MATH 31.

2 - Mathematical Analysis IB Online Learning Module, June-August 2020

TOPIC 2 - THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

Textbook Reference: Sections 4.1-4.2 on pages 294-319
YouTube Videos: (Areas) Part 1 Part 2 (Definite Integral) Part 1 Part 2

Recall: Summation Notation

4
X
The expression an is read as the “the sum of an as n runs from 2 to 4”, that is,
n=2

4
X
an = a2 + a3 + a4 .
n=2

The variable n can be replaced by any other variable, say i, and would still pertain to the same sum
4
X 4
X
an = a2 + a3 + a4 = ai .
n=2 i=2

We call n a “dummy” variable since it only serves the purpose of being a placeholder and disappears
in the final result.
Example: The expression 12 + 32 + · · · + 192 + 212 is the sum of squares of odd numbers. To write this
in summation notation, we first represent the sequence of odd numbers (1, 3, . . . , 21) using a dummy
variable. Choosing n as the dummy variable, odd numbers can be written as 2n + 1. Since we want
the squares of the odd numbers, we can write this in summation notation as
X
(2n + 1)2 .

We now need to determine where n starts and ends. The sequence starts at 1 which means the starting
value of n should be 0 to get 2(0) + 1 = 1 and ends at 21 which means the ending value of n should be
10 to get 2(10) + 1 = 21. Thus, one way to write the expression notation is
10
X
(2n + 1)2 .
n=0

An alternative answer is
11
X
(2n − 1)2 .
n=1

Properties of Summation Some Useful Formulas

n n n
c∈R
X n(n + 1)
ˆ
X X
ˆ cai = c ai , i=
i=1
2
i=1 i=1

n n n n
X X X X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
ˆ (ai + bi ) = ai + bi ˆ i2 =
i=1
6
i=1 i=1 i=1

n n  2
X X n(n + 1)
ˆ c=c·n ˆ 3
i =
i=1 i=1
2

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2.1 The Area Problem

2.1.1 Estimating the Area under a Curve
For a bounded function over a closed interval, we illustrate the so-called lower (and upper) sums
using n subintervals. These are useful in estimating the area of the region between the graph of the
function and the x-axis.

Example 1: Estimate the area under the graph of f (x) = x2 and above the x-axis from x = 1 to x = 5
using n inscribed rectangles and n circumscribed rectangles, for n = 4 and n = 5.

Since we cannot, at this point, get the exact area A under the graph of f and above the x-axis over
[1, 5], we estimate the area A instead.

Divide [1, 5] into n = 4 subintervals: [1, 2], [2, 3], [3, 4], and [4, 5]. The width of each subinterval is
5−1
∆x = = 1.
4
For each subinterval, we choose a value of x (“sample point”) where f (x) is the minimum. For example,
over [2, 3], the minimum of f occurs at 2. The sample points are then 1, 2, 3, and 4. Draw the rectangle
with base on [2, 3] and with height f (2). This rectangle has a top which does not go over the graph of f ;
we call it an “inscribed” rectangle. Its area is f (2)∆x = 4 · 1. If we add the areas of all n = 4 inscribed
rectangles drawn above the subintervals and label this sum s(4), we get what is called a “lower sum”:

s(4) = f (1)∆x + f (2)∆x + f (3)∆x + f (4)∆x = 30.

Clearly, s(4) is a lower bound for A, an underestimate, so A > 30.

5−1
If we use n = 5 instead, the rectangles will become narrower and ∆x = = 0.8; the subintervals
5
are [1, 1.8], [1.8, 2.6], [2.6, 3.4], [3.4, 4.2], and [4.2, 5]. Following the same steps, we get the lower sum

s(5) = f (1)∆x + f (1.8)∆x + f (2.6)∆x + f (3.4)∆x + f (4.2)∆x = 32.16.

Now, we know that A > 32.16. We have a better lower bound (underestimate) for A. In fact, the larger
n is, the closer s(n) gets to A.
Suppose now instead that after dividing [1, 5] into n subintervals, we select from each subinterval
the sample point x where f (x) is the maximum. For n = 4, ∆x = 1. For example, over [2, 3], the
maximum of f occurs at 3. The sample points are 2, 3, 4, and and 5. This time, the top of the rectangle

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drawn over [2, 3] with height f (3) goes over the graph of f ; we call it a “circumscribed” rectangle. Its
area is f (3)∆x = 9 · 1. The sum S(4) of all n = 4 circumscribed rectangles is called an “upper sum”:
S(4) = f (2)∆x + f (3)∆x + f (4)∆x + f (5)∆x = 54.
Clearly, S(4) is a lower bound for A, an overestimate, so A < 54.

For n = 5,
S(5) = f (1.8)∆x + f (2.6)∆x + f (3.4)∆x + f (4.2)∆x + f (5)∆x = 51.36.
Therefore, A < 51.36. This is a better upper bound (overestimate) for A. Again, the larger n is,
the closer S(n) gets to A.

In general, for any n, s(n) ≤ Area ≤ S(n). Our hope is that lim s(n) = lim S(n). If this happens,
n→∞ n→∞
we define their common value to be the area A.

Remark: The sample point chosen in each subinterval can be anything. In the lecture video, the sample
points were the minimizer and maximizer denoted by mi and Mi , respectively, for the ith subinterval. On
the other hand, the discussions in the book use either the left endpoint or the right endpoint (regardless
of whether they are the minimizer or maximizer).

Exercise:
1. √
Find an upper bound and a lower bound for the area of the region below the graph of f (x) =
x3 + 1 but above the x-axis from x = 0 to 1. Use n = 5.
Solution: Note that the graph of the given function is increasing along the interval [0, 1] since
f 0 (x) ≥ 0.
1−0
Since n = 5, ∆x = = 0.2. The sample points, mi ’s, that minimize the sum are 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6,
5
and 0.8 while the sample points, Mi ’s, that maximize the sum are 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.
Calculating the lower and upper sum, we get
√ √ √ √ √
 
s(5) = 3 3 3 3 3
0 + 1 + 0.2 + 1 + 0.4 + 1 + 0.6 + 1 + 0.8 + 1 × 0.2 ≈ 1.0736

√ √ √ √ √
 
S(5) = 0.23 3 3 3 3
+ 1 + 0.4 + 1 + 0.6 + 1 + 0.8 + 1 + 1 + 1 × 0.2 ≈ 1.1564

Thus,
1.0736 < Area < 1.1564.

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2. Approximate the area of the region below the graph of f (x) = x sin2 x but above the x-axis from
x = 0 to π. Use the midpoint of each subinterval and n = 4.
     
π−0 π π π π π 3π
Solution: Since n = 4, ∆x = = . The subintervals are 0, , , , , , and
  4 4 4 4 2 2 4
3π π 3π 5π 7π
, π . The sample points are , , , and . Thus,
4 8 8 8 8
"  #
π2
     
π 2 π 3π 2 3π 5π 2 5π 7π 2 7π π
M (4) = sin + sin + sin + sin × = .
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 4

Practice: (Textbook) Section 4.1 page 303: 3-5.

You may also try answering these problems using sample points that minimize or maximize the sum, i.e., by
approximating the areas using s(n) and S(n), respectively. You don’t have to do these by hand so you are
encouraged to use a graphing software and a spreadsheet. What is more important is you understand how to
setup the sums that need to be computed.

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2.1.2 Finding the Exact Area under the Curve

Example 1: [cont.] What is the area under the graph of f (x) = x2 and above the x-axis from x = 1
to x = 5?

This time, we will carry out the same steps, but without replacing n by a specific integer. In general,
5−1 4
∆x = = . The first interval is from x0 = 1 up to x1 = 1 + ∆x = 1 + n4 . The second interval is
n n
from x1 up to x2 = 1 + 2∆x = 1 + 2 n2 . In general, each endpoint can be be represented as

xi = 1 + i∆x
 
4
=1+i .
n
Since f is increasing on [1, 5], then on each subinterval [xi−1 , xi ], f is minimized at the left endpoint
and maximized at the right endpoint. The sample points for s(n) are therefore the left endpoints
x0 , x1 , . . . , xn−1 . On the other hand, the sample points for S(n) are the right endpoints x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .
The upper and lower sums can be expressed in summation notation as
n−1
X n
X
s(n) = f (xj )∆x and S(n) = f (xk )∆x.
j=0 k=1

Substituting the expression of the function, the sums become

n−1
X n
X
s(n) = f (xj )∆x S(n) = f (xk )∆x
j=0 k=1
n−1  2   n  2  
X 4 4 X 4 4
= 1+ j = 1+ k
j=0
n n k=0
n n
n−1   n  
4X 8 16 2 4X 8 16 2
= 1 + j + 2j = 1 + k + 2k
n j=0 n n n k=1 n n
n−1 n−1 n−1
! n n n
!
4 X 8X 16 X 2 4 X 8X 16 X 2
= 1+ j+ 2 j = 1+ k+ 2 k
n j=0
n j=0
n j=0
n k=1
n k=1
n k=1
4 32 (n − 1)n 64 (n − 1)n(2n − 1) 4 32 n(n + 1) 64 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= ·n+ 2 · + 3· = ·n+ 2 · + 3·
n n 2 n 6 n n 2 n 6
Taking the limit of each sum, we get
64 · 2 1 64 · 2 1
lim s(n) = 4 + 16 + = 41 and lim S(n) = 4 + 16 + = 41 .
n→∞ 6 3 n→∞ 6 3
1
We define the area under the graph of f (x) = x2 and above the x-axis from x = 1 to x = 5 to be 41 .
3
Remarks:
1. s(n) and S(n) can still be computed even if f has negative values on [a, b], though they are no
longer interpreted as areas.
2. If f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b], then s(n) ≥ 0 and S(n) ≥ 0. If lim s(n) = lim S(n), we define the area of
n→∞ n→∞
the region under the graph of f and above the x-axis from a to b to be the common value of these
limits.
3. If f is continuous on [a, b], then it can be shown lim s(n) = lim S(n). (The proof is beyond the
n→∞ n→∞
scope of MATH 31.2).

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Exercise: Find the area under the graph of f (x) = x3 and above the x-axis from 0 to 1.
Solution: Since f is continuous and nonnegative on [0, 1], the area of the region is equal to lim S(n).
n→∞
1−0 1
We compute ∆x = = . Since f is increasing, the sample point Mi that maximizes the area of
n n
each rectangle is the left endpoint. Therefore,
i
Mi = 0 + i∆x = .
n
The area is computed as
n n  3
X 1X i
lim S(n) = lim f (Mi )∆x = lim
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n n
i=1 i=1
n
1 X 3
= lim 4 i
n→∞ n
i=1
 2
1 n(n + 1)
= lim 4
n→∞ n 2
 2
n(n + 1) 1 1
= lim 4
· =
n→∞ n 4 4

Practice: (Textbook) Section 4.1 pages 305-306: 21-24, 32.

For 21-23, the instruction mentions a Definition 2 from the book. This merely states that the area can be
computed as the limit as n → ∞ of sums of areas of rectangles using the right endpoints of the subintervals.
For 24 (for those who want a challenge), there is no unique solution. You may assume that the interval is
[0, 1]. What you need is to “guess” the right nonnegative function.

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2.2 The Definite Integral

Definition (Definite Integral)
b−a
Let f be defined on [a, b]. Divide [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x = . Let x0 =
n
a, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 , xn = b be the endpoints of these subintervals, so xi = a+i∆x, i = 0, 1, . . . , n. Choose
any sample points x∗1 , x∗2 , ..., x∗n from these subintervals, i.e., x∗i ∈ [xi−1 , xi ].
The definite integral of f from a to b is
Z b X n
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i )∆x
a n→∞
i=1

provided that this limit exists and gives the same value for all possible choices of sample points. If it
does exist, we say that f is integrable on [a, b].
The integral sign is a stylized ‘S’, the first letter of the word “sum” because the definite integral is
the limit of a sum. On the right, f (x∗i ) matches f (x) and ∆x matches dx.

Remark
1. The parts of the definite integral are:

b: upper limit of integration f (x): integrand

a: lower limit of integration
n
X
2. f (x∗i )∆x is called a Riemann sum. s(n) and S(n) are examples of Riemann sums.
i=1

3. If f (x) ≥ 0 and f is integrable on [a, b], then the area under the curve y = f (x) and above the
Z b
interval [a, b]on the x-axis is f (x) dx.
a
Z 5 Z b
2 124 1
In previous examples, we have x dx = and x3 dx =
1 3 a 4
4. If f takes on both positive and negative values on [a, b], then
n
X X areas of rectangles X negative of the areas of rectangles
f (x∗i )∆x = +
that lie above the x-axis that lie below the x-axis
i=1
X areas of rectangles X areas of rectangles
= −
that lie above the x-axis that lie below the x-axis

and Z b
f (x) dx = Net Area = A1 − A2 + A3
a

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where A1 , A2 , and A3 are the areas of the three regions shown. Note that these three values are
all positive since these are areas.
Z b
5. f (x) dx is a real number. It can be positive, 0, or negative. In comparison, the indefinite
a Z
integral, f (x) dx, is a function of x.

Theorem If f is continuous on [a, b], or if f has finitely many jump discontinuities on [a, b], then f is
integrable on [a, b]. Z 1
Example 2: Evaluate x dx by taking the limit of a Riemann sum.
−2
The function f (x) = x is continuous everywhere, so f is integrable on [−2, 1].
1 − (−2) 3
Divide [−2, 1] into n subintervals of equal length, ∆x = = .
n n
3
Denote the endpoints as: x0 = −2, x1 , . . . , xn−1 , xn = 1, where xi = −2 + i∆x = −2 + i.
n
∗ 3
Using the right endpoints as sample points, we have xi = −2 + i.
n
We get the Riemann sum as
n n  
X X 3 3
f (x∗i )∆x = −2 + i ·
i=1 i=1
n n
n n
3X 9 X
= (−2) + 2 i
n i=1 n i=1
9n(n + 1)
= −6 + .
2n2
Evaluate the integral by taking the limit of the Riemann sum as n → ∞,
Z 1  
9(n + 1)
x dx = lim −6 +
−2 n→∞ 2n
9
= −6 +
2
3
=− .
2

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Exercise: Evaluate the following integrals.

Z 5√
1. 25 − x2 dx. Hint: Interpret this as an area.
−5
√
Solution: Let y = 25 − x2 ≥ 0. Manipulating the equation,
√
y = 25 − x2
y 2 = 25 − x2
x2 + y 2 = 25

which is the equation of a circle centered at the origin with radius 5. But since y ≥ 0, the graph
is the top semi-circle. The integral is the area of the region below the semicircle and over [−5, 5],
i.e., the area of the entire upper-half. Recalling that the area of a circle with radius r is πr2 , we
now evaluate the integral as
Z 5√
1
25
25 − x2 dx = π · 52 = π.
−5 2 2
Z 4
2. (x2 + 2x − 5) dx
1
Solution: The function f (x) = x2 + 2x − 5 is continuous everywhere, so f is integrable on [1, 4].
4−1 3
Divide [1, 4] into n subintervals of equal length, ∆x = = . Denote the endpoints as:
n n
3
x0 = 1, x1 , . . . , xn−1 , xn = 4, where xi = 1 + i∆x = 1 + i.
n
∗ 3 n + 3i
Using the right endpoints as sample points, we have xi = 1 + i = .
n n
We get the Riemann sum as
n n  
X X n + 3i 3
f (x∗i )∆x = f ·
i=1 i=1
n n
n
"  2   #
3X n + 3i n + 3i
= +2 −5
n i=1 n n
n 
3 X n2 + 6in + 9i2 2n + 6i

= + −5
n i=1 n2 n
n
3 1 X 2
n + 6in + 9i2 + 2n2 + 6in − 5n2


= · 2
n n i=1
n
3 X
= 3 (−2n2 + 12in + 9i2 )
n i=1
n n n
−6 X 36 X 27 X 2
= 1+ 2 i+ 3 i
n i=1 n i=1 n i=1
36 n(n + 1) 27 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= −6 + · + 3·
n2 2 n 6
n(n + 1) 9 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= −6 + 18 · +
n2 2 n3

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Taking the limit of the Riemann sum as n → ∞,

Z 1  
2 n(n + 1) 9 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
(x + 2x − 5) dx = lim −6 + 18 · +
−2 n→∞ n2 2 n3
9
= −6 + 18 + · 2
2
= 21.

Practice: (Textbook) Section 4.2 pages 317-318: 23, 24, 30, 37, 39.
Some of you probably already know the “shortcut” in evaluating definite integrals. However, 23 and 24 are
exercises in using the definition of the definite integral, not in using the shortcut.
Definition
Z a
1. If f is defined at a, then f (x) dx = 0.
a
Z a Z b
2. If f is integrable on [a, b], then f (x) dx = − f (x) dx.
b a

Properties of Definite Integrals

Z b Z b Z b
1. [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
a a a
Proof (sum) We’ll show the proof for the “+” version of the claim. If a < b,
Z b n
X
[f (x) + g(x)] dx = lim [f (x∗i ) + g(x∗i )] ∆x
a n→∞
i=1
n
X n
X
= lim f (x∗i )∆x + lim g(x∗i )∆x
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1
Z b Z b
= f (x) dx + g(x) dx
a a

If b < a,
Z b Z a
[f (x) + g(x)] dx = − [f (x) + g(x)] dx
a b
Z a Z a 
=− f (x) dx + g(x) dx This is justified by the work done above.
b b
Z a Z a
=− f (x) dx − g(x) dx
b b
Z b Z b
= f (x) dx + g(x) dx
a a

If a = b, all the terms are 0, and the claim is trivially true.

Z b Z b
2. kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx, where k is any constant
a a

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Z b
3. k dx = k(b − a), where k is any constant
a
Z b Z b
Proof k dx = k 1 dx.
a Z b a

If a < b, then 1 dx is just the area of a rectangle with height 1 and width b − a. Thus,
a
Z b
1 dx = (b − a)
a

Z b Z a Z a
If b ≤ a, then 1 dx = − 1 dx where 1 dx is the area of a rectangle with height 1 and
a b b
width a − b. Thus,
Z b Z a
1 dx = − 1 dx
a b
= −(a − b)
=b−a
Z b
=⇒ k dx = k(b − a).
a
Z b Z c Z b
4. f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c
Z b Z b
5. If a < b and f (x) ≥ g(x) on [a, b], then f (x)dx ≥ g(x)dx.
a a

Exercise:
Z 5
6x2 − 62 dx.


1. Find
1
Z 5
124
Recall that x2 dx = .
1 3
Z 5 Z 5 Z 5
2 2


6x − 62 dx = 6x dx −
62 dx
1 1 1
Z 5 Z 5
2
=6 x dx − 62 1 dx
1 1
124
=6· − 62(5 − 1)
3
=0
Z 3 Z 5 Z 3
2 2 124 26
2. Find x dx using x dx = and x2 dx = .
5 1 3 1 3
Z 3 Z 1 Z 3
2 2
x dx = x dx + x2 dx
5 5 1
124 26
=− +
3 3
98
=− .
3

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Exercise:
Z 8 Z 4 Z 8
1. If f (x) dx = 7.3 and f (x) dx = 5.9, find f (x) dx.
2 2 4
Solution:
Z 8 Z 2 Z 8
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
4 4 2
Z 4
=− f (x) dx + 7.3
2
= −5.9 + 7.3
= 1.4

Z b
2. Write as a single integral in the form f (x) dx, with a < b:
a
Z 2 Z 5 Z −1
f (x) dx + f (x) dx − f (x) dx
−2 2 −2

Solution:
Z 2 Z 5 Z −1 Z 5 Z −1
f (x) dx + f (x) dx − f (x) dx = f (x) dx − f (x) dx
−2 2 −2 −2 −2
Z 5 Z −2
= f (x) dx + f (x) dx
−2 −1
Z −2 Z 5
= f (x) dx + f (x) dx
−1 −2
Z 5
= f (x) dx
−1

Practice: (Textbook) Section 4.2 page 318: 41-43, 49, 50, 56.

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