is a piecewise function and is continuous on [2, 5]. That is
( (
x − 3 , if x − 3 ≥ 0 x − 3, if x ≥ 3
|x − 3| = , or equivalently, |x − 3| =
−(x − 3), if x − 3 < 0 3 − x, if x < 3

Note that on the interval [2, 3], |x − 3| = 3 − x and on the interval [3, 5], |x − 3| = x − 3. Thus,
the integral above can be rewritten as follows:
Z 5 Z 3 Z 5
|x − 3| dx = |x − 3| dx + |x − 3| dx
2 2 3
Z 3 Z 5
= (3 − x) dx + (x − 3) dx
2 3
 3  2  5
x2 

x 
= 3x − + − 3x 
2 
2 2 3
2 2
     2   2 
3 2 5 3
= 3(3) − − 3(2) − + − 3(5) − − 3(3)
2 2 2 2
     
9 5 9
= −4 + − − −
2 2 2
1 5
= +2=
2 2

3. What is wrong with the following calculation?

Z 3   3
1 1  1 4
dx = − =− −1=−
−1 x2 x −1
 3 3

Solution: To start, we notice that this calculation must be wrong because the answerR b is negative,
1
but f (x) = x2 ≥ 0 for all real numbers x 6= 0. This is supported by the property, a f (x) dx ≥ 0
when f (x) ≥ 0. Moreover, the FTC applies to continuous functions. It cannot be applied for this
integral because f (x) = x12 is not continuous [−1, 3]. In fact, f has an infinite discontinuity at
x = 0.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 5 Version 1 (lco)

MATH 31.2 - Mathematical Analysis IB Online Learning Module, June-August 2020

4. Find a function f that is continuous on (0, ∞) and a number a > 0 such that
Z x √
f (t)
6+ 2
dt = 2 x for all x > 0
a t

Solution: By taking the derivative with respect to x of both sides, we have

Z x
d √

 
d f (t)
6+ dt = 2 x
dx a t2 dx
f (x) 1
0+ 2 = √
x x
2
x
f (x) = √
x
√
f (x) = x x

By plugging this function f into the given equation, we have

Z x √
t t √
6+ 2
dt = 2 x
t
Z ax
√
6+ t−1/2 dt = 2 x
a
 1/2  x
t  √
6+  =2 x
1/2 a 
√ √ √
6+2 x−2 a=2 x
√
2 a=6
a= 9

A shorter way to solve for a would be to let x = a in the given equation.

Practice: (Textbook) Section 4.3 page 327-328: 28, 31, 36, 37, 39, 42.

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MATH 31.2 - Mathematical Analysis IB Online Learning Module, June-August 2020

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

In summary, suppose f is continuous on [a, b].
Z x
1. If g(x) = f (t) dt, then g 0 (x) = f (x).
a
Z b
2. f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a), where F is any antiderivative of f , that is F 0 = f .
a

Remarks:

1. FTC1 says that if we first integrate f and then differentiate the result, we get back to the original
function f .

2. In FTC2, since F 0 = f , then the equation in FTC2 can be rewritten as

Z b
F 0 (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

This equation means that if we take a function F , first differentiate it, and then integrate the
result, we arrive back at the original function F , but in the form F (b) − F (a).

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 7 Version 1 (lco)