Reference Manual For Field Engineers PDF

GOVERNMENT OF KARNATAKA
Task Force for Quality Assurance

in Public Constructions
REFERENCE MANUAL
FOR FIELD ENGINEERS
ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Dr. C. S. Vishwanatha Er. I. Ravindranath Dr. Aswath M.U.

Chairman - Task Force Member Secretary - Task Force Editor-in-Chief

xv

REFERENCE MANUAL
FOR FIELD ENGINEERS
ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Dr. C. S. Vishwanatha Er. I. Ravindranath Dr. Aswath M.U.

Chairman - Task Force Member Secretary - Task Force Editor-in-Chief

i
© Copyright Reserved
Published by :
ISBN -
First Draft Version for Internal Circulation

Printed in 2013
Printed :
Important Note :
This reference manual is intended for the use of Government Engineers.
Disclaimer :
Every effort has been made to avoid errors or omissions in this publication. In spite of this, some
errors might have crept in. Any mistake, error or discrepancy noted may be brought to our
notice which shall be taken care of in the next edition. It is notified that neither the publisher nor
the authors will be responsible for any damage or loss of action to any one, or any kind, in any
manner, therefrom.
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Task Force for Quality Assurance in Public Constructions
Task Force Members :
1) Dr. C S Viswanatha - Chairman
2) Prof. C E G Justo - Member
3) Er. V B Bellad - Member
4) Prof. P Mahadevappa - Member
5) Prof. B R Srinivasamurthy - Member
6) Prof. S S Bhavikatti - Member
7) Prof. S N KiranShankar - Member
8) Er. G C Tallur - Member
9) Er. D Raghavendra - Member
10) Er. Sadashivareddy B Patil - Member
11) Er. I Ravindranath - Member Secretary
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viii
Contents
1. INTRODUCTION. .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2. BUILIDING PLANNING AND UNDERSTANDING ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

SECTION -1 Building Planning.................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Site Selection ................................................................................................................. 6
2.3 About Building By-Laws ................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Terminology . ................................................................................................................. 7
2.5 Important By-Laws About Building ................................................................................. 8
2.6 By-Laws About Requirements Of Buildings Components .............................................. 10
2.7 Principles Of Planning .................................................................................................. 11
2.8 Basic Requirements Of A Building ................................................................................ 13
2. 9 Building Drawings: ...................................................................................................... 14
SECTION -2 Understanding Architectural Drawings................................................................................ 16
Computer Drawings . ......................................................................................................... 16
Site Plan.............................................................................................................................. 16
3. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
3.1. General: . .......................................................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Natural materials:................................................................................................................................ 20
4. CEMENT CONCRETE
4.1. Cement ............................................................................................................................................ 32
4.2 Concrete . .......................................................................................................................................... 33
4.3. Mix Proportioning.............................................................................................................................. 46
4.4. Mix Proportion Calculations AS PER IS 10262-2009............................................................................ 50
A note on durability of concrete................................................................................................................ 70
5. READY MIXED CONCRETE....................................................................................................................... 76
6. CURING OF CONCRETE
6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 94
6.2 Significance Of Curing........................................................................................................................ 94
6.3 Curing Methods And Specifications ................................................................................................... 94
6.4 Membrane Forming Curing Compounds............................................................................................. 96
6.5 Internal Curing (Ic) Compound Or Self Curing Compound: . .............................................................. 97
6.6 Concrete Strength And Curing............................................................................................................ 97
6.7 Standards And Specifications About Curing........................................................................................ 99
6.12 Recommendations On Good Curing Practices.................................................................................. 105
7. CONSTRUCTION AIDS AND CHEMICALS

7.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 108
7.1 Cement based construction products:............................................................................................... 108
7.2 Scope .............................................................................................................................................. 108
7.3 Chemicals Used In The Fresh State Of Concrete ............................................................................... 108
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7.4 Chemicals Used To Meet The Demands And Challenges During Construction................................... 111
7.5.Chemicals used to enhance durability of structures during their service life....................................... 115
7.6 Joint sealants ................................................................................................................................... 116
7.7. Grouting Agents.............................................................................................................................. 121
7.8. MortarAdmixture ............................................................................................................................ 122
7.9. Installation aids ............................................................................................................................... 122
7.10. Adhesives for Tiles, Marble and Granite ........................................................................................ 122
7.11.Material for crack repairs ............................................................................................................... 123
8. BUILDING FORMWORKS
Section 1 - Fundamentals And Basics.................................................................................................... 126
8.1.0 Introduction . ............................................................................................................ 126
Section 2 - Typical Case Study............................................................................................................... 138
8.2.1 Formwork Components ............................................................................................. 138
Section 3 - Failures And Prevention....................................................................................................... 147
Section 4 - Emerging Trends In Formwork Technology........................................................................... 153
9. MEASURING AND TESTING INSTRUMENTS

Section I 9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 162
9.2 Anchor Test System ................................................................................................... 164
Section II Non-Destructive Testing Instruments................................................................................. 166
9.3 General....................................................................................................................... 166
9.4 Non-Destructive Tests................................................................................................. 167
9.6 The commonly adopted other methods are:.................................................173
10. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
10.1 Batching Plant............................................................................................................................... 176
10.2. Transit Mixer ................................................................................................................................ 177
10.3. Concrete Pumps ........................................................................................................................... 178
10.4. Vibrators ...................................................................................................................................... 179
10.5. Tower Crane ................................................................................................................................. 180
10.6. Hoist ............................................................................................................................................ 181
10.7. Front End Loader & Excavators ..................................................................................................... 182
10.8. Dozers ......................................................................................................................................... 183
10.9. Soil Compactors (Rollers) . ............................................................................................................ 184
10.10. Spray Type Plastering Machine .................................................................................................... 185
11. SOIL INVESTIGATION & SELECTION & DESIGN OF

FOUNDATIONS FOR BUILDINGS (Upto 5 floors)................................................................................. 191
12. MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 194
Terminologies in Structural Masonry ...................................................................................................... 198
Masonry Materials – units, mortar and reinforcement - types & standards .............................................. 204
Basics of Load Bearing Masonry ............................................................................................................. 216
Guidelines for design of Free-standing walls and Retaining walls ............................................................ 229
Concepts for earthquake resistant masonry . .......................................................................................... 230
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Check list for masonry construction: ...................................................................................................... 235
13. STONE MASONRY AND COMPOSITE MASONRY
Load-bearing walls are one of the earliest forms of construction............................................................. 238
Load Bearing Wall- Stone Masonry . ....................................................................................................... 238
Load Bearing Walls- Composite Masonry .............................................................................................. 244
14. SUPER STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Structural Concept: 250
15. PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS IN BUILDINGS

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 278
Types Of Structural Elements................................................................................................................... 278
Fabrication.............................................................................................................................................. 280
Wetcasting: Moulds................................................................................................................................ 281
Joints & Connections............................................................................................................................... 284
16. REINFORCEMENT DETAILING
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 288
Do’s And Dont’s In Reinforcement Detailing............................................................................................ 304
17. FABRICATION
17.1 Reinforcing Bars: Embedded “Strength” of Reinforced Concrete .................................................. 318
17.2 Nominal Sizes ............................................................................................................................... 320
17.3 Development Length and Lap Splices . .......................................................................................... 320
17.4 Typical Rebar Processing Plant ...................................................................................................... 323
17.5. Terminology ................................................................................................................................. 330
17.6. Technical Advantages ................................................................................................................... 331
17.7. Cost Advantages .......................................................................................................................... 332
17.8. Mesh Laying at Site ...................................................................................................................... 332
17.9. Various Applications of PRM ....................................................................................................... 333
18. TESTING OF STEELS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

18.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 338
18.2 Classification Of Reinforcement Steels:............................................................................................ 338
18.3 Testing Of Reinforcing Steel (Tmt/Thermax):.................................................................................... 339
18.4 Testing Of Structural Steel . ............................................................................................................ 345
19. WATER PROOFING WORKS

Introduction :.......................................................................................................................................... 352
Factors influence / affects the selection of water proofing systems. ........................................................ 357
The Barrier System.................................................................................................................................. 358
Non Barrier Systems................................................................................................................................ 371
20. BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

20.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 382
20.2 Objectives of Maintenance 382
20.3 Methods of Maintenance 382
20.4 Maintenance Policy or Plan: 384
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20.5 Economic Considerations: 384
20.6 Management of Preventive Maintenance 384
20.7 List of Preventive Maintenance: 384
21. Quality Aspects of Materials and Construction

21.1 Concepts Of Quality Systems 388
21.2 Specifications And Tests Related To Building Materials : 389
21.3 Tolerances In Construction 411
21.4 Tolerances Suggested By Aci For Reinforced Concrete 412
22. Health, Safety and Environment

22.1 Introduction 416
22.2 Construction Industry An Overview 421
22.2 Accident & Hazard 421
22.3 Chemicals 423
22.4 Operators & Drivers 424
22.5 Fencing of Machinery 424
22.6 Working near Overhead Electrical Line 425
22.7 Accident preventive system 425
22.8 Senior Management Commitment 426
22.9 Induction 426
22.10 Health and Safety Policy Document 427
22.11 Safety Improvement Plan 427
22.12 Safety Training 428
22.13 Permit To Work 428
22.14 PPE 430
22.15 Fire Preventive Measures 431
22.16 Lock Off Procedure 431
22.17 Guard & Fence 432
22.18 Risk 432
22.19 Safety Inspection 433
22.20 MSDS 433
22.21 Near Miss 433
22.22 House keeping 434
22.23 Accidents Control Measures 434
22.24 Safety Calendar 436
22.25 Emergency Plan 436
22.26 Safety Meeting 437
22.27 Communicating Safety 438
23. CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT AND QUALITY CHECKLISTS

Section 1 – Management Basics 442
Project Phases 443
Types of Project Plans 446
Section 2 – Construction Planning and Control 448
Planning 448
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Planning Techniques 451
Planning Tools - Softwares 456
Project Monitoring and Controlling 457
Earned Value Management 458
Section 3 – Documentation 460
Project Documentation 460
Process Documentation 460
Management Information System (MIS) 462
Section 4 – Contract and Specifications 463
Definition and Characteristics 463
Definitions 464
Contract Types 465
Tenders 468
Contract Clause 469
Bill of Quantities 475
Section 5 – Life and people skills 478
Work Place Communication 478
Presentation Skills 480
Workplace Etiquettes 481
7 ways rules of well behaviour 484
Ethics and Professional Integrity 485
Quality Check Lists 486
24. DISMANTLING AND DEMOLITION

24.1 Introduction 506
24.2 Methods of Demolition 506
24.3 Typical Jobs involving Building Demolition 508
24.4 Frequently Asked Questions: .......................................................................................................... 508
24.5 Precautions .................................................................................................................................... 510
24.6 Concrete Demolition Methods ....................................................................................................... 510
24.7 Concrete Dismantling Methods ...................................................................................................... 512
24.9 Safety ............................................................................................................................................ 518
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Chapter
Introduction
1. Introduction
The main objective of this “REFERENCE MANUAL FOR FIELD ENGINEERS ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION”
is to assist the Construction Professionals - Engineers, Managers and Project Management Consultants of
related organisations to achieve the desired quality standards and to move towards the best world class
construction. The manual will also serve the needs of the Students, Faculty and the Private Sector to adopt
the best practices in their building constructions.
Any construction activity needs right attitude and commitment to detail starting from the planning stage.
The engineers involved should take their job seriously and own the responsibility of Quality Construction.
Integrity, Compassion, Knowledge and Experience are the most important elements to achieve the quality
in any construction activity. And the most important is we should have enjoy our work.
Civil engineers as master builders must lead multidisciplinary and collaborative teams. The engineers
must also envision, adapt and integrate new materials and technologies across projects for sustainable
construction practices.
We have many classical examples of good constructions by our ancestors and it is now our job to add on to
this list by using performance based materials and designs with strict standards of quality. Large amount of
resources are being spent for construction but sometimes carelessness leads to huge losses and disasters.
To avoid such incidents, Civil Engineers must introspect, update their knowledge and deliberate among
the concerned professionals.
An Ideal design and execution of building construction work needs collaborative efforts from all the people
involved in the process. Planning and designing a building happens in three stages: Conceptual Design,
Preliminary Design and Final Design. Further, efforts and focus are needed before construction (Planning
Stage), during construction (Execution Stage) and after construction (Maintenance Stage). In the age of
fast track constructions, the fundamental knowledge and the importance of basic procedures can not
be ignored. When we use the advanced materials, and technologies we must consider also the well-
established rules and procedures.
For good construction practices, the construction documents must contain the Specifications and Instructions
for quality execution of works. The Field Engineers and Builders must understand the significance of these
instructions and implement them completely to avoid the problems.
Some of the common problems in buildings due to improper planning, design and execution are
summurised below:
• Settlements affecting the functionality of structures

• Bearing capacity failures
• Differential settlements cause both functional and structural distress.
• Improper planning and design of excavations
REFERENCE MANUAL FOR FIELD ENGINEERS ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

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• Improper design of dewatering systems
• Cracks in the plinth, walls, flooring, columns, beams and slabs
• Separations between the walls and ceiling
• Improper selection of materials and improper construction methods
• Improper detailing of reinforcements leading to corrosion and cracks
• Improperly waterproofed roofs leading to seepage and leakage problems
• Improperly installed plumbing and other service systems, etc.
As an effort to assist and update the engineers, “TASK FORCE FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE IN PUBLIC
CONSTRUCTIONS”, Government of Karnataka has put in enormous efforts in compiling this “REFERENCE
MANUAL FOR FIELD ENGINEERS ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION”. The content of the manual is prepared
by some of the best known practicing consultants and academicians along with the engineers of the
Government Departments.
This manual is brought out in two volumes. Volume-1 with the topics related to the building construction
and consist of 24 chapters. Building services and other relevant topics are dealt in Volume-2.
The readers are advised to refer all the relevant IS Codes and Department Guidelines, if any in addition
to the contents present in this reference manual. The references mentioned at the end of the chapters
are also recommended for further reading and understanding the concepts and right practices for quality
construction.
INTRODUCTION
3
4
Chapter
Building Planning and

Understanding
Architectural Drawings
2. Building Planning and
Understanding Architectural Drawings
SECTION -1 BUILDING PLANNING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Building planning means imagining the details of a building to be built and putting them in the form of
drawings so that the builders, owners and others understand the features of the building. The objective
of this chapter is to explain
• Criteria for site selection

• Important municipal laws regarding building plans
• Basic principles of building planning.
• Basic requirements of residential buildings
2.2 SITE SELECTION

Many times there may not be any choice for selecting a building site but to plan the building in the site
available to the owner. However if there is chance to select the site the following points may be noted:
• The site should be located in a developed area. Owners naturally prefer the locality where the
people of their status live.
• The site should be located where the following facilities are available
a. Means of public transport
b. Utility services like water supply, electricity, drainage etc.
c. Amenities such as school, market, bank, hospital etc.
d. Community services like street cleaning, waste cleaning, police and fire protections.
• The site should meet the extent of privacy desired.
• It should be on an elevated place.
• It should be in a locality where natural and man made environments provide healthy living and
working conditions.
• The site should be away from quarries, kilns, factories, badly maintained drains and water logged
areas.
• The soil at site should have high safe bearing capacity so that the cost of foundation is reduced.
2.3 ABOUT BUILDING BY-LAWS

To prevent haphazard development and to achieve the following objectives, National Building Code of
India 2005 prescribes the building by laws:
• To allow orderly growth

• To afford safety against fire, noise, health hazard and structural failures
• To ensure minimum standards

6
Municipalities and other competent authorities have powers to make changes in these by laws to suit their
local requirements like:
• Aesthetic considerations in the vicinity of monumental buildings.

• Development which may be the general characteristics of hospital, architectural or other
monumental
• Consideration of safety near airports.
2.4 TERMINOLOGY
Before going through building by-laws it is necessary to clearly understand the following terms (as per
National Building Code 20051&2):
a) Building height: The vertical distance between

the centre line of the street and the highest point
of the building is considered as building height.
In case of flat roofs, the height is upto top of
the parapet [Fig 2.1(a)]. In case of pitched roof,
the building height is considered upto the point
where the external wall touches the sloping roof
[Fig 2.1(b)]. In case of the gable facing the street,
the height is considered upto the mid-height
of gable end [Fig 2.1(c)]. The features provided
only for architectural purposes should not be
considered for finding the height.
b) Building line: It is the least horizontal distance of the permanent portion of the building from the
centre of the street infront of the building. The competent authorities fix minimum building line to
take care of future widening of the road, safe distance from electric line etc.
c) Set backs: Set backs are line parallel to the boundaries of the sites. They are fixed on the front, rear
boundries and side boundaries of the site. No permanent part of the building is to be constructed
beyond these lines.
d) Covered or built-up area: The area covered by the building immediately above the plinth level is
called covered area or built-up area. However it does not include the following:
• Storage tank
• Well structure
• Ramp / steps
• Open verandah, portico
• Uncovered staircase
e) Floor area ration (FAR): It is defined as the ratio of total covered area of all the floors to the area
of the plot. Thus
f) Floor area: Floor area is equal to the plinth area minus area occupied by walls and columns.
BUILDING PLANNING AND UNDERSTANDING ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

7
2.5 IMPORTANT BY-LAWS ABOUT BUILDING
The important by-laws framed by National Building Code are presented below. Depending upon local
conditions competent authorities can make certain changes, Hence before planning a building, the local
by-laws should be looked into.
a) Distance from power supply main:

To safeguard from mishaps of electrocution, the distance between any accessible part of the building
(balcony, terrace) and electricity supply main should have minimum vertical and horizontal distances as
shown in Table2.1.
Table 2.1. Minimum distance from Power line
Minimum distance
Voltage of electric line
Vertical Horizontal
Low-medium 2.5 m 1.2 m
High voltage
(i) Upto 11kV 3.7 m 1.2 m
(ii) More than 11kV 3.7 m 2.0 m
b) Exterior open-spaces:
It governs the requirement of minimum open spaces around the building:
(i) Front Open Spaces: It depends upon street width infront of the building [Ref Table 2.2]
Table 2.2 Minimum front open space
Width of street in front of the plot Minimum front open space

Upto 7.5m 1.5 m
7.5m to 18.0m 3.0 m
18.0m to 30.0m 4.5 m
Above 30m 6.0 m
Note:
1. For sites abutting two or more streets the value of open space is based on the average width of
street, but is no case it is less than 1.8 m for the cases 2, 3 and 4 above.
2. For the streets less than 7.5 m in width the distance of the building line shall be at least 5 m from
the centre line of the street.
(ii) Rear Open Space: Minimum rear open space should be an average of 3.0 m and in no case it is less
than1.8 m. In case of back to back sites rear open space should be 3.0 m throughout. For plots of depth
less than 9.0 m and buildings of height less than 7.0 m minimum is reduced to 1.5 m.
(iii) Side Open space: Minimum side open space recommended is 3.0 m on each side for detached
buildings while for semi detached houses it is 3.0 m on one side. However for smaller plots competent
authority may reduce it to 1.5 m. For buildings of height more than 10m. The minimum open spaces, side
as well as rear, shall be shown in Table 2.3.

8
Table 2.3. Minimum Rear and side Open Space
Height of Minimum rear and side Minimum rear and

Height of building
building open space side open space
10 m 3.0 m 30 m 10.0 m
15 m 5.0 m 35 m 11.0 m
18 m 6.0 m 40 m 12.0 m
21 m 7.0 m 45 m 13.0 m
24 m 8.0 m 50 m 14.0 m
27 m 9.0 m 53 m and above 16.0 m
Note:
1. For buildings above 24 m height, minimum front space is 6 m.

2. If length or width of building exceeds 40 m, add 10 percent of width minus 4 m to the minimum
requirement.
c. Floor Area Ratio (FAR):

Based on fire protection consideration maximum FAR prescribed for different occupancies facing a public
street of at least 9m width are as shown in table 2.4.
Table 2.4. Maximum FAR
Type of construction
Occupancy classification
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
Residential UL 2.0 1.4 1.0
Educational UL 2.0 1.4 1.0
Institutional UL 1.5 1.0 0.8
Assembly UL 1.0 0.7 0.5
Business UL 2.9 2.3 1.6
Mercantile 8.0 1.8 1.4 1.0
Industrial 7.5 1.9 1.6 1.3
Storage 6.0 1.5 1.3 1.0
Hazardous 2.8 1.1 0.9 Not applicable
Note: 1. UL – unlimited
d. Height of building:
If building height is not covered by FAR required and open space requirement, the maximum height is
limited according to the width of the street as follows:
• If the site is having only front street, height is limited to 1.5 times the width of front road plus the
front open space.
• If the site is having two or more streets, height is to be determined on the basis of wider street,
but permitted upto a depth of 24 m along the narrow street.

9
• In the vicinity of aerodrome, the maximum height is fixed in consultation with civil aviation
authorities.
2.6 BY-LAWS ABOUT REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDINGS COMPONENTS

The following are the important bylaws about building components:
a) Plinth Height:
To avoid difficulties in drainage, plinth height should be 450 mm above the surrounding ground level.
Every interior courtyard should be at least 150 mm above the nearest street.
b) Habitable rooms:
Such rooms should satisfy the minimum requirements shown in Table 2.5
Table 2.5 Minimum Requirements of Habitable rooms

Building with single Building with two habitable room
habitable room 1st room 2nd room
Minimum floor area 9.5 m 2
9.5 m 2
7.5 m2
Minimum width 2.4 m 2.1 m 2.1 m
Minimum height 2.75 m 2.75 m 2.75 m
Minimum head room 2.4 m 2.4 m 2.4 m
c) Kitchen:
It should have impermeable floor flue, if necessary and a window or ventilator or an opening of suitable
size. It should satisfy the minimum size requirements shown in Table 2.6
Table 2.6 Minimum size Requirements of Kitchen
Type Minimum floor area Minimum width Minimum height

Kitchen cum store 5.0 m 2
1.8 m 2.75 m
Kitchen cum dining 7.5 m 2
2.10 m 2.75 m
Kitchen only (Separate 4.5 m 2
1.8 m 2.75 m
store and dining)
d) Bath Rooms and water closets:

At least one wall should abut the exterior open space. High level window or ventilator should be provided.
It should have impervious floors sloping towards drain. Wall should be finished with impervious material
to at least 1m above the floor. The size requirements are as shown in Table 2.7
Table 2.7 Minimum size requirements
Batch W.C. Batch cum WC

Minimum floor area 1.8 m 2
1.0 m 2
2.8 m2
Recommended size 1.5 m x 1.2 m2 1.10 x 1.0 m 2.3 m x 1.2 m
Minimum height 2.0 m 2.0 m 2.0 m

10
e) Store Room:
It should not be less than 3.0m2 in area and 2.2m in height
f) Staircase:
In a residential building staircase should satisfy the following requirements:
Minimum rise = 190 mm

Minimum tread = 1250 mm
Minimum width = 750 mm
Minimum head room = 2.2 m
g) Parapet:
Parapet walls and hand rails provided on the edges of roof terraces, balcony, verandah etc. should not be
less than 1.05m and not more than 1.2m in height from the finished floor level.
h) Compound wall:
The maximum height of compound wall shall be 1.5m above the centre line of the front street. However
compound wall upto 2.4m height is permitted if the top 0.9m is of open type, approved by the authorities.
In case of corner plots, the lower 0.75 m may be of solid masonry but the top portion should be open type
at least for a distance of 10 m from the intersection point.
2.7 PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING

The principles of planning are only guidelines. They are not hard and fast rules. The elementary principles
of planning3-6 area are as follow:
a) Aspect:
Aspects means arrangement of doors and windows in the external wall to make good use of sun, breeze,
scenic view etc. Kitchen should have eastern aspect means kitchen should be located on eastern side of
the building. The idea of having eastern aspect is to make use of morning sun. The following aspects are
desirable (in the northern hemisphere):
i) Kitchen: Eastern aspect

ii) Dining Room: Southern aspect to enjoy winter, sun.
iii) Drawing and living room: Southern or South eastern aspect to enjoy winter sun.
iv) Bed rooms: Western or south western aspect to enjoy breeze in summer
v) Reading rooms, class rooms, stairs: Northern aspect to enjoy defused light.
b) Prospects:
Prospects is about locating and selecting type of doors and windows in outer walls so as to provide
aesthetically good view. Quality of doors and windows, projections and grills to windows need planning
for the prospects.
c) Roominess:
It refers to suitable proportioning of length, width and height of rooms. Length to width ratio should
be 1.2 to 1.5. If it is nearly square lot of area is wasted for movement and if it is more than 1.5 it gives

11
the tunnel effect. Doors should be properly located so that utility and privacy is maximum. Proper colour
to walls and floor give roominess effect. Light colour creates effects of more space. Cupboards or lofts
provide increased utility.
d) Furniture requirements:
Furniture requirement plays an important roll in planning. In designing a drawing room positions of sofa,
chairs, TV etc. should be drawn and checked for circulation area. For bed rooms, the position of cots,
dressing tables, cupboards should be drawn and circulation area checked. In planning office, laboratory,
hospital buildings position of required furniture should be drawn and checked for circulation area. In
planning hostel rooms the positions of cots, study tables and wardrobes should be drawn and checked.
e) Grouping of rooms:
Grouping of rooms means disposition of rooms in the building for the convenience of uses. Dining room
should be close to kitchen, while sanitary block should be away from kitchen but at convenient place
to bed rooms. In case of offices, the administrative department is located centrally. In factories various
sections are so located that the products move in one direction and finished product comes out near office
and show rooms.
f) Circulation:
Passages, lobbies, halls serve horizontal circulation while stairs and lifts serve vertical circulation. Within a
room also a portion of it serves for circulation. The following points should be considered while planning
circulation:
• They should be straight.

• They should be sufficient.
• They should be lighted and ventilated well.
• Stairs should be easily accessible to all users
• Sanitary services should have access to every user through passage / lobby.
g) Elegance:
Elegance means the general effect felt by viewers from outside. It depends upon positions of doors,
windows, ventilators, balconies, sun shades, staircases etc. Elevations should be attractive. The width,
length, height and projections contribute a lot for the elegance. It may be noted that Taj Mahal is famous
for its elegance.
h) Sanitation:
It includes providing good lighting, ventilation and sanitary conveniences.
i) Light: Natural light provides hygienic atmosphere. Light should be uniformly distributed. Providing
windows and ventilators of appropriate size at suitable positions contribute a lot for natural
lighting. In residential buildings window area to floor area should not be less than 1/10 while for
school buildings it should be about 1/5.
ii) Ventilation: Natural ventilation is preferred. This is achieved by selecting and positioning of doors,
windows and ventilators. In case it is not possible to achieve natural ventilation for any part of the
building, ordinary or exhaust fans should be provided.
iii) Sanitary convenience: Provision for bath rooms, lavatories, urinals etc are not only necessary but

12
statuary requirement also. They should be sufficient and provided at convenient locations. They
should have proper slopes and impervious floors and walls.
i) Flexibility:
This means a room designed for specific purpose should be possible to use for other purpose, if there is a
necessity. If a partition is provided between living room and dining room, it is possible to remove partition
wall and use for family functions. A study room may be planned for using as a guest room. If independent
access is provided to backyard near kitchen, backyard can be used for dinner functions. Thus in planning
flexibility also should be considered.
j) Privacy:
Planning should take care of privacy of one room from other room as well as parts of the buildings from
street and neighboring buildings. This is achieved by proper grouping of rooms and by providing doors,
windows and ventilators at suitable positions. Planning entrance to building also contributes a lot to
privacy.
i) Practical considerations:
Cost of construction is a major practical consideration in planning. Based on the amount owner can
invest, the plinth area that can be built may be found by getting prevalent rates. The scope for future
improvements or extensions should be provided. Some of the future renovations to be planned are:
• Improving elevations without dismantling any part of the building

• Improving flooring
• Extending building horizontally or vertically without dismantling existing building.
2.8 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A BUILDING

The planning and construction of any building should satisfy the following basic requirements:
• Strength and stability

• Dimensional stability
• Resistance to dampness
• Resistance to fire
• Heat insulation
• Sound insulation
• Protection against terminate
• Durability
• Security against burglary
• Lighting and ventilation
• Comfort and conveniences
• Economy

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i) Strength and stability: Most important requirement of a building is it should be capable of
transferring expected load in its life time safely to the ground. None of its structural components
should buckle, overturn or collapse.
ii) Dimensional stability: Excessive deformations of structural components like beams and slabs
give a sense of instability. They result into cracks in structural elements and walls. It is necessary
that structural design satisfies the serviceability requirement also.
iii) Resistance to Dampness: Dampness in a building results into hygienic problem. It reduces
the life of the building also. Great care should be taken in planning and construction to avoid
dampness.
iv) Resistance to fire: To achieve resistance to fire the requirements are:
• The structure should be built with materials that do not ignite easily
• Building orientation should be such that spread if fire is slow.
• In case of fire, there should be means of easy routes to vacate people quickly.
v) Heat Insulation: A building should provide comfortable stay for the inmates from heat in
summer and from cold in winter. The thickness of walls and roof contribute a lot towards heat
insulation. Use of hollow bricks give thermal comfort.
vi) Sound Insulation: Building should be planned against outdoor and indoor noises.
vii) Protection from Termite: Building should be protected from termites.
viii) Durability: Each and every component of building should be durable for the life time the
building is designed This is achieved if the building is made damp proof and leak proof. The
structural design should be satisfactory.
ix) Security against Burglary: This is the basic requirement of a building. This is achieved by
providing stronger walls and outer doors.
x) Lighting and ventilation: For healthy and happy living natural light and ventilators are
required. Diffused light and good cross ventilation inside the building are required.
xi) Comfort and conveniences: Various units in the building should be properly grouped and
integrated keeping in mind the comfort and convenience of the user.
xii) Economy: Economy without sacrificing comforts convenience and durability is another basic
requirement of building. It is achieved by properly grouping rooms, minimizing circulation area
within the building and by minimizing number of doors and windows suitably.
Use of innovative materials and local materials, innovative construction technology like monolithic
construction, precast constructions also help in bringing down construction cost. Evaluating actual bearing
capacity of the soil, carrying out detailed structural analysis and design are also required in achieving
economy. Locating beams and columns suitably to minimize / avoid eccentric loads should be planned. In
case of beam and slab floor construction cost can be minimized if beams are spaced at a distance of 5/8th
their span.
2. 9 BUILDING DRAWINGS:
After planning a building the following drawings should be prepared.
• Key plan
• Site plan
• Building plan

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Key Plan: It should show the boundary locations of the site with respect to neighborhood land marks. It
should be to scale not less than 1 in 10000.
Site plan: Site plan should be drawn to a scale not less than 1 in 500 for a scale upto 1 hectare and not
less than 1 in 1000 for a site more than one hectare. It should show
• The boundaries of the site

• The position of the site in relation to neighboring street.
• Name of the street
• If there is no street within a distance of 12m, the nearest existing site
• The means of access from the street
• Frontage and setbacks
• North direction
• Physical features such as wells, drains etc
Building Plan: The plan, elevation and sections of the should be drawn to a scale 1:100
The drawing should show:
• All floor plans clearly indicating covered area

• Size and spacing of all framing members, internal sizes of rooms, width of passages, positions of
stair cases, ramp, lift etc.
• Use or occupancy of all parts
• Locations of water closets, sinks, baths etc.
• Sectional drawings should clearly show footing details, thickness of slabs, beams, lintels, height of
rooms, parapet etc. At least one section should be through the staircase.
• Elevation of all floors from street
• Dimensions of projected portions
• North direction
The plans should be signed by appropriate authority.

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SECTION -2 UNDERSTANDING ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS
Designs and drawings both Architectural and Structural of all buildings of the Govt. unless outsourced are
being done in PWD.
Buildings are designed based on the requirements given by the user departments of the Govt. After taking
the counter signature of the concerned department for approval, architectural drawings are issued to
design section for structural designs and the structural drawings are then issued to concerned engineers
for execution of the work.
Engineers who are directly responsible for supervision of the work at site, executed by the contractors
are entrusted with great responsibility to see that the work is in accordance with the drawings and also
specifications mentioned in the tender in addition to quality of work and time frame.
Even though it is very easy and fast to transfer drawings from one computer to another, drawings issued
in the form of blue prints/computer printouts are very convenient to read at site. These drawings should
be enclosed in a plastic cover to prevent any damage due to usage, folding, wind, rain etc.
COMPUTER DRAWINGS
Most of the time drawings are done with the help of computers. Copying ground floor plan to make
first floor plan is just press of a button while using computers but in manual drawing every line has to be
traced. Architect has an opportunity to select or reject while copying manually depending on the design.
In case of CAD (Computer Aided Design) to make first floor plan, ground floor plan is copied first and then
addition and deletions are made. Walls will remain if forgotten to delete. Hence engineer should study the
computer drawings more carefully. It is easy to make mistakes and difficult to notice. Structural drawings
are even more problematic as more copying is done.
It is a normal practice for contractors to keep all architectural drawings away once the structural drawings
are issued. They don’t feel the need to refer architectural drawings. However the site engineers should
refer architectural drawings in addition to structural drawings during progress of work
Immediately after receiving architectural drawings, it is necessary for the site engineer to study the
drawings. Site plan, floor plans, sections, elevations and some detailed drawings are issued from the
architect’s office. In addition to these architectural drawings it is necessary to study contour plan and other
structural drawings issued from chief engineers office before starting the work.
SITE PLAN
Site plan gives a clear picture of the site boundaries with dimensions, north line for orientation, road and
its width, service lines passing through the site if any, neighboring properties, set backs, site area, plinth
area of the building, floor area ratio ( FAR ), etc. Even though no license is taken for construction, it is
a good practice to respect the local bye laws. Engineer should take the site plan to the site, orient the
drawing to match with the north line and check for any discrepancies between drawing and actual site.
If any differences are found, then it should be brought to the notice of the concerned higher ups. As rain
water harvesting is mandatory and if it is not shown in the plan, then the site engineer should get the
scheme in time.
CONTOUR PLAN
Contour plan gives the topography of the site. It is incomplete if the contour map does not indicate some
levels on the road abutting the site. Based on these levels plinth level of the building is fixed and also

16
decide about providing basement. If the contour plan given is not accurate then it is necessary to re fix the
plinth height. Existing drain bed level should be considered while making this revision.
ELEVATION
Elevation means normally front view of a building. It provides an opportunity to know how the building
looks like before starting the work. However it is necessary for an architect to give the same importance if
not more to the planning. Site engineer should make sure that the details shown in elevation drawing are
executed to the same precision during construction so that when building is completed it would reflect
the drawing in all respects. As elevation drawings are only two dimensional, depth will be understood only
when compared with plan and sections. If it is difficult to visualize in spite of this, then a three dimensional
perspective drawing may be made. This will look just like photograph of the completed building in three
dimensions with additions like landscaping, vehicles, sky and that too in colour. Down take pipes are not
shown in elevation drawings however they appear when building is completed making the building look
ugly. Hence it is necessary to plan in advance so that the pipes are not exposed as far as possible.
BASEMENT FLOOR PLAN

Basement is normally provided if the site is sufficiently below road level or if the requirement demands.
Site engineer should take all precautions to prevent rain water entering basement. If toilets are provided
in basement, make sure it can be connected to the sewer line by gravity. If the levels do not permit gravity
flow, it is better to avoid toilets in the basement instead of pumping. When basement is provided it is
necessary to excavate for footings to such a depth that no part of footing or pedestals is exposed above
basement floor level.
GROUND FLOOR PLAN

Ground floor plan has lot of information to study. All room dimensions should be checked and tallied with
centre line given. Total length of the building obtained by adding centre line dimensions should tally with
the total length obtained by adding room dimensions and wall thickness. This should be done in both
directions and also at various sections. Positions of columns, their orientation, doors, windows and openings
can be obtained from the plan which helps in construction. Any discrepancy in position or orientation of
columns between architectural drawing and structural drawing should be brought to the notice of the
design engineer and architect. After placing one or two courses of brick work, all measurements like room
dimensions, position of doors, windows, and openings should be checked with reference to the plan
given. Some windows may start right from the floor level itself and hence needs special attention. It is the
duty of the engineer to see that the contractor construct the building as per drawings and specifications
given in the tender. When the construction comes up to lintel level, it is time for the engineer to obtain
electrical drawings if not already received, just not only from the architects but from electrical engineers
also which would give electrical layout of the conduits, circuits, position of fan hooks and light points
etc. Precautions should be taken while rising the columns as they have to be stopped at different heights
depending on the stair case landings, lintel heights, beam depth, sunk slabs for toilets, canopy beams etc.
If there are any court yards opening to sky, precaution should be taken to drain off the rain water.
FIRST FLOOR OR TYPICAL FLOOR PLAN

If the ground floor is constructed without any problem or if all the problems faced during construction
of the ground floor are solved, then construction of other floors should not be a problem. This does not
mean that the floors just repeat. Before casting of any roof, plan of the floor coming above should be
properly studied. It is possible there may be balconies, roof extensions, walls that may need additional
beams, openings like toilet ducts etc. Some columns might have been deleted in order to provide bigger
column free hall. In such cases engineer should make sure that it has been considered while designing the

17
roof for bigger spans. In case of multi storied buildings toilet ducts should always be provided. When they
are small they are used for taking pipes and if it is big it can be used to provide ventilation also. If no ducts
are shown then it is better to convert one of the toilets as duct so that the toilet pipes are not exposed. In
case of any doubt during construction of a wall it is better to stop construction of that particular wall only
till clarification is obtained instead of stopping the whole work or breaking the wall later.
TERRACE FLOOR PLAN

Position of overhead tank, providing wpc giving slopes for draining of rain water, position of down take
pipes etc. are normally shown in this plan.
SECTIONS
Several sections are taken at different places in the plan in order to give more information which normally
not possible to show in plan or elevation drawings. One of the sections should be to give details of roof
heights, cill level, lintel level, chajja details etc. Another section should be taken through the staircase
to provide details such as rise, tread, position of first and last step, hand rail details, landing, position of
staircase windows, details of finishing materials, etc. In addition sections should be taken at toilets to
show sunken slabs and also through lifts if provided. Additional section is a must if there is any variation
in heights of roofs as in case of entrance lobby etc. It is difficult to know variation in roof heights from
structural drawings as most of the time the drawings are in plan only and not in section. All elements
and lines shown in section drawings should correspond with elevation. Section drawings do not give any
structural details and hence structural drawings should be referred.
RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Rain water harvesting is mandatory. It is necessary to show rain water harvesting scheme while taking
approval for construction from competent authority. In simple words rain water harvesting is preventing
rain water from going out of the site. A simple scheme involves in providing percolation pits and leads all
the water. If more water is expected then it may be stored in sump tanks and the water may be used for
gardening. If the finance permits then it is possible to go for filtration system. Site engineer should get all
the details of rain harvesting scheme in time and help in reusing/recharging the ground.
NOTE:-Before starting the work and immediately after studying the drawings, it is the responsibility of the
site engineer to bring it to the notice of the architect or design engineer in case of any differences between
architectural and structural drawings; any type of errors; want of clarifications; missing data; electrical
room not shown; rooms being too big or too small; any changes required because of site conditions or
required by user dept.; change of levels; change of specifications or any type of improvement etc.
If type design (drawing approved by the user department for some other site) drawing is used, it may not
fit well to the site. Some changes may be required. Changes like shifting of entrance, changing the toilet
block or using a mirror image of the type design etc. In such cases it is better if the architect visits the site
and issue a revised drawing. This can be done even if the work is already entrusted to a contractor and
not started.
References
1. National Building Code of India 2005

18
Chapter
Building Construction Materials

3. Building Construction Materials
3.1. General:
The choice of a material for certain purpose is influenced by its economic value, aesthetic appearance,
durability and its properties. Therefore it is essential to have the knowledge about materials for better
selection to suite the intended need.
3.2 Natural materials:

Stones:
The history of mankind is supposed to have begun with the Stone Age, marked by the use of implements
and weapons made of stone. Stones used for buildings are obtained from rocks. The various types of
rocks from which building stones are usually derived are granite, basalt, trap, marble, slate, sandstone
and limestone. Different stones have different hardness and texture, based on which the use of particular
type of stone is decided. Hardness values of standard materials on Moh’s hardness scale are given in Table
3.1.
Table - 3.1 Hardness (Moh’s Hardness Scale)
Name Hardness
Talc, easily scratched with the thumb-nail: 1
Gypsum, scratched by the thumb-nail: 2
Calcite, not scratched by thumb-nail but easily cut by knife: 3
Fluorite, can be cut by knife with greater difficulty than calcite: 4
Apatite, can be cut only with difficulty by knife: 5
Orthoclase, can be cut with knife with great difficulty on thin edges: 6
Quartz, not scratched by steel, scratches glass: 7
Topaz: 8
Sapphire: 9
Diamond: 10
For example, a given substance is scratched by fluorite and not by calcite its hardness is between 3
and 4.
Classification of rocks :
a. Geological properties: i) Igneous ii) Sedimentary & iii) Metamorphic Rocks.
i) Igneous Rocks: The slower cooling of lava that takes place underground, allows larger crystal formation.
Granite is an example of this type of rock formation. Extrusive Igneous rocks form above the ground and
Intrusive rocks form below the ground. Examples: Granite, Basalt, Trap, Diorite Syenite etc.
Granite: It is hard, durable and available in different colours. This is highly resistant to natural forces.
Basalt: This is very hard and tough.
Trap: This is very hard and tough. It is used for road metal, rubble stone masonry and other foundation
works.

20
ii) Sedimentary Rocks: The characteristic of sedimentary rocks is layering. Gravel, Sandstone, Lime stone,
Laterite, Marble, Shale are the examples.
Impure Lime Stone (Kankar): Used as road aggregate and to manufacture hydraulic lime etc.,
Laterite is porous, spongy structure, easily quarried in blocks. This contains high percentage of iron oxide
and available in different colours.
Lime stone: It contains carbonate of lime. It is easy to work.
Marble: It takes nice finish. It is easy to carve.
iii) Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in
a process called metamorphism. Some examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss, slate, marble,
schist, and quartzite.
Table-3.2: Characteristics of Stones.

Sl. Classification Stone Unit Crushing Colour Sp. Gravity Used for
no weight/ Strength - N/
cum mm2
1 Igneous Granite 75 to 120 Gray, 2.6 to 2.7 Steps, Sills, facing
Pink, Dark works, Walls, Floorings,
black Kitchen-katta, Ward
White robes, Sink, Road metal,
etc., Ballast, Furniture,
Decorative parts of
buildings,
Basalt 150 to 185 Dark 2.9 to 3.0 Road metal, Rubble
brown stone masonry,
Foundtions etc.,
Trap 330 to 380 Gray 2.65 to 2.69 Concrete Jelly, Road
metal, Rubble stone
masonry, Foundtions
etc.,
Diorite 90 to 150 2.8 to 3.0
Syenite 90 to 150
2 Sedimentary Sand stone 64 Pink and 2.2 to 2.8 Steps, Facing work,
white Steps, Size stone
masonry, Decorative
masonry works, Road
metal etc.,
Limestone 54 2.0 to 2.75 Floors, Steps,
Walls, Road metal,
manufacture of lime in
blast furnace etc.,
Laterite 1.80 to 3.10 Deep Building stones, Road
brown or metal, Rough stone
red. masonry and for road
also.
Shale 0.20 to 0.60 2.0 to 2.4 .
Marble 65 to 97 White, 2.4 to 2.7 Flooring, facing
Pink, works, columns, Steps,
Green, Ornamental works, Best
Yellow, for carving works
Black or
Adagna
3 Metamorphic Gneiss 206 to 370 2.6 to 2.9
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

21
Slate 75 to 207 Brown, 2.7 to 2.8 Roofing works, Sills,
Black, Damp proof courses etc.,
Green
Laterite 1.80 to 3.10 Deep Building stones, Road
brown or metal, Rough stone
red. masonry and for road
also.
Murrum de 1.8 to 3.1 Deep 2.89 Blindage for road metal,
composed brown or Fancy path and Garden
Laterite red. walls.
Quartzite Retaining walls, Road
metal, Basalt, Concrete
aggregate, Pitching and
Rubble masonry
Wood:
Wood has become indispensible material in human life today. A typical cross sectional view of wood as
obtained naturally is shown below.
Teak, Rose, Honni, Matti , Nandi , Deodar , Neem , Rubber wood , Acacia , Jackfruit-wood, Bamboo, Arca-
nut, are generally used for building construction.
Teak wood: There are three types of teak wood which are generally in use. They are mainly from India,
Burma and Malaysia. Teak is hard and used for making doors, windows, ventilators frame and shutters. It
is also used for furniture, gymnasium floorings, platform, etc., Burma and Malaysian teak are softer than
Indian teak.
Rose wood: Seasoned Rose wood is Purple in colour. Rose wood is very hard and costly. This is used for
decorative items like sofa, cot, chairs, tables, ward robes, furniture of home and offices, etc. It takes nice
carving and polish.
Honne wood: This is costlier compared to Matti and Nandi woods. This wood is widely used for making
doors and windows. The texture and colour resembles that of teak wood. When this wood comes in
contact with water it leaves red colour. So this property can be used as confirmatory test for Honne
wood.
Matti wood: Matti is widely used for making doors and windows of buildings. This is available in white
and black colour. Black matti resembles rose wood but very hard compared to rose wood.
Nandi woods: Nandi wood is light and pink in colour. Nandi is widely used for making doors and window
frames of shutters of buildings. This wood decays early, when it comes to contact with water. Yearly
maintenance is required for this wood. This can be protected by painting.
Other Jungle woods like tamarind, Neelgiri (Eucalyptus) etc., are used for centering and form-work purpose.
The Circumference of a tree/log is called the Girth. The average girth is measured at the centre of the log

22
(as the long timber log has many times an uneven surface all along) . Knowing the length and girth of the
log quantity of wood can be calculated using the formula given below.
Qty = (L x G2) / 2304 =____cft. (Where L – length in ft. G=Girth (Circumference) in inches).
Defects in Timber:
Knots: These weaken the timber under compression and seen with hard dark pieces on the surface of
wood. Less than 6 mm dia is called -nail knot, 6-20 mm as small knot, 20-40mm as medium knot, >40
mm as large knots. If securely joined with wood then they are “tight knots, otherwise loose knots. Wood
with large and loose knots should be avoided.
Gutter or
channel
Measuring girth Measuring length
Shakes: These are cracks and splits in felled log. They may be of cup shape, heart shape or circumferential
shrinkage. A few cracks in woods are shown below.
Twisted grain or fiber: Twisting of tree occurs in wood, due to high wind. Due to this grains will be
twisted. A few views of twisted grains are as shown below.
Tight knot Large and loose knots.
Upset or rupture: Discontinuity of fibre due to strong wind or felling of tree occours during its growth
itself. Wane: It is original outside rounded part and important when timber is used for important uses.

23
Presence of Sap wood: It is outer layer of wood and has colour lighter than heart wood. This does
not take good polish, compared to heart wood. Sloping grains: Simple sloping grains are not large
defects of wood. But if sloping spiral pattern grains around the axis are called defects. Cracks (Fissures,
resin pockets): These are fiber disruptions and affect the strength of wood. Resin pockets with resin are
defects. A long narrow crack is called streak. Gutters or channels: Actually these are not the defects as
far as quality of wood is concerned. Log with larger and longer channel will produce less quantity of wood
after it is cut.
Seasoned wood should always be used for constructions.
Characteristics of Good timber:

The principal characteristics of timber are strength, durability and finished appearance. A good timber
should have the followings properties.
1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength.

2. Compact medullar rays.
3. Dark colour.
4. Uniform texture.
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
6. When struck sonorous sound is produced.
7. Free from the defects.
8. Heavy weight.
9. No woolliness at fresh cut surface.
Soil:
It is formed by disintegration of rocks over millions of years.
Classifications of Soil:
Hard Soils: Hard Murrum /Gravelly Soil i.e., disintegrated laterite. (Red or Brown in Colour). Uses: Earthen
embankments, basement, refilling of foundation trenches, earthen roads, earthen shoulders etc.
Soft Soils: Example is B.C. soil (Black Cotton soil), Soft clay, deposited or silty soil, made up soil, alluvial
soil, slushy soil, yellow shedu soil etc. Black Cotton soil shrinks and expands. This soil can be used with soil
stabilization chemicals and using advanced geotechnical soil stabilizing techniques.
Soft clay: Can be used in confined state. It can also be used as impermeable layer due to its fine particle
size.
Deposited / Silty / Alluvial soils: Deposition may be either due to natural weathering of rock or by
manual deposition. Foundations on such soils shall not be constructed.

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Sand.
This is indispensible material in building construction. This is formed by disintegration of rocks over millions
of years. Sand is formed by disintegration of quartz. Sand is classified on sources as:
Nala or pit sand: This is coarse sand available in bed of local nala . In north Karnataka this sand is
abundantly available and is called black sand. This is used for construction of stone masonry and P.C.C
paving or bed. This contains silt. This is not suitable for any R.C.C works.
River sand: Available in the river bed. This is usually fine sand. This is mainly used for manufacture of
concrete. This is more commonly used for all R.C.C works. The Govt. of Karnataka has formed a policy
called “Karnataka Sand Policy 2011” under its order CI/84/MMN/2009 Bangalore dated: 29-01-2011. Due
to quarrying of natural sand in rivers leads to lowering of ground water table and also undermining effect.
To avoid this many states of India have banned the quarrying of natural sand in rivers especially in summer
season. The depth of quarrying is restricted to shallow depths. Coastal Regulation Zone notification is to
be followed before quarrying sand in coastal areas.
Sea sand: It is very fine and not used for concrete works due to its high salt content. Purified sea sand can
be used but it will be costly.
Manufactured Sand : The process of forming natural sand has occurred over billions of years and as
they were exploited, they are not replenished at the rate they are being used. Fine aggregate is one of the
important constituents of concrete. River sand is becoming a scarce material. Sand mining from our rivers
has become objectionably excessive. It has now reached a stage where it is killing all our rivers day by day.
So sand mining has to be discouraged so as to save the rivers of our country from total death. As natural
sand deposits become depleted near some areas of metropolitan growth, the use of manufactured sands
as a replacement fine aggregate in concrete is receiving increased attention.
Manufactured sand is popularly known by several generic names such as Crushed sand, Rock sand, Green
sand, Robo sand, Poabs sand, Barmac sand, Pozzolan sand etc. IS 383-1970 (Reaffirmed 2007) recognizes
manufacture sand as ‘Crushed Stone Sand’ under Clause 2. However, manufactured sand is entirely
different than Quarry dust or CRF.
Crushed stone sand is produced by crushing boulders. Manufactured sand is produced by rock-on-rock
or rock-on-metal Vertical Shaft Impactor (VSI) in which the process that produced alluvial deposits is
closely simulated. Particle size reduction and achieving equidimensional shape is critical to get desired
properties. If rock is crushed in compression lot of inherent properties exhibited by natural river sand are
lost. If proper technique of manufacturing is not adopted aggregates are bound to become flaky and
elongated. Improvements to sand by way of washing, grading and blending may have to be done before
use at the consumer end. In case of manufactured sand all the processes mentioned above can be done at
manufacturing plant itself and controls are much better in producing quality fine aggregates.
Fine aggregates (M-sand) proposed to be used shall be produced from a Vertical Shaft Impact (VSI) crushers
and shall conform to the requirements of Zone-II (in most of the cases) as per IS 383-1970 (Reaffirmed
in 2007) and particles finer than 75 µm shall not exceed 15 %. Special efforts on the part of M-sand
manufacturer (such as washing of sand by water or dry washing by air) is required to restrict particles finer
than 75 µm to 15%.
M-sand can also be used for making masonry mortar and shall conform to the requirements of IS 2116-
1980 (Reaffirmed 1998)- “Specification of sand for Masonry mortars”.

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Water:
Pure water is completely transparent, odourless and tasteless. Potable water can be used for any construction
purpose. Sulphates and Chlorides are the basic impurities in water which spoil the concrete quality and
corrode the steel at faster rate. For limitations of impurities like acidity, alkalinity, dissolve and suspended
salts, IS: 456 -2000 Clause 5.4.3 may be referred.
High Strength Deformed Bars: These bars are available as Fe415, Fe-500, Fe 500D Fe550, and Fe600.
HSD bars are being widely used for almost all R.C.C structures.
Cement:
This is most important material in civil constructions. This is manufactured by lime stone and clay and
produced in the form of powder at user end. Port land cement includes, Silica, Alumina and Iron oxide.
Types of cement are:
33 grade O.P.C. IS 269

43 grade O.P.C IS 8112
53 grade O.P.C IS 12269
Rapid hardening portlant cement IS 8041
Port land slag cement IS 455
Portland pozzolana cement (fly ash based) IS 1489 part I
Portland pozzolana cement (Calcinded clay based) IS 1489 part II
Hydrophobic cement IS 8043
Low heat portland cement IS 12600
Sulphate resisting portland cement IS 12330.
Concrete sleeper-grade cement IS T40
xii) White cement- IS 8042.
Oil well cement IS 8229
Masonry cement IS 3466
High alumina cement IS 6452
Super sulphated cement IS 6909.
More commonly used cements are:
1) O.P.C 43 and 53 grade.

2) Portland pozzolana cement (fly ash based)
3) White cement and
4) Portland slag cement.
Concrete:
Emphasis is given on concrete of grade. M5, M10, M15 and M 20 using 43 grade OPC and fly ash
concrete. “M” refers to “Mix” and the number refers to its characteristic compressive strength in N/mm2
or Mpa at 28 days. To achieve the quality and speed in construction, Ready Mix Concrete (R.M.C), and Self

26
Compacting Concrete (S.C.C) are becoming more popular. Water cement ratio, cover, compaction and
curing basically govern the quality of concrete.
Mortar:
The mortar plays a vital role in achieving both strength and finish to the masonry. This acts as a protective
coat to the structure. Therefore care should be taken in selecting the suitable mortar proportion for a
specific purpose. Types of mortars are heavy mortar, light weight mortar, lime mortar, surkhi mortar,
cement mortar, gauged mortar, gypsum mortar, fire resistance mortar, packing mortar, sound absorbing
mortar, x-ray shielding mortar, Spray plaster, dry mortar etc., (For mortar strength refer IS: 1625 -1971)
Light weight mortar: These mortars are prepared with cement, pumice and other fine aggregates. It is
prepared adding light materials like saw dust, wood powder asbestos fibers, jute fibers coir etc., to lime
mortar and cement mortar. It is used in sound proof and heat proof construction.
Lime mortar: This mortar is prepared using either a fat lime or hydraulic lime. This lime shrinks to grate
extant therefore its volume used in mortar will be 2 to 3 times that of sand. This mortar is suitable for water
logged and damp areas. For hydraulic lime the proportion of lime to sand should be1:2. Mortar should be
consumed within one hour of its preparation. This is very strong mortar, generally used for light loaded
building components above the ground.
Surkhi mortar: It is prepared using surkhi instead of sand or replacing of sand in case of fat lime mortar.
The powder of surkhi should be fine enough to pass BIS sieve no. 9 and the residue should not be more
than 10 % by weight.
Cement mortar: Depending on the strength and importance of the building this mortar is being prepared
in various proportions such as 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:6 and 1:8. Mortars are sometimes used with water
proofing compounds to make the structures water proof.
Gauged mortar or lime cement mortar: The quality of lime mortar can be increased by adding cement
to lime by 1:6 to 1:8 proportions. This is also known as composite mortar and may be used for building
thick brick walls.
Gypsum mortar: This mortar is prepared using gypsum as binding materials. This gives a glassy finish to
the surface. This need not be cured much.
Fire resistance mortar: This mortar is prepared by adding aluminous cement to the finely crushed powder
of fire-bricks. The usual proportion is 1 part of aluminous cement to 2 parts of fire-bricks powder. This
mortar is used for lining furnaces, fire places and in ovens etc.
Packing mortar: Packing mortars are having rich cement and sand, cement and lime and cement, sand
and lime. This is used in a place, to pack oil wells, to form solid waterproof plugs in cracks and voids
of rocks. This is resistance to soil water pressure. This type of mortar is considered depending on the
hydrologic conditions and packing methods.
Bricks :
The types of bricks are, table molded burnt clay bricks, Kiln burnt clay bricks, burnt clay hollow bricks,
wire cut burnt clay bricks, burnt clay tile bricks, solid concrete bricks, hollow concrete bricks, fire resistant
burnt clay bricks, fly ash bricks, Table molded burnt clay bricks are also called as stock bricks. These are

27
manufactured on plain table to have uniform surface and sharp edges. The shape, size and quality of these
bricks will be good. The colour of the brick is red or red brown. Kiln burnt clay bricks are manufactured
by Kiln process. Burnt clay Hollow bricks/blocks are factory made bricks and made from soft clay with
some percentage of sand to gain higher strength. The masonry constructed with these materials does not
require plastering. Hence these bricks are preferred for cost effective constructions. These are also used
in filler slabs to achieve economy. Wire cut burnt clay bricks are factory made and have perfect size and
shape. The masonry constructed with these bricks does not require plastering as the surface produced is
very smooth. Few examples of different bricks are shown below:
Light weight solid concrete blocks: (IS: 2185 Part4: 2008). These are manufactured by concrete using
jelly grit and quarry dust and cement. The nominal dimensions of the blocks shown below:
Length: 400,500 Or 600mm, Height: 250 or 300 mm and Width: 100,150,200 Or 250 mm.
Classification:
a. Non-load bearing – Density ranging from 800 kg/m3 to 1000 kg/m3.
b. Load bearing- Density ranging from 1200 kg/m3 to 1800 kg/m3. The average compressive strength
of these bricks varies between 2.50 and 25.00 N/mm2 depending up on the grade of the blocks. The
masonry constructed with these blocks requires thin plastering as the surface is smooth. Speed can be
achieved in construction.
Light weight hollow concrete blocks: The blocks are made hollow to achieve economy.
Length: 400,500 Or 600mm,

Height: 250 or 300 mm,
Width: 100,150,200 Or 250 mm.
85 years old conventional burnt

clay brick manufactured by PWD
Burnt bicks Burnt clay Hollow bricks Wire cut burnt clay bricks
Solid concrete blocks Hollow concrete blocks Fly Ash bricks

28
These are used for partitions and non load bearing structures like compound walls, kerbs etc. For both
solid and hollow light weight concrete blocks refer IS: 2185 (Part-2) 2008
Fire resistant burnt clay bricks or Fire Bricks: These bricks are manufactured same as that of ordinary
clay bricks. The burning and cooling is done gradually. These bricks can resist high temperature without
softening or melting.
Fly ash bricks: This fly ash from thermal power stations is used in manufacturing fly ash bricks with clay
and cement under pressure. These bricks are machine made and have definite shape and size with sharp
edges. These are best replaceable alternate materials to conventional bricks.

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Chapter
4
Cement, Concrete and
Mix Proportioning
4. Cement, Concrete and
Mix Proportioning
Cement Concrete is by far the most widely used construction material today. The versatility and the
mouldability of this material, its high compressive strength, and the discovery of the reinforcing and pre-
stressing techniques which helped to make up for its low tensile strength have contributed largely to its
widespread use.
4.1. Cement
Portland cement, the basic ingredient of concrete, is a closely controlled chemical combination of calcium,
silicon, aluminium, iron and small amounts of other ingredients to which gypsum is added in the final
grinding process to regulate the setting time of the concrete. Lime and silica make up about 85% of the
mass. Common among the materials used in its manufacture are limestone, shells, and chalk or marl
combined with shale, clay, slate or blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore.
Chemical Composition and Hydration of Cement.

Oxide Composition of Portlant Cement
• Portland cement is composed of four major oxides: lime (CaO), silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), and
iron ( Fe2O3).
• Also Portland cement contains small amount of magnesia (MgO), alkalies (Na2O and K2O), and
sulfuric anhydrite (SO3).
Major Compounds of Portland Cement (Bogue’s Compound Composition)
Name Chemical formula Abbreviation

1. Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S
2. Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 C2S
3. Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A
4. Tetracalcium alumino ferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF
Hydration of cement
• When Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical compound constituents undergo a series of
chemical reactions that cause it to harden. This chemical reaction with water is called “hydration”.
Each one of these reactions occurs at a different time and rate. Together, the results of these
reactions determine how Portland cement hardens and gains strength.
Cement hydration
• Hydration starts as soon as the cement and water are mixed.
• The rate of hydration and the heat liberated by the reaction of each compound is different.
• Each compound produces different products when it hydrates.

32
• Tricalcium silicate (C3S). Hydrates and
hardens rapidly and is largely responsible
for initial set and early strength. Portland
cements with higher percentages of C3S
will exhibit higher early strength.
• Tricalcium aluminate (C3A). Hydrates and
hardens the quickest. Liberates a large
amount of heat almost immediately and
contributes somewhat to early strength.
Gypsum is added to Portland cement to
retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum,
C3A hydration would cause Portland
cement to set almost immediately after
adding water.
• Dicalcium silicate (C2S). Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for strength
increases beyond one week.
• Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF). Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to strength. Its use
allows lower kiln temperatures in Portland cement manufacturing. Most Portland cement color
effects are due to C4AF.
Heat of Hydration
• The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland cement react. Heat of
hydration is most influenced by the proportion of C3S and C3A in the cement, but is also influenced
by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. As each one of these factors is increased,
heat of hydration increases.
• For usual range of Portland cements, about one-half of the total heat is liberated between 1 and
3 days, about three-quarters in 7 days, and nearly 90 percent in 6 months.
• The heat of hydration depends on the chemical composition of cement.
4.2 CONCRETE
FRESH CONCRETE
There are two sets of criteria that we must consider when making concrete;
• Long-term requirements of hardened concrete, such as, strength, durability, and volume stability,
• Short-term requirements, like workability.
However, these two requirements are not necessarily complementary.
For fresh concrete to be acceptable, it should:
• Be easily mixed and transported.

• Be uniform throughout a given batch and between batches
• Be of a consistency so that it can fill completely the forms for which it was designed.
• Have the ability to be compacted without excessive loss of energy.
• Not segregate during placing and consolidation.
CEMENT, CONCRETE AND MIX PROPORTIONING

33
• Have good finishing characteristics
• The first 48 hours are very important for the performance of the concrete structure. It controls
the long-term behaviour, influence fc, Ec, creep, and durability.
Various properties which are to be considered during green state are:
• Workability
• Slump Loss
• Segregation/Bleeding
• Plastic Shrinkage
• Time of Set
• Temperature
• Workability: Definition: Effort required to obtain a concrete mix with minimum of segregation
and without changing the water cement ratio. It is not a fundamental property of concrete.
• Workability is often defined in terms of the amount of mechanical energy, or work, required
to fully compact concrete without segregation. This is important since the final strength is a
function of compaction.
Factors Affecting Workability:

• Water Content of the Mix -- This is the single most important factor governing workability of
concrete. A group of particles requires a certain amount of water. Water is absorbed on the
particle surface, in the volumes between particles, and provides “lubrication” to help the particles
move past one another more easily. Therefore, finer particles, necessary for plastic behavior,
require more water.
• Influence of Aggregate Mix Proportions – Increasing the proportion of aggregates relative to the
cement will decrease the workability of the concrete. Also, any additional fines will require more
cement in the mix. An “oversanded” mix will be permeable and less economical.
• Aggregate Properties -- The ratio of coarse/fine aggregate is not the only factor affecting workability.
The gradation and particle size of sands are important. Shape and texture of aggregate will also
affect workability. Aggregate which is porous will absorb more water leaving less to provide
workability. It is important to distinguish between total water content, which includes absorbed
water, and free water which is available for improving workability.
• Time and Temperature -- In general, increase in temperature will cause an increase in the rate of
hydration leading to evaporation of water and hence decrease in workability.
• Cement Characteristics -- Cement characteristics are less important than aggregate properties in
determining workability. However, the increased fineness of higher grade cements will result in
rapid hydration and increased water requirements.
• Admixtures -- In general, air-entraining, water-reducing, and set-retarding admixtures will all
improve workability. However, some chemical admixtures will react differently with cements and
aggregates and may result in reduced workability.

34
Segregation and Bleeding:
• Segregation refers to a separation of the components of fresh
concrete, resulting in a non-uniform mix. This can be seen as a
separation of coarse aggregate from the mortar, caused from
either the settling of heavy aggregate to the bottom or the
separation of the aggregate from the mix due to improper
placement. Some factors that increase segregation are:
• Larger maximum particle size (25mm) and proportion of
the larger particles.
• High specific gravity of coarse aggregate.
• Decrease in the amount of fine particles.
• Particle shape and texture.
• Water/cement ratio.
• Good handling and placement techniques are most important in prevention of segregation.
• Bleeding is defined as the appearance of water on the surface of concrete after it has consolidated
but before it is set. Since mixing water is the lightest component of
the concrete, this is a special form of segregation.
• Bleeding is generally the result of aggregates settling into the mix
and releasing their mixing water. Some bleeding is normal for good
concrete.
• However, if bleeding becomes too localized, channels will form
resulting in “craters”. The upper layers will become too rich in
cement with a high w/c ratio causing a weak, porous structure.
Salt may crystalize on the surface which will affect bonding with additional lifts of concrete. This
formation should always be removed by brushing and washing the surface. Also, water pockets
may form under large aggregates and reinforcing bars reducing the bond.
Bleeding may be reduced by:
• Increasing cement fineness.

• Increasing the rate of hydration(higher grade of cement or admixtures)
• Using air-entraining admixtures.
• Reducing the water content.
Measurement of Workability:
Workability, a term applied to many concrete properties, can be adequately measured by three
characteristics:
• Compactibility, the ease with which the concrete can be compacted and air void removed (Normal
concrete with slump values in the range of 25 to 175mm)
• Mobility, ease with which concrete can flow into forms and around reinforcement (Flowing
concrete such as RMC and SCC) and
• Stability, ability for concrete to remain stable and homogeneous during handling and vibration
without excessive segregation (Roller Compacted Concrete)
Workability Tests:

35
There is no acceptable test which will measure directly the workability as defined. The following tests give
a measure of workability which is applicable only with reference to the particular method. However, these
tests have found universal acceptance.
• Slump Test: Most popular throughout the world for its simplicity to carry out. Measures subsidence
of concrete which can be related to concrete’s suitability to place for various applications.
Slump Test Results:
• Very low 0-25 mm

• Low 25-50mm
little reinforcement
use vibration
• Medium 50-100mm
columns, beams, retaining walls
• High 100-175mm
heavily reinforced section, flowable concrete
Slump test is not suitable for concrete’s of low (< 25mm) and very high (>200mm) workability.
• Compaction Test:
• This test is not generally accepted method of directly measuring workability, but probably the
best test available in the laboratory. Uses the inverse approach: the degree of compaction
achived by a standard amount of work is determined.
• The degree of compaction, called the compacting factor, is measured by the ratio of the
density achieved in the test to the density of the same concrete fully compacted. The higher
value of the calculation the more workable concrete.
• Very low 0.78
• Low 0.85
use vibration
• Medium 0.92
• High 0.95
Compaction test is not suitable for high workable concrete’s as compaction
factor tend to 1. More suitable for field laboratory quality assurance purposes
where concrete’s used are of medium workable.
• Vebe Test:
• A standard slump cone is placed in a cylinder 24cm in diameter and
20cm high. The slump cone is filled in the standard manner, removed, and a disc-shaped rider
of standard weight is placed on top of the concrete. Compaction is achieved using a vibrating
table with an eccentric weight rotating at 50 Hz. It is assumed that the input of energy required
for full compaction is a measure of workability of the mix, and this is expressed in Vebe seconds.
Compaction is assumed to be complete when the transparent rider is totally covered with
concrete and all cavities in the surface of the concrete have disappeared. This is judged visually.
This test is more realistic to field conditions where vibration is used. However, concretes of very

36
low workability and very high workability can not be measured as very stiff concretes result
in long time more than 20-30 seconds and many a times may not get compacted. Similarly,
highly flowing concretes will not give enough time to record as it will flow in a split second.
Vebe test results:
• Low 6-12 seconds

use vibration
• Medium 2.5-6 seconds
• High 0-2.5 seconds
Other workability test measurements include, Flow table test for high workable concretes, slump flow test
(horizontal spread), L-box test, J-ring test for Self Compacting Concrete.
STRENGTH, ELASTISITY AND SHRINKAGE:

The “strength” of hardened concrete is its ability to resist strain or rupture induced by external forces.
The resistance of concrete to compressive, tensile and bending stresses is known as compressive strength,
tensile strength, and bending (or flexural) strength, respectively. The resistanceVEBE consistometer
of concrete to repeated
stresses is called its fatigue strength. Strength is expressed in terms of kgf/cm or MPa.
2
The compressive strength of concrete is usually determined at an age of 28 days of the specimen. The 28-
day compressive strength is the strength value used in concrete designs.
Sometimes, the compressive strength at 7 days is also determined. The 7-day compressive strength is
approximately 65-70% of its 28-day strength.
At least three specimens should be tested; the average of their compressive strengths is found for
determining the compressive strength of a concrete sample on a particular testing day.

37
The compressive strength values obtained
for cylinder specimens and cube specimens
prepared from the same concrete sample are
not the same:
Compressive Strength Test (Drilling

Core Method)
This test is conducted on cylindrical concrete
core specimens removed from the hardened
concrete by a drilling operation.
A core drilling machine is used for cutting and removing the concrete samples. This machine is equipped
with diamond cutters located on the end of a cylindrical (tube-like) cutting device. As the machine is
operated, the cylinder shaped cutter rotates at a high speed.
The diameter of the concrete core specimen removed from the hardened concrete depends on the inner
diameter of the cylindrical cutting device. Usually concrete cores having diameters of 10 cm or 15 cm are
obtained.
The removed core specimens may have different lengths depending on

the thickness of the hardened concrete that they are cut from.
If the core specimen is too long, it is shortened so that it will have a

length/diameter ratio of 2.0.
Core specimens which have a length/diameter ratio of less than

2.0 can also be used for compressive strength testing purposes,
but a specimen having a length/diameter ratio of less than 1.0
should not be used.
Where
is the breaking load?

and A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen
If the ratio of the length to the diameter of the specimen is less than 2.0, allowance is made; the compressive
strength found by the test should be multiplied with the correction
factors shown in Table.
Table. Strength Correction Factors for Core Specimens Having Length/Diameter<2.0

L/d Correction Factor
1.75 0.98

38
1.50 0.96
1.25 0.93
1.00 0.87
Determination of the compressive strength of concrete by testing core specimens is useful in finding
the strength of concrete that is present in a structure. As is known, the strength of the concrete in the
structure may be different from the strength found by the standard test method. The operations applied
to the concrete - in the structure such as placing, consolidation, and curing may lead to these differences
in the strength. This method provides the possibility of finding the actual quality of the concrete in the
structure.
MODULUS ELASTICITY
Defining modulus of elasticity of concrete is difficult;Because concrete is not a linearly elastic material
Since the slope of σ - ε curve of concrete is not constant. We must first describe modulus of elasticity
(Ec).
In general; Modulus of elasticity defined for concrete is the instantaneous Ec. This is not influenced by the
time effect (mean Ec is function of many variables)
Instantaneous Ec can be defined in 3 ways.
– Initial Modulus of Elasticity, E

– Secant modulus
– Tangent modulus
Modulus Elasticity
a) Initial modulus: tangent to curve at origin.

b) Secant modulus: slope at secant at a given stress usually 0.5fc.

39
c) Tangent modulus: tangent at a given stress; usually 40 to 50% of compressive strength.
d) Depending on the problem, these three can be used in design and research.
However, secant modulus is mostly used and codes referred.
• Categorize the elastic behaviour of concrete in terms of the varius type of elastic behaviour
of engineering materials.The definition of pure elasticity is that strains appear and disappear
immediately on aplication and removal of stress.
• The stress- strain curve of the figure illustrate two categories of pure elasticity.
a) is linear and elastic
b) is brittle materials, such as glass and most rocks are described as linear and non elastic
c) because seperate linear curves exist for the loading and unloading brunches of stress-strain
diagram and permanent deformation exists after removal of load.
d) described as non linear and non elastic behaviour.
SHRINKAGE
Types of Shrinkages
Variour types of shrinkages recognised in concrete are as shown in Fig.

Types of Shrinkages (Source: P.K. Mehta)
Plastic Shrinkage Cracks: They show up due to evaporation of water in the fresh concrete. Generally,
due to solar radiation and convection effect, temperature of the concrete slab would be higher than the
atmospheric temperature. Higher the difference between concrete surface and atmosphere, more will be
the evaporation and hence plastic shrinkage cracks.
How do they look like and what are the consequence ?
• Plastic shrinkage cracks are parallel and can spread to a length of 20 to 30cm.
• They are not wide or deep. They don’t extend to the edges

40
• These cracks do not affect the structure. If left unattended, they may allow the entry of injurious
elements from the atmosphere and spoil the concrete.
CREEP
• Creep is the time-dependent flow of concrete caused by its being subjected to stress.
• This deformation, which occurs rapidly at first and then decreases with time, can be several times
larger than the strains due to elastic shortening.
• Using more scientific approach;When load is applied to concrete at time to, a deformation occurs
immediately which can be expressed as the elastic strain, ε (to). If this applied load is left on
concrete producing a constant stress, the instantaneous elastic strain ε (to) begins to increase.
• The rate of increase is fast during the first 3 months, after which it begins to slow down.
• Whichever slowing rate, creep continues for years
• Creep of Concrete resulting from the action of a sustained stress is a gradual increase in strain with
time; it can be of the same order of magnitude as drying shrinkage.
• Creep does not include any immediate elastic strains caused by loading or any shrinkage or swelling
caused by moisture changes.
• When a concrete structural element is dried under load the creep that occurs is one to two times
as large as it would be under constant moisture conditions. Adding normal drying shrinkage to this
and considering the fact that creep can be several times as large as the elastic strain on loading,
it may be seen that these factors can cause considerable deflection and that they are of great

41
importance in structural mechanics
Effects of Creep
• Creep of plain concrete does not by itself affect strength, although under very high stresses creep
hastens the approach of the limiting strain at which failure takes place.
• The influence of creep on the ultimate strength of a simply supported, reinforced concrete beam
subjected to a sustained load is insignificant, but deflection increases considerably and may in
many cases be a critical consideration in design..
• Another instance of the adverse effects of creep is its influence on the stability of the structure
through increase in deformation and consequent transfer of load to other components.
• Thus, even when creep does not affect the ultimate strength of the component in which it takes
place, its effect may be extremely serious as far as the performance of the structure as a whole is
concerned.
• The loss of prestress due to creep is well known and accounted for the failure of all early attempts
at prestressing. Only with the introduction of high tensile steel did prestressing become a successful
operation.
• The effects of creep may thus be harmful. On the whole, however, creep unlike shrinkage is
beneficial in relieving stress concentrations and has contributed to the success of concrete as a
structural material
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE;
• Durability of concrete’ is ability to resist weathering action, chemical action, abrasion, and other
condition throughout its service life in a structure
• During the recent past, the problem of early deterioration of concrete structures has assumed
serious proportion all over the world. Durable concrete can be defined as one that is designed,
constructed and maintained to perform satisfactorily in the expected environment for the specified
designed life.
• Generally, concrete suffers from more than one causes of deterioration, which is generally seen
in the form of cracking, spalling, loss of strength, etc. It is now accepted that the main factors
influencing the durability of concrete is its impermeability to the ingress of oxygen, water, carbon
dioxide, chlorides, sulphates, etc.,
• Concrete, under ideal conditions, protects embedded steel against atmospheric influences by
denying access to aggressive elements, such as moisture, air, chlorides, sulphates and chemical
fumes.
Causes of Deterioration:
1-Design and construction defects

2-Poor quality materials
3-Inadequate supervision
4-Inadequate understanding of materials
5-Technological factors
6-Curing
7-Steel

42
8-Cover concrete
9-Planning and construction details
10- Poor controls at Ready mix concrete plant
1-Design and construction defects

Design of concrete structures, including detailing of reinforcement, governs the performance of structures
to a considerable degree. Structures that are correctly designed and have good workmanship, develop
narrow cracks, as compared to poorly designed/workmanship.
2-Poor quality materials

The specified quality of materials should be ensured by frequent tests on cement, aggregates and water.
Alkali-aggregate reaction and sulphate attack. Clayey material in fine aggregate weakens the mortar-
aggregate bond, and reduces concrete strength.
3-Inadequate supervision
It is essential to ensure the minimum specification of concrete mix and construction practice are
satisfied.
4-Inadequate understanding of materials

Concrete technology and structural design should not be separated, but unified in order to obtain durable
structures of adequate safely margin. In most of cases, ductile material with low Young's Modules is
required in order to control early cracking of concrete. In the absence of such an ideal material, the use of
surface coatings is recommended for durable structures.
5-Technological factors
The techniques of concrete manufacturing, handling and processing influence the quality of concrete
significantly. The technological factors responsible for structural deterioration are given here.
• Characteristics of concrete making materials and the deleterious substances present in them
• Concrete mix proportions
• Water-Cement ratio
• Cement content of concrete Water content of the mix
• Admixtures
• Workmanship in mixing, placing, compaction and curing of concrete
6-Curing
• The strength and permeability of the cover-concrete can only be achieved if concrete is cured
adequately. The exposed surfaces of concrete should be kept continuously wet for at least 7 days
from the date of placing concrete for proper curing. However, longer curing periods, up to 28
days, are recommended for blended cement.
7-Steel
Steel is prone to corrosion when not protected adequately. Corrosion mechanism and process are governed
by several parameters and require a multi directional approached to prevent deterioration of corrosion
structures. Some of corrosion prevention methods are given below;
• Metallurgical methods
• Corrosion inhibitors
• Coating to reinforcement

43
• Cathodic protection
• Corrosion retardant steel.
• Coating to concrete
8-Cover concrete
The concrete cover should be dense, strong, impermeable in order to resist the ingress of deleterious
substances. The IS 456: 2000, specifies concrete cover 20 mm for mild exposure conditions increasing to
75 mm in extreme conditions.
9-Planning and construction details

Architectural planning and Constructional details often determine the durability of structures. Attention
to small and simple details of structural components prevents possible local deterioration of materials and
subsequent effects on structure performance. It should be noted that, the exposed surface should be of
simple profile to avoid local deterioration. Complex details often lead to maintenance problem later.
Mechanism of Deterioration:
Chemical processes govern the rate of decomposition of concrete, and thus its durability. The reaction
involves movement of reaction substances within concrete or from atmosphere to concrete. The process
depends on the nature of chemicals, pore structure and ambient temperature as well as characteristic of
concrete.
• Acid attack
• Sulphate Attack
• Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
• Carbonation/Chloride Induced Corrosion
Acid attack involves conversion of calcium compound to calcium salts after attacking acid. The structure
of the hardened concrete is destroyed by acid attack, the rate of deterioration depends not only on the
strength of the reactants but also upon the solubility of the resultant salts and their transport. The acids
destroy concrete by converting hardened concrete, and its pore system. Impermeability of concrete is of
little consequence in this case.
Sulphate attacks on only aluminate compounds, calcium and hydroxyl ions of hardened Portland cement
forming ettringite and gypsum. In the presence of sufficient water, these reactions of delayed ettringite
formation cause expansion of concrete leading to irregular cracking. The cracking of concrete provides
further access to penetrating substances and to progressive deterioration.
Alkalis react with silica containing aggregates and not with cement. The pore solution in concrete is lime-
saturated and contains potassium and sodium ions. Free alkalis present in cement dissolve in the mixing
water and forming a caustic solution, which attack the reactive silica in the aggregate. The alkali silica gel
so formed swells in the presence of moisture, and exerts osmotic pressure on the concrete internally. This
may result in pattern cracking and loss of strength, particularly in thin section.
The intrinsic nature of concrete is to be very protective of embedded steel. As soon as steel is placed in the
high pH concrete (>12), a thin dense passive layer forms that is virtually continuous and the subsequent
rate of attack is so low as to be insignificant. Unfortunately when the carbonation front reaches the
steel or when chlorides diffuse into the steel and reach a threshold level, this coherent protective layer is
replaced by a porous incoherent expansive coating.
The formerly protective oxide layer becomes an expansive porous oxide layer which causes cracking and

44
Schematic representation of Carbonation Schematic representation of Steel Corrosion
Pore-filling effect and secondary hydration of Fly Ash
eventually spalling of the concrete cover layer. We must make concrete more protective of the steel
reinforcement so that it will protect the passivating oxide layer. Making better concrete, using only Portland
cement, will not make a substantial improvement. Fortunately Fly Ash/Slag added to a properly designed
and cured concrete mixture will.
The key to protecting the protective passive layer is to make a much more impermeable concrete than we
have made in the past. This can be done using a Fly Ash/Slag concrete with very low permeability, which
will delay the arrival of carbonation and chlorides at the level of the steel reinforcement.
4.3. MIX PROPORTIONING

The very first task.

45
Is concrete mix proportioning a Science or an Art? We know that concrete mix proportioning can not just
be left to the judgment or guess work of the concrete mixer operator or a contractor.
We also know that exact mathematical rules do not and can not obtain to get the precise proportions of
a concrete mix as the variables are too many.
It is both a Science and Art. These two are dovetailed intricately – we can not say when is which. For a
concrete mix design or proportioning, the very first question one should ask is concrete for what? Is it
for a storage shed or for the ground floor column of a 50 storeyed building? Is it for a gravity dam or for
a flowing and self consolidating concrete? Or for what else ? This question needs a precise answer. It is
important to know the location of the structure for which concrete mix is required to be proportioned.
Location decides the exposure conditions. A structure being built in a coastal area falls under severe/very
severe exposure conditions. If the mix is to be proportioned for a footing in a non-aggressive soil, it shall
be considered as moderately exposed. There can not be the same mix for the ground floor column of a 50
storeyed building and for a small span slab in the same building.
The second Question is, does the concrete need slow setting characteristics or does it need rapid hardening?
Rapid hardening would also normally imply some what rapidly setting characteristics though with in limits.
Either hydration of cement is slow or fast but it can not be both at the same time!
The third question is “who is going to place it and consolidate the concrete? How will these processes
be done? If it has to be done by a semiskilled person controlling a gang of unskilled labour as we see in
many places, we know what type of quality control that will be possible despite the high intentions of the
mix designer. But if pumped concrete is placed by articulated vehicles by experienced operators one can
achieve a very good quality control. This question will decide the margin of safety needed for a mix design.
It will also indicate the extent of risk of failure of the required concrete quality.
The fourth question is, from where the materials are going to come? Though all cement bags may have
an ISI mark, cements vary a lot from factory to factory, batch to batch. It is necessary to understand the
characteristics of cements coming from a particular factory at a particular time. Grinding balls of the ball
mill in the factory may have worn out. Cement kiln temperatures may have been affected by the type to
fuel used. Raw materials may not be excellent or correctly prepared. Gypsum may be more a commercial
byproduct than of pure quality. As such the cements that we are going to use needs to be assessed
thoroughly. Not just by the setting times and the so-called 7 day or 28 day strength of 7 cm standard
sand and mortar cubes but by understanding fully the characteristics of the cement that is that is likely to
be used.
Fifthly, aggregates may come from crushers that yield a lot of flaky and elongated particles. Aggregates
may have friable nature. May also contain on them lot of dust. Sand may be contaminated with mud or
chemicals. It may be poorly graded. It may contain too many fine particles (in the form of silt). It may show
high water absorption. These need to be investigated.
Lastly, water that is likely to be used may contain many salts. It may have undesirable acidity or alkalinity.
So, these questions need through answers before we start mix proportioning for an important project.
A lot of information needs to be obtained, a task normally not under taken by a contractor or a field
engineer. But the concrete mix designer will be concerned with these as they influence the product that
he has designed. He has to demand this information. One may ask: Is concrete mix design so difficult?
Answer is No. This information can be systematically and routinely obtained and kept in the office or
laboratory of the mix designer. That will be a part of his information system.
Role of Admixtures.
When it comes to our body’s health, the days of eating one omnibus ‘leha’ or ‘churan’ are over. We go

46
to different specialists depending on the nature of the problem. And we take different drugs for different
needs. So also, now a day, concrete needs to be precisely tailored for specific purposes.
For this purpose of specifically tailoring a concrete for a particular need, especially to achieve high strength
concretes, or highly durable concretes or self consolidating concrete or economical concretes we need an
extra ingredient, which is the admixture. IS 456 – 2000 recognises use of mineral admixtures such as:
• fly ash,
• blast furnace slag,
• condensed silica fume,
• rice husk ash.
• meta-kaolin
in making standard concrete mixes to high performance concrete mixes. The use of mineral admixtures is
likely to enhance concrete properties through physico-chemical interaction. Among the mineral admixtures
that are permitted to be used in concrete, fly ash stands out due to its availability, chemical interaction for
long term durability, physical interaction for workability enhancement. However, there suitability should
be established at least through physical- chemical tests such as fineness, lime reactivity, loss on ignition,
soluble silica content etc., before use.
Chemical admixtures have revolutionized concrete technology all over the world. They have come to stay.
A thorough understanding of what an admixture can do and what it cannot do is very much necessary. A
concrete mix designer must be fully aware of the various types of admixtures, their availability in the local
market and relative advantages and disadvantages of competing commercial products. He should not be
carried away by commercial information only but must be aware of published literature and experiments
conducted by unbiased laboratories. This is very important since getting a favourable result in one property
may sometimes mean unfavourable feature in another.
It is really a specialist’s job. Otherwise, it will be like an ill qualified medical practitioner prescribing highly
specialized neurological or cardiac drugs to a patient without knowing their implications fully.
Criteria for Mix Design or Mix Proportions.

The 28 day cube strength is usually the principal criterion. But this is not enough. For example, criteria for
a high performance concrete shall satisfy strength criteria and any one or all the laid durability criterion
such as:
• Chloride ion diffusion

• Water permeability
• Freeze-Thaw resistance
• Sulphate attack
• Early (one day) strength etc.,
For every project the criteria needs to be clearly obtained from
(a) structural engineer

(b) project engineer and
(c) contractor before a concrete mix design is embarked on.

47
Differences in their opinions or needs require to be reconciled and clarified. There is usually a conflicting
thought between a contractor working for better productivity from labour and materials and project
engineer looking for assured quality at all costs.
Variables in Concrete Mix Design and Mix Selection Process.

With concrete-making materials of given characteristics and with given job conditions, the variables
generally under the control of a mix designer are as follows: the cement paste-aggregate ratio in the
mixture, the water-cement ratio in the cement paste, the sand-coarse aggregate ratio in the aggregates,
and the use of admixtures.
The task of mixture proportioning aims at optimizing several conflicting requirements such as workability,
strength, durability and cost applying sound technical principles governing mixture proportioning
procedures. It is complicated in the sense if a specific variable is changed, certain desired properties may
be oppositely affected. For example, the addition of water to a stiff mix with given cement content will
improve the flowability of fresh concrete but at the same time will reduce the strength. In fact, workability if
self is composed of two main components namely, consistency (ease of flow) and cohesiveness (resistance
to segregation), and both tend to be affected in an opposite manner when water is added to a given mix.
The process of mix proportioning boils down to the art of balancing various conflicting requirements.
Numerous procedures for computing the concrete mixture proportions are available in most countries
of the world. Mathematical approaches to determine the correct proportion of component materials of
a concrete mixture meting a given set of specifications generally do not work because the materials vary
widely in their characteristics. This explains why there is a large number of empirical methods based on
extensive test data developed from local materials.
Concrete mixture proportions can be obtained by the widely used recommended methods of ACI
Committee 211 and British Method of Mix Design. Our own BIS method (IS:10262-2009) gives
reasonably good proportions when used judiciously. Most methods take in to account the m.s.a and
slump requirements to choose the water content in the mix. The water-cement ratio is chosen based on
the strength requirement and now on durability. The aggregates are chosen either based on fresh density
of concrete or bulk density of aggregates and its volume fraction in unit volume of concrete which takes
in to account the shape and size factor and sand grading.
There is renewed interest in the least voids grading of aggregates as it gives maximum packing density
and hence minimum cement. There are number of theoretical studies on packing density of granular
materials, which is defined as the solid volume in a unit total volume. The objective of particle packing
studies has been to obtain mathematical modeling or ideal grading curves that help to determine the ideal
combination of different size fractions of aggregate particles to produce minimum void space.
There are many methods for determining the mixture proportions of concrete when compressive strength
is the design criterion. However there is not much information when other criteria, such as modulus
of elasticity, fracture energy, or durability aspects are specified. Monteiro P.J.M and Helene P.R.L have
suggested developing mix design nomogram from well- established concrete relationships. Fig 4.1 and
Fig 4.2 show two such typical nomogram for constant consistency but different design criterion. They
typically follow Abrams’ law between strength/modulus of elasticity Vs W/C, Lyse’s law between W/C Vs
Aggregate- cement ration and Molinari’s law between cement content Vs. aggregate to cement ratio.
Nomogram for different design criteria using locally available materials can serve as a very handy tool to
mix design engineers.
Lastly, the admixture dosage is an issue while proportioning mixes using any of the available methods.

48
Fig 4.1. Mix design nomogram for a given consistency of fresh concrete.
Compressive Strength as the design criterion.
Fig 4.2. Mix design nomogram for a given consistency of fresh concrete.
Modulus of Elasticity as the design criterion.
Compatibility studies and determination of optimum dosage has to be carried out based on the prevailing
codal practice which is quite cumbersome at times. However, Marsh cone has emerged as a handy tool
to determine the optimum dosage and also can give information on compatibility.
Importance of Trial Mixes and Laboratory Castings.

The calculated mix proportions shall be checked by means of trial batches. The concrete for trial mixes shall
be produced by methods of actual production and with the materials that are used in actual production.
Pan mixer is required to be used to simulate the site conditions.

49
The trial mixes tell the real problems likely in compatibility of cement and admixtures, harshness due to
aggregate shape, bleeding and segregation etc.
Importance of Placing, Compacting and Curing Methods.
With out proper placing, compaction and curing, all the care taken in design will be lost. How to ensure
them?
• Proper placing of concrete using pumps, articulated vehicle delivery, buckets in cranes etc.,
• Vibratory compaction. Self compaction preferred where skilled labour is in short supply or huge
quantity of concrete to be poured in relatively short period.
• Continuous moist curing is a must for all cementitious materials. Many options are available.
Curing compounds, which prevent evaporation of moisture, are gaining importance in tropical
climates.
4.4. MIX PROPORTION CALCULATIONS AS PER IS 10262-2009

IS 456:2000 has recommended that minimum grade of concrete shall not be less than M20 in reinforced
concrete work. Design mix concrete is preferred to nominal mix. If design mix concrete cannot be used for
any reason on the work for grades M20 or lower, nominal mixes may be used with permission of engineer-
in-charge, which, however is likely to involve higher cement content. Accordingly all concrete above M20
grade for RCC work must be of design mixes.
DATA FOR MIX PROPORTIONING:

The following basic data are required for mix proportioning of a particular grade of concrete:
a) Exposure condition of the structure under consideration (for guidance see Table 3 of IS 456-
2000)
b) Grade Designation: Minimum grade of concrete to be designed for the type of exposure condition
of the structure under consideration (for guidance see Tables 3 and 5 of IS 456-2000). This has
been reproduced in Appendix
c) Type of cement, viz., Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), Portland
Slag Cement (PSC) etc.
d) Maximum nominal size of aggregate to be used, viz. 40 mm, 20 mm and 12.5 mm.
e) Minimum cement content (for guidance see Tables 3,4,5 and 6 of IS 456-2000)
f) Maximum water-cement ratio (for guidance see Tables 3 and 5 of IS 456-2000)
g) Degree of workability desired (for guidance see Clause 7 of IS 456-2000) (this has been reproduced
in Appendix as Table 5)
h) Maximum temperature of concrete at the time of placing
i) Early age strength requirements, if required
j) Type of aggregate viz. Granite, Basalt, Natural River sand, Crushed Stone sand etc.
k) Maximum cement content.
l) Use of admixture, its type and condition of its use.
The step-by-step procedure of mix proportioning is as follows:

50
I. Target Mean Compressive Strength for Mix Proportioning:
f'ck = fck + 1.65 x S, where
f'ck = Target mean compressive strength at 28 days,
fck = Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days,
S = Standard deviation N/mm2
Standard deviation shall be calculated for each grade of concrete using at least 30 test strength of samples
(taken from site) when a mix is used for the first time. In case sufficient test results are not available, the
values of standard deviation given in Table 1 may be assumed for the proportioning of mixes in the first
instance. As soon as the sufficient test results are available, actual standard deviation shall be calculated
and used to proportion the mix properly.
TABLE 1 Assumed Standard Deviation
SNo. Grade of Concrete Assumed Standard

Deviation N/mm2
1 M 10
3.5
2 M 15
3 M 20
4.0
4 M 25
5 M 30
6 M 35
7 M 40
5.0
8 M 45
9 M 50
10 M 55
Note: The above values correspond to site control having proper storage of cement; weigh batching of all
materials; controlled addition of water; regular checking of all materials, aggregate grading and moisture
content; and periodical checking of workability and strength. Where there is deviation from the above,
values given in the above table shall be increased by 1 N/mm2
II. Selection of Water–Cement Ratio:

Concrete made today contains more than four basic ingredients. Use of both chemical and mineral
admixtures has changed properties of concrete both in fresh and hardened state for good. Even quality
of both coarse and fine aggregates in terms of grading, shape, size and texture has improved with the
improvement in crushing technologies. With all these variables playing its role, concretes produced with
same water-cement ratio may have different compressive strength. For a given set of materials, it is
preferable to establish relationship between compressive strength and free water-cement ratio. If such a
relationship is not available, maximum water-cement ratio for various environmental exposure conditions
given in Table 5 of IS 456-2000 may be taken as a starting point. Any water-cement ratio assumed based
on the previous experience for a particular grade of concrete should be checked against the maximum
values permitted from the point of view of durability and lower of the two shall be adopted.
III Selection of Water Content:

51
The quantity water considered per cubic metre of concrete decides the workability of the mix.. Use of water
reducing chemical admixtures in the mix helps to achieve increased workability at lower water contents.
Water content given in Table 2 of the standard is the maximum value for a particular maximum nominal
size of aggregate (angular) which will achieve a slump in the range of 25 mm to 50 mm. Depending on
the performance of an admixture (conforming IS 9103-19993) which is proposed to be used in the mix, a
minimum of 20% of water reduction shall be considered in case of superplasticisers. Use of Poly Carboxylic
Ether (PCE) based superplasticisers results in water reduction up to 30%.
Water content per unit volume of concrete is required to be reduced when there is increase in aggregate
size, use of rounded aggregates, reduction in water-cement ratio and slump. Water content per unit
volume of concrete is required to be increased when there is increased temperature, cement content, fine
aggregate content, water-cement ratio.
TABLE 2 Maximum Water Content per Cubic Metre of Concrete for Nominal Maximum Size of Aggregate
SNo. Nominal Maximum Size of Aggregate Maximum Water Content1

mm kg
1. 10 208
2 20 186
3. 40 165
Note: These quantities of mixing water are for use in computing cementitious material contents for trial
batches.
1 Water Content corresponding to Saturated Surface Dry aggregate

Reduction in water content can be made in following cases:
a) For sub angular aggregates, the water estimate can be reduced by 10 kg.
b) For gravel with crushed particles, the water content can be reduced 20 kg.
c) For rounded gravel, the water content can be reduced by 25 kg.
For higher workability (other than 25 mm to 50 mm) the required water content may be established by
trial or an increase by about 3% for every additional 25 mm slump or alternatively by use of chemical
admixtures conforming to IS 9103-1999.
Use of water reducing admixture: If use of chemical water reducing admixture is permitted for the job
in hand in proportioning of the mix, reduction in assumed water content shall be made depending on
the type of admixture. Water reducing admixtures will usually decrease water content by 5 to 10% and
superplasticisers decrease water content by 20% and above at appropriate dosages.
IV Calculation of Cementitious content:

Water content calculated in step V is divided by the water-cement ratio selected in step II, to arrive at
cement content or cementitious content (if mineral admixtures are used). The total cementitious content
so calculated should be checked against the minimum content for the requirements of durability and the
greater of the two values adopted. The maximum cement content alone (excluding mineral admixtures
such as flyash and GGBS) shall not exceed 450 kg/cu.m as per clause no. 8.2.4.2 of IS 456-2000.
The total cementitious content so calculated should be checked against the minimum cement content
for the requirements of durability for various exposure conditions and the greater of the two values
adopted.

52
V Estimation of coarse aggregate proportion
Table 3 of the standard gives volume of coarse aggregate for unit volume of total aggregate for different
zones of fine aggregate (as per IS 383-19704) for a water-cement ratio of 0.5 which requires to be suitably
adjusted for other water-cement ratios. This table is based on ACI 211.1-19915 “Standard Practice for
Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and Mass Concrete”. Aggregates of essentially the same
nominal maximum size, type and grading will produce concrete of satisfactory workability when a given
volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate is used. It can be seen that for equal
workability, the volume of coarse aggregate in a unit volume of concrete is dependent on nominal
maximum size, water-cement ratio and grading zone of fine aggregate.
Table 3 Volume of Coarse Aggregate per unit volume of Total Aggregate for different Zones of Fine
Aggregate
Nominal Maximum Volume of Coarse Aggregate1 per Unit Volume of Total Aggregate for Different
Size of Aggregate Zones of Fine Aggregate (For water-cement ratio=0.5)
mm
Zone IV Zone III Zone II Zone I
10 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
20 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
40 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
1
Volumes are based on Aggregates in Saturated Surface Dry condition
Note: Volume coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate needs to be changed at the rate of -/+
0.01 for every ±0.05 change in water-cement ratio.
VI Combination of different sizes of coarse aggregate fractions:

Coarse aggregates from stone crushers are normally available in two sizes viz., 20 mm (popularly called as
¾” size) and 12.5 mm (popularly called as ½” size). Coarse aggregates of different sizes can be suitably
combined so as satisfy graded requirements (cumulative percent passing) as per Table 2 of IS 383-1970 for
the particular maximum nominal size of aggregate.
VII Estimation of Fine Aggregate Proportion:

In the steps mentioned above, all the ingredients of concrete are estimated except the coarse and fine
aggregate content. These quantities are determined by finding out the absolute volume of cementitious
material, water and the chemical admixture; by dividing their mass by their respective specific gravity,
multiplying by 1/1000 and subtracting the result of their summation by unit volume. The value so obtained
is the volume of total aggregate. Volume of coarse aggregate for unit volume of total aggregate is already
estimated in step V. The contents of coarse and fine aggregate per unit volume of concrete are determined
by multiplying with their specific gravities and multiplying by 1000.
VIII Trial Mixes:

The calculated mix proportions shall be checked by means of trial batches as follows:
The calculated mix proportions shall be checked by means of trial batches. The concrete for trial mixes shall
be produced by methods of actual production. Ribbon type mixer and pan mixer are required to be used
to simulate the site conditions where automatic batching and pan mixers are used for the production of
concrete.

53
Trial Mix No.1: Workability in terms of slump of the trial mix shall be carefully observed for freedom from
segregation, bleeding and for finishing properties. If the measured slump of Trial mix No.1 is different from
targeted value, Trial Mix No.2 shall be carried out as explained below
Trial Mix No.2 : The water and/or admixture content shall be adjusted suitably in the Trial Mix No.1. With
this adjustment, the mix proportion shall be recalculated keeping the free water cement ratio at the pre-
selected value. With this trial more or less the stipulated value of slump will be obtained. In addition two
more Trial Mixes No.3 and 4 shall be made with water content same as Trial Mix No.2 and varying the free
w/c ratio by ±10% of the preselected value.
After laboratory trials field trial shall be carried out.
ANNEXURE -1
Illustrative Example for Mix Proportioning of M 20 Grade of Concrete
An example illustrating the mix proportioning for a concrete of M 20 grade is given through Steps 1 to
11.
1 STIPULATIONS FOR PROPORTIONING
a) Grade of designation : M 20
b) Type of cement : OPC 43 grade conforming to IS 8112-19896 (Reaff. 2005)
c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate : 20 mm
d) Minimum cement content : 300 kg/m3
e) Maximum water-cement ratio : 0.55
f) Workability in terms of Slump : 100 mm
g) Exposure condition : Mild (for reinforced concrete)
h) Method of concrete placing : Pumping
i) Degree of supervision : Good
j) Type of aggregate : Crushed angular aggregate
k) Maximum cement content : 450 kg/m3
l) Chemical admixture type : Superplasticiser
2 TEST DATA OF MATERIALS
a) Cement : OPC 43 grade conforming to IS 8112

b) Specific gravity of cement : 3.15
c) Chemical admixture : Superplasticizer conforming to IS 9103-1999
d) Specific gravity of admixture : 1.145
e) Specific gravity of :
1) Coarse aggregate : 2.67
2) Fine aggregate : 2.60
f) Water absorption (IS 2386-19637)
1) Coarse aggregate : 0.5 percent
2) Fine aggregate : 2.0 percent

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g) Free (surface) moisture:
1) Coarse aggregate : Nil (absorbed moisture also nil)
2) Fine aggregate : 3%
h) Sieve analysis (IS 2386 Part I 8)
1) Coarse aggregate :
COMBINED SIEVE ANALYSIS OF 20mm AND 12.5mm COARSE AGGREGATE
Cumulative Cumulative % Cumulative % Cumulative % Requirements of
Sieve Size passing 20mm passing 12.5mm passing when Cumulative %
(mm) 20mm and 12.5mm passing for 20mm
are mixed in 60:40 graded aggregates
ratio as per IS:383-1970
(RA 2007)
40.0 100 100 100 100
20.0 92.6 100 95.6 95 – 100
12.5 7.8 99.0 44.3 --
10.0 0.4 77.6 31.3 25 – 55
4.75 0 2.6 1.0 0 – 10
2) Fine aggregate : Conforming to grading Zone I of Table 4 of
IS 383-1970 (Reaff.2007)
3 TARGET STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONING

f’ck = fck + 1.65 s
where
f’ck = target average compressive strength at 28 days
fck = characteristic compressive strength at 28 days, and
s = standard deviation
From Table 1, standard deviation, s = 4 N/mm2
Therefore, target strength = 20 + 1.65 x 4 = 26.6 N/mm2
4 SELECTION OF WATER – CEMENT RATIO

From Table 5 of IS 456, maximum water cement ratio = 0.55 for Mild exposure.
Let us adopt water – cement ratio as 0.55 only
5 SELECTION OF WATER CONTENT

From Table 2, maximum water content = 186 kg. (for 25 to 50 mm slump range)
for 20 mm aggregate
Estimated water content for 100mm slump = 186 + 6 x 186
100
= 197 kg
As superplasticizer is used, the water content can be reduced up to 20 percent and above
Based on trials with superplasticizer, water content reduction of 20 percent has been achieved. Hence, the

55
arrived water content = 197 x 0.80 = 157.6 kg.
6 CALCULATION OF CEMENT CONTENT

Water-cement ratio = 0.55
Cement content = 157.6
0.55
= 286.5 kg/m3
From Table 5 of IS 456, minimum cement content for ‘mild’ exposure condition = 300 kg/m3
286.5 kg/m3 <300 kg/m3, hence, adopt Minimum Cement content = 300 kg/m3
For this cement content total water content (for SSD condition) becomes 165 kg/cu.m of concrete.
7 PROPORTION OF VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE AND FINE AGGREGATE CONTENT

From Table 3, volume of coarse aggregate corresponding to 20 mm size aggregate and fine aggregate
(Zone I) for water-cement ratio of 0.50 = 0.60.
In the present case water-cement ratio is 0.55. Therefore, volume of coarse aggregate is required to
be decreased to increase the fine aggregate content. As the water-cement ratio is higher by 0.05, the
proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is decreased by 0.01 (at the rate of -/+ 0.01 for every + 0.05
change in water-cement ratio). Therefore, corrected proportion of volume of coarse aggregate for the
water-cement ratio of 0.55 = 0.59.
Note – In case the coarse aggregate is not angular one, then also volume of coarse aggregate may be
required to be increased suitably, based on experience
For pumpable concrete it is desirable to reduce these values up to 10 percent
Considering a reduction of 5% in the volume of coarse aggregate, we have
volume of coarse aggregate = 0.59 x 0.95 = 0.56
Volume of fine aggregate content = 1 – 0.56 = 0.44
8 MIX CALCULATIONS
a) Volume of concrete = 1 m3
b) Volume of cement = Mass of cement x 1
Specific gravity of cement 1000
= 300 x 1
3.15 1000
= 0.0952 m 3
c) Volume of water = Mass of water x 1

Specific gravity of water 1000
= 165 x 1
1 1000
= 0.165 m 3

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d) Volume of chemical admixture
(superplasticizer)(@ 1.0percent
by mass of cementitious material) = Mass of chemical admixture x 1
Sp. gravity of admixture x 1000
= 3 x 1
1.145 1000
= 0.00262 m3
e) Volume of all in aggregate = [a-(b+c+d)]
= 1-(0.0952+0.165+0.00262)
= 0.737 m3
f) Mass of coarse aggregate = e x volume of coarse aggregate x
Sp. Gr. of coarse aggregate x 1000
= 0.737 x 0.56 x 2.67 x 1000
= 1101.96 kg
g) Mass of fine aggregate = e x volume of fine aggregate x
Sp.Gr. of fine aggregate x 1000
= 0.737 x 0.44 x 2.6 x 1000
= 843.13 kg
9 MIX PROPORTIONS FOR TRIAL NUMBER 1
Cement = 300 kg/m3
Water = 165 kg/m3
Fine aggregate = 843 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate = 1102 kg/m3
Chemical admixture = 3 kg/m3
Water Cement ratio = 0.55
NOTE : Aggregates should be used in saturated surface dry condition. If otherwise, when computing
the requirement of mixing water, allowance shall be made for the free (surface) moisture contributed
by the fine and coarse aggregates. On the other hand, if the aggregates are dry, the amount of mixing
water should be increased by an amount equal to the moisture likely to be absorbed by the aggregates.
Necessary adjustments are also required to be made in mass of aggregates. The surface water and percent
water absorption of aggregates shall be determined according to IS 23867.
Adjustments for moisture in aggregates and water absorption of aggregates:

Correction for aggregates:
Fine aggregate (for 3% surface moisture) = 843 x 1.03
= 868.3 kg (wet)
It may be noted that absorbed water does not become the part of the mixing water and must be excluded
from the adjustment in added water.
Thus, the surface water contributed by fine aggregates = 3-2= 1 percent.

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Corrected water content = 165 - 843 (0.01)
= 156.57 kg.
The estimated batch masses (after corrections) are as given below:
Cement = 300 kg/m3
Water = 156.7 kg/m3
Fine aggregate = 868.3 kg/m3
Chemical admixture = 3 kg/m3
10 The slump shall be measured and the water content and dosage of admixture shall be adjusted
for achieving the required slump based on trial, if required. The mix proportion shall be reworked
for the actual water content and checked for durability requirements.
11 Two more trials having variation of + 10 percent of water-cement ratio in A-10 shall be carried
out and a graph between three water-cement ratios and their corresponding strengths shall be
plotted to work out the mix proportions for the given target strength for field trials. However,
durability requirement shall be met.
Mix Proportioning for manual placing of Concrete for M 20 Grade without the use of Admixture (as is the
practice in normal house constructions)
For manual placing concrete (non pumpable) workability in terms of slump required will be in the range
of 25 mm to 50 mm.
Considering the same data as in illustrative example for pumpable method of placing, mix proportioning
steps from 1 to 4 remain same.
From Table 2, maximum water content = 186 litre (for 25 to 50 mm slump range)
for 20 mm aggregate

Cement content = 186
0.55
= 338.18 kg/m3
From Table 5 of IS 456, minimum cement content for ‘mild’ exposure condition = 300 kg/m3
338 kg/m3 > 300 kg/m3, hence O.K.
7 PROPORTION OF VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE AND FINE AGGREGATE CONENT


58
be decreased to increase the fine aggregate content. As the water-cement ratio is higher by 0.05, the
proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is decreased by 0.01 (at the rate of -/+ 0.01 for every + 0.05
required to be increased suitably, based on experience.
8 MIX CALCULATIONS
= 338 x 1
3.15 1000
= 0.1073 m3
= 186 x 1
1 1000
= 0.186 m 3
d) Volume of all in aggregate = [a-(b+c)]

= 1-(0.1073+0.186)
= 0.7067 m3
e) Mass of coarse aggregate = d x volume of coarse aggregate x
Sp.Gr. of coarse aggregate x 1000
= 0.7067 x 0.59 x 2.67 x 1000
= 1113 kg
Sp.Gr. of fine aggregate x 1000
= 0.7067 x 0.41 x 2.6 x 1000
= 753.3 kg

9 MIX PROPORTIONS FOR TRIAL MIX NUMBER 1
Cement = 338 kg/m3
Water = 186 kg/m3

59
Fine aggregate (for 3% surface moisture) = 753 x 1.03
= 775.59 kg (wet)
It may be noted that absorbed water does not become the part of the mixing water and must be excluded
from the adjustment in added water.
Corrected water content = 186 - 753 (0.01)
= 178.47 kg.
Cement = 338.0 kg/m3
Water = 178.47 kg.kg/m3
NOTE: Based on the experience it can be mentioned here that both water content and cement content per
cubic meter of concrete mentioned above is very much on the higher side for M 20 Grade of Concrete.
For M 20 grade of concrete a minimum cement content of 300 kg/m3 will suffice the requirements. With
this cement content, water content works out to be 165 kg/m3 for maximum w/c ratio of 0.55 for mild
exposure condition. Revised mix proportions shall be calculated and verified for required workability in
terms of slump.
Revised Mix Proportions are:
Cement = 300 kg/m3
Water = 165 kg/m3
10. TRIAL MIX NUMBER 2 : The water content shall be adjusted suitably in the Trial Mix No.1. With
this adjustment, the mix proportion shall be recalculated keeping the free water cement ratio at the pre-
selected value. With this trial more or less the stipulated value of slump will be obtained. In addition two
more Trial Mixes No.3 and 4 shall be made with water content same as Trial Mix No.2 and varying the free
w/c ratio by ±10% of the preselected value.

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ANNEXURE -2
An example illustrating the mix proportioning for a concrete of M 30 grade is given in Steps 1 to 11
1 STIPULATIONS FOR PROPORTIONING
a) Grade designation : M 30
b) Type of cement : OPC 43 grade conforming to IS 8112
c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate : 20 mm
d) Minimum cement content : 320 kg/m3
e) Maximum water-cement ratio : 0.45
f) Workability : 100 mm (Slump)
g) Exposure condition : Severe (for reinforced concrete)
h) Method of concrete placing : Pumping
i) Degree of supervision : Good
j) Type of aggregate : Crushed angular aggregate
k) Maximum cement content : 450 kg/m3
l) Chemical admixture type : Superplasticizer
2 TEST DATE FOR MATERIALS

a) Cement used : OPC 43 grade conforming to IS 8112
b) Specific gravity of cement : 3.15
c) Chemical admixture : Superplasticizer conforming to IS 9103
d) Specific gravity of:
1) Coarse aggregate : 2.70
2) Fine aggregate : 2.67
e) Water absorption :
1) Coarse aggregate : 0.5 percent
2) Fine aggregate : 1.0 percent
f) Free (surface) moisture:
1) Coarse aggregate : Nil (absorbed moisture also nil)
2) Fine aggregate : Nil
g) Sieve analysis
1) Coarse aggregate
COMBINED SIEVE ANALYSIS OF 20mm AND 12.5mm COARSE AGGREGATE

Cumulative Cumulative % Cumulative % Cumulative % passing Requirements of
Sieve Size passing 20mm passing 12.5mm when 20mm and Cumulative % passing for
(mm) 12.5mm are mixed in 20mm graded aggregates
60:40 ratio as per IS:383-1970(RA
2007)
20.0 100 100 100 95 – 100
10.0 0 71.2 28.5 25 – 55
4.75 0 9.4 3.7 0 – 10

61
2) Fine aggregate : Conforming to grading Zone I of Table 4 of
IS 383-1970 (Reaff..2007)
3 TARGET STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONING

f’ck = fck + 1.65 s
where
f’ck = target average compressive strength at 28 days
fck = characteristic compressive strength at 28 days, and
s = standard deviation
From Table 1, standard deviation, s = 5 N/mm2
Therefore, target strength = 30 + 1.65 x 5 = 38.25 N/mm2
4 SELECTION OF WATER – CEMENT RATIO

From Table 5 of IS 456, maximum water cement ratio = 0.45
Adopt water – cement ratio as 0.45

From Table 2, maximum water content = 186 kg (for 25 to 50 mm slump range) for 20 mm aggregate
Estimated water content for 100mm slump = 186 + 6 x 186
100
= 197 kg.
As superplasticizer is used, the water content can be reduced up to 20 percent and above
Based on trials with superplasticizer, water content reduction of 20 percent has been achieved. Hence, the
arrived water content = 197 x 0.80 = 157.6 kg.

0.45
= 350 kg/m3
From Table 5 of IS 456, minimum cement content for ‘severe’ exposure condition = 320 kg/m3
350 kg/m3 > 320 kg/m3, hence, OK


62
be increased to decrease the fine aggregate content. As the water-cement ratio is lower by 0.05, the
proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is increased by 0.01 (at the rate of -/+ 0.01 for every + 0.05
For pumpable concrete these values should be reduced by 10 percent
Therefore, volume of coarse aggregate = 0.61 x 0.9 = 0.55
8 MIX CALCULATIONS
a)Volume of concrete = 1 m3
b)Volume of cement = Mass of cement x 1
= 350 x 1
3.15 1000
= 0.111 m3
= 157.6 x 1
1 1000
= 0.157 m3
d) Volume of chemical admixture
Specific gravity of admixture 1000
= 3.5 x 1
1.145 1000
= 0.0026 m3

e) Volume of all in aggregate = [a-(b+c+d)]
= 1- (0.111+0.157+0.0026)
= 0.727 m3
f) Mass of coarse aggregate = e x volume of coarse aggregate x
specific gravity of coarse aggregate x 1000
= 0.727 x 0.55 x 2.70 x 1000
= 1079.6 kg

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specific gravity of fine aggregate x 1000
= 0.727 x 0.45 x 2.67 x 1000
= 873.5 kg
Cement = 350 kg/m3
Water = 157.6 kg/m3
Chemical admixture = 3.5 kg/m3
Free (surface) moisture is nil in both fine and coarse aggregates.
Corrected water content = 186 + 873 (0.01) + 1079 (0.005)
= 171.7 kg.
Cement = 350.0 kg/m3
Water = 171.7 kg/m3
Superplasticiser = 3.5 kg/m3
10 The slump shall be measured and the water content and dosage of admixture shall be adjusted for
achieving the required slump based on trial, if required. The mix proportion shall be reworked for
the actual water content and checked for durability requirements
11 Two more trials having variation of + 10 percent of water-cement ratio in A-10 shall be carried out
and a graph between three water-cement ratios and their corresponding strengths shall be plotted
to work out the mix proportions for the given target strength for field trials. However, durability
requirement shall be met.

64
ANNEXURE -3
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE OF MIXPROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE (USING FLYASH AS PART
REPLACEMENT OF OPC)
An example illustrating the mix proportioning for a concrete of M 30 grade using flyash is given below:
Considering the same data as in illustrative example for M 30 Grade of concrete, mix proportioning steps
from 1 to 5 remain same.
The procedure of using Flyash as a partial replacement to OPC has been explained in step 6.

0.45
= 350 kg/m3
From Table 5 of IS 456, minimum cement content for ‘severe’ exposure condition = 320 kg/m3
350 kg/m3 > 320 kg/m3, hence, OK
Now, to proportion a mix containing flyash following steps are suggested.
a) Decide percentage of flyash to be used based on project requirement and quality of materials.
b) In certain situations increase in cementitious material content may be warranted. The decision on
increase in cementitious material content and its percentage may be based on experience and trial
(see note)
Note: This illustrative example is with increase of 10% in cementitious material content.
Cementitious material content = 350 x 1.1 = 385 kg/m3
Water content = 157.6 kg/m3
So, water-cement ratio = 157.6/385 = 0.41
Flyash @ 35% of total cementitious material content = 385 x 30%= 134.75 kg/m3
Say 135 kg/m3
Cement OPC = 385 -135 = 250 kg/m3
Saving of cement while using flyash = 350 – 250 = 100 kg/m3 , and
Flyash being utilized = 135 kg/m3

In the present case water-cement ratio is 0.41. Therefore, volume of coarse aggregate is required to be
increased to decrease the fine aggregate content. As the water-cement ratio is lower by approximately

65
0.1, the proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is increased by 0.02 (at the rate of -/+ 0.01 for every +
0.05 change in water-cement ratio). Therefore, corrected proportion of volume of coarse aggregate for
the water-cement ratio of 0.40 = 0.62.
For pumpable concrete these values should be reduced by 10 percent
Therefore, volume of coarse aggregate = 0.62 x 0.9 = 0.56
8 MIX CALCULATIONS
The mix calculations per unit volume of concrete shall be as follows:
= 250 x 1
3.15 1000
= 0.0794 m3
c) Volume of Flyash = Mass of Flyash x 1
Specific gravity of Flyash 1000
= 135 x 1
2.2 1000
= 0.0614 m3
d) Volume of water = Mass of water x 1
= 157.6 x 1
1 1000
= 0.157 m3
e) Volume of chemical admixture

Specific gravity of admixture 1000
= 3 x 1
1.145 1000
= 0.0026 m3

66
f) Volume of all in aggregate = [a-(b+c+d+e)]
= 1-(0.0794+0.0614+0.157+0.0026)
= 0.6996 m3
g) Mass of coarse aggregate = f x volume of fine aggregate x

Specific gravity of fine aggregate x 1000
= 0.6996 x 0.56 x 2.70 x 1000
= 1057.8 kg
h) Mass of coarse aggregate = f x volume of fine aggregate x Specific gravity of

fine aggregate x 1000
= 0.6996 x 0.44 x 2.67 x 1000
= 821.9 kg
Cement = 250 kg/m3
Flyash = 135 kg/m3
Water = 140 kg/mm3
Fine aggregate = 862 kg/mm3
Coarse aggregate = 1097 kg/mm3
Chemical admixture = 7 kg/mm3
Note : Aggregates should be used in saturated surface dry condition. If otherwise, when computing
the requirement of mixing water, allowance shall be made for the free (surface) moisture contributed
by the fine and coarse aggregates. On the other hand, if the aggregates are dry, the amount of mixing
water should be increased by an amount equal to the moisture likely to be absorbed by the aggregates.
Necessary adjustments are also required to be made in mass of aggregates. The surface water and percent
water absorption of aggregates shall be determined according to IS 2386.
10 The slump shall be measured and the water content and dosage of admixture shall be adjusted for
achieving the required slump based on trial, if required. The mix proportion shall be reworked for
the actual water content and checked for durability requirements
11 Two more trials having variation of + 10 percent of water-cement ratio in B-10 shall be carried out
and a graph between three water-cement ratios and their corresponding strengths shall be plotted
to work out the mix proportions for the given target strength for field trials. However, durability
requirement shall be met.

67
ANNEXURE -4
Some Tips for Trouble Shooting at Site
1. The mix segregates:
a. Reduce the water cement ratio - Higher workability often results in segregation hence reduce the
workability by reducing the water added to mix.
b. Increase the mixing time of mixer - Poor quality of mixing often results in segregation.
Segregating mix can be an indication of poor quality of mixer machine.
c. Increase the sand proportion - lack of fines often results in segregation. If sand is extremely coarse,
a part of sand may have to be replaced by fine stone dust.
d. Increase the cement content - Richer mixes have lesser tendency for segregation. This may be the
last resort as it adds to the cost.
2. The mix is not workable:
a. Reduce the sand content - If sand available at site is much finer than the one used in design, higher
specific surface will result in lower workability. A 10 to 15 kg reduction in sand per batch will
increase the workability. The reduction of sand should be compensated by increasing the quantity
of coarse aggregate by equivalent amount.
b. Check the silt content - Silty sand will greatly reduce the workability of mix. The silt particles greatly
enhance the specific surface and reduce the workability. Try replacing it by either non-silty sand or
crushed sand. Sand washing can be adopted if sand washing machine is available.
c. Check the mixer quality and mixing time - Inadequate mixing often results in poor workability.
3. Strength of Cube Results is low:
a. Check whether the water/cement ratio used in the concrete mix was high. This is one of the most
common reasons for low strength. This will be indicated by the slump reading of the concrete
batch from which the cubes have been cast. It is recommended that a slump reading be taken for
every batch from which cubes are cast. A slump reading in excess of the slump given in the design
mix indicates higher water cement ratio.
b. Check whether the cubes have been cast with proper compaction. The weight of concrete cube
less than 8 Kg may indicate poor compaction for normal aggregates.
c. Check if dimensions of concrete cubes are within tolerance of +/- 0.2 mm. If the dimensions of
cubes are not as specified above, the faces of the cube being crushed may not be parallel
to each other. This may result in reduced area of contact between cube and plate of CTM and also
eccentric loading.
d. Check if the raw materials used were satisfactory. Silty sand, flaky aggregates and cement with
poor strength will result in low strength. If the above raw materials are available, cubes should be
cast and tested to rule out the above possibility. A small sample of cement should always be kept
aside for later testing for every major casting. This sample can be tested for physical and chemical
properties in case of failure. In many cases, it is seen that no firm conclusion can be drawn because
of non-availability of cement for testing.
e. Check if mixing was proper and variation amongst different cube samples is within the tolerance
limit of 15% from the average. Improper mixing may result in non-uniform distribution of cement
paste and lower strengths.

68
f. Check if the concrete cubes have not been subjected to some vibration or shocks in the early
age.
4 The concrete does not set:
a. Check the physical and chemical properties of cement e.g. initial setting time, final setting time, 3,
7 & 28 days compressive strength.
b. Check if admixture used was proper and in correct dosage. A lignosulphonate base admixture
added at high dosage can impart permanent retardation to concrete.
c. Check if the water used for concrete mix is not contaminated. Presence of sugar/molasses in water
can result in retardation of concrete.
5 The concrete sets very fast:
a. If the aggregates are bone dry, they will absorb water from the surrounding mix resulting in
sudden drop in workability and early setting of concrete. This can be avoided by pre-wetting of
coarse aggregates before concreting.
b. Check if the cement has a false set. This will be indicated by laboratory testing.
c. Concreting in hot weather and low humidity conditions can result in rapid moisture loss and
sudden drop in workability and early set of concrete.
d. Check if the gypsum percentage in cement is proper by chemical analysis of cement.
6 There are cracks on the concrete surface immediately after casting:
Plastic shrinkage is the most common reason for surface cracks on concrete. Rapid loss of moisture in
the plastic stage results in plastic shrinkage cracks. The phenomenon is common when concreting is done
in windy condition and high ambient temperature with low humidity. To prevent plastic shrinkage the
concrete should be covered with plastic, immediately after casting. However, if there is a development of
hairline cracks in the beginning due to plastic shrinkage before starting of curing, they should be worked
with wire brush (circular motion) to close them and subsequently concrete surface should be kept moist.
7. Some common questions about mixture proportioning.
7.1 How to get the most economical mix proportion: -
a) Cement content can be reduced by selecting appropriate raw materials

i. Use of graded sand with low silt content
ii. Aggregates should be equi-dimensional with minimum flaky and elongated particles.
b) By using pozzolanic / cementitious materials like fly ash & ground granulated blast furnace slag
etc. These materials not only bring economy but also increase the workability and durability of
concrete.
c) By correct use of compatible admixture. If admixtures are used judiciously after testing
compatibility with cement, they substantially reduce the cement content. This is more so for higher
grades of concrete and where higher workability is desired. The cost incurred on admixture
in such cases is less than that required for additional cement.
7.2 What is the harmful effect of bleeding in concrete?
Bleeding is the phenomenon of water added in concrete, coming to the top surface by forming
capillaries. While some bleeding is normal and will replace the moisture loss occurring at the surface,

69
excessive bleeding will adversely affect the durability of concrete. This is because the capillaries formed
in the process will render the concrete porous. Excessive bleeding will also result in settlement of
heavier particles. It will increase the water/cement ratio at the surface reducing the strength of top skin
layer. Bleeding can be controlled by adopting correct gradation of aggregates, using lower water cement
ratio and use of air entraining agents.
7.3 Does use admixture have any harmful effect on durability of concrete?
Admixtures have been commonly used to make good quality concrete for several decades in India and
abroad. There is no evidence to suggest any negative impact of admixture on the durability of concrete if
they comply basic requirement of sulphates and chlorides.
7.4 Can crushed stone sand make as good a concrete as that made from natural river sand?
How does it affect the economy of mix design?
Crushed sand can make as good a concrete as that made of natural sand. In fact use of crushed stone
sand has become inevitable because of dwindling sources of natural river sand due to curb on its quarrying
for environmental protection. Crushed sand particle does not have the spherical shape of natural sand.
It is slightly irregular in shape and hence has more surface area resulting in greater water demand than
that of natural sand. However, if crushed sand is properly graded with adequate fines the mix may have
lower water demand when compared to poorly graded natural sand. Besides crushed sand can afford
better control on gradation when compared to natural sand. Hence crushed sand has become an alternate
option if good quality natural sand is not available.
7.5 Can we eliminate use of 10 mm aggregate?
Concrete technology does not reject the use of gap-graded concrete. At many sites, 20 mm
aggregates are used with natural sand without 10 mm down size aggregates. This is because 10mm
aggregates produced from jaw crusher are mostly flaky and does not give a good mix. However, the gap-
graded concrete has a higher tendency of segregation and bleeding. Hence it is not recommended
where concrete of moderate or high workability is required.
A note on durability of concrete

Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete
External Factors:
i. Sulphate attack
ii. Chloride attack
iii. Carbonation
iv. Effervescence (Leaching)
v. Shrinkage / Creep
vi. Alkali Aggregate Reaction
i. Sulphate attack:
• MgSO4, Na2SO4 when present in solution react with hardened cement paste.
• Result in volume changes and disrupts concrete
• Alternate wetting and drying is most harmful.

70
Remedy:
a) Use of PPC or PSC

b) Low Water/ cement ratio (W/C below 0.5)
c) Use of Puzzolona
ii. Chloride Attack:
• Attacks the reinforcement resulting in corrosion

• The corroded reinforcement swells 2 to 3 times its original volume
• The swelling of reinforcement ruptures the concrete.
Corrosion is Electro - Chemical process.
Remedy:
a) Use of low water/ cement ratio.

b) Use of Pozzolonic materials.
c) Proper design of concrete and good concreting practices.
d) Protective coating on steel.
iii. Carbonation
• CO2 in atmosphere reacts with concrete surface in presence of Moisture to form Carbonic Acids
• PH of concrete reduces from 13.5 to 8.5
• Loss of Alkalinity accelerates rusting of steel.
Remedy:
a) Use of low w/c Ratio or Higher grade of concrete.

b) Increase cover to reinforcement.
iv. Leaching (Efflorescence) :
• Hydration of cement by water leads to formation of Cement Gel and Lime CaOH2.
• Lime being water-soluble, dissolve in water and brought to surface by water.
Effect:
a) Increase Permeability of concrete.

b) Reduces the PH of concrete - enhancing corrosion.
c) Affects the aesthetics of concrete surface.
Remedy:
a) Use of low water/ cement ratio.

b) Use of Pozzolanic materials.

71
v. Shrinkage:
• Plastic shrinkage
• Drying Shrinkage
Effect:
a) Cracking
Remedy:
a) Early curing
b) Protecting concrete from Wind/ Sun.
c) Wetting of Aggregates / Subgrade.
vi. Alkali Aggregate Reaction
• Alkalis present in cement react with reactive form of silica present in Aggregates.
• Alkali Aggregate Reaction results in ‘Alkali Silicate Gel’.
• The gel is of unlimited swelling type - it imbibes water and swells resulting in cracking and
disruption.
Remedy:
a) Use of non - reactive aggregates.

b) Use of low Alkali cements with Alkali content less than 0.6 %.
c) Use of Puzzolonas
d) Use of low cement content.
REFERENCE
1. Kumar Mehta, P. and Richard W. Burrows, "Building Durable Structures in the 21st Century",
Concrete International, V23 No.3, March 2001.
2. De Larrard, F., “Concrete Mixture Proportioning”, E&FN Spon , London, pp.421,1999.
3. Standard Practice for Selecting proportions for Normal, Heavy-weight, and Mass Concrete, ACI
211.1, Report, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1, 1997.
4. Mehta, P.K, and P.C. Aitcin, Cement and Concrete Aggregates, Vol.12, No.2, pp.70-78,1990.
5. Kumar Mehta P.,and Paulo J.M. Monteiro, ”Concrete Microstructure, Properties, and Materials”,
TATA McGraw-Hill, Third Edition 2006.
6. Neville.A.M., “Properties of Concrete”, Fourth Edition, Pearson Education Asia Pvt..Ltd., Edinburgh
Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE England.
7. Department of Environment (DOE), Design of Normal Concrete Mixes (Building Research
Establishment, Walford, U.K.,1988.
8. Indian Standard Recommended Method of Concrete Mix Design (IS 10262-2009).

72
9. Monteiro P.J.M. and Helene, P.R.L.., “Designing Concrete Mixtures for Desired Mechanical
Properties and Durability”, Proceedings of Mohan Malhotra Symposium, SP-144, ”CONCRETE
TECHNOLOGY PAST,PRESENT,AND FUTURE”, American Concrete Institute(ACI) Detroit. Pp 519-
544, 1994..
10. Rakesh Kumar and M.V.B. Rao, "Self-Compacting Concrete - An emerging Technology in
construction Industry", ICI Journal., V.3 No.2, Jul.-Sep.2002,
11. Vengala J. and. Ranganath R.V., “Mixture Proportioning Procedures for Self-Compacting
Concrete”, Indian Concrete Journal, Vol.78, No. 8, pp 13-21, August 2004.
12. Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Cement Concrete , IS 456 : 2000 (Fourth Revision)
[Reaffirmed in 2002], Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
13. Concrete Mix Proportioning- Guidelines (First Revision), IS 10262 : 2009, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.
14. Specifications for admixtures for concrete (First Revision) , IS 9103 : 1999 [Reaffirmed in 2004],
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
15. Specifications for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete , IS 383 : 1970
(Second Revision) [Reaffirmed in 2007], Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
16. “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and Mass Concrete”, ACI
211.1-1991
17. Specification for Ordinary Portland Cement 43 Grade , IS 8112 : 1970 (Second Revision) [Reaffirmed
in 2007], Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
18. Methods of test for aggregates for concrete Part 3 Specific gravity, density, voids, absorption and
bulking, IS 2386 : 1963 (Fourth Revision) [Reaffirmed in 2007], Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
19. Methods of tests for aggregates for concrete, IS 2386 (Part I) : 1963 [Reaffirmed in 2007], Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
20. Specifications for pulverized fuel ash (Second Revision) , IS 3812 Part 1 : 2003, For use as Pozzolana
in cement, cement mortar and concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
21. Nagendra R., “Concrete Mix Proportioning as per New Revised IS 10262-2009, Indian Concrete
Journal, 2010.
22. Duracrete Mix Design Manual, Pune….

73
74
Chapter
5
Ready Mixed Concrete
READY MIXED CONCRETE

75
5. Ready Mixed Concrete
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
Construction industry is one of the most vibrant industries in India. Growing industrialization, urbanization,
globalization, regional and infrastructural balance have resulted in increased purchasing power of people.
This has resulted in boosting the construction industry activities in all the sectors like govt infrastructure
projects, residential, commercial, industrial and IT sectors.
Ready mixed concrete is an advanced technology, involving a high degree of mechanization and automation.
It is technologically superior to the traditional site mixed concrete (SMC). The benefits of RMC in terms
of quality, speed, life-cycle cost and eco-friendliness are some of its strengths compared to Site Mixed
Concrete. It is slowly replacing Site Mixed Concrete as a product in construction industry.
The invention and patenting of ready mixed concrete by Architect Jurgen heinrich Magens of Germany
in 1903 and later establishment of the first commercial ready mixed concrete plant in United Kingdom in
1939 led to the revolution in the construction industry for fast track construction. In India, the first use of
RMC took place in the city of Pune in 1987.Now RMC has its presence in all major cities of India.
5.2 SITE MIXED CONCRETE (SMC)

Concrete is defined as a mixture of cement (in some cases, secondary cementitious materials PFA,GGBS,
Microsilica, etc), water, aggregates, and admixtures.The cement and water form a paste that hardens and
bonds the aggregates together. Site mixed concrete is prepared manually at site.
Fig.5.1 Making of Site Mixed Concrete

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5.3 READY MIXED CONCRETE (RMC)
The Indian Standard Specification IS 4926:2003 defines RMC as: “Concrete mixed in a stationary mixer in
a central batching and mixing plant or in a truck-mixer and supplied in fresh condition to the purchaser
either at the site or into the purchaser’s vehicles”
RMC is defined by the American Concrete Institute’s Committee 116R-90 as: “Concrete that is manufactured
for delivery to a purchaser in a plastic and unhardened state”.
Fig.5.2 Ready Mixed Concrete

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Ready Mixed Concrete is manufactured in a factory or in a batching plant where quality control measures
are available and delivered to a work site by truck mounted transit mixers. The quality of concrete produced
by this method is superior to the SMC and is widely being accepted in the construction industry.
5.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SITE MIXED CONCRETE (SMC) AND READY-

MIXED CONCRETE (RMC)
The differences between SMC vs RMC in terms of production, quality, selection of raw materials, delivery,
placing and time have been tabulated in the tables 5.1 to 5.4
Table.5.1 Production of Concrete

1. Production Site Mixed Concrete Ready-mixed Concrete
Raw materials Required near mixer At RMC plant
Weigh batching Not done (approx.) Computerized
Moisture Adjustment Not done With moisture probe
W/C Ratio Rarely controlled (approx) Computerized
Admixture dosage Manually (approx.) Computerized
Mixing Inadequate Turbo twin shaft mixer
Mixing time Approximate Auto timer
Discharge On ground At location of structure
Rate 3 cum / hour / mixer 30-80 cum / hour
Table.5.2 Quality of Concrete
2. Quality Site Mixed Concrete Ready-mixed Concrete

Degree of control Rarely exercised Excellent
Yield Variable Consistent
Testing of fresh concrete Rare At stipulated frequency
Table.5.3 Selection of Raw Materials
3. Selection of raw materials Site Mixed Concrete Ready-mixed Concrete

Selection / sourcing Not done systematically, source Done after exhaustive tests
varies
Testing Rare Each & every load
Storage Multi-locational Single location
Space requirement Large Limited area
Wastage Substantial Nil

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Table.5.4 Delivery and Placing
4. Delivery and Placing Site Mixed Concrete Ready-mixed Concrete

Delivery Manual (slow) Transit mixer(6cum cap)
Placing Mode Manual / Hoist / crane Boom / Line pumps
Placing Rate 1 to 4 m3 / hour As per Normally 15-20 m3/hr
requirement
Time Frame 70 to100 m3 / day 600 to 800 m3 / day
5.5 READY-MIXED CONCRETE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Ready mix concrete is manufactured by the following two methods of mixing.
5.5.1 Centrally-Mixed Concrete: Concrete produced by completely mixing cement, aggregates,

admixtures, if any and water at a stationary central mixing plant and delivered in containers fitted with
agitating devices, except that when so agreed to between the purchaser and the manufacturer, the
concrete may be transported without being agitated.
5.5.2 Truck-Mixed Concrete: Concrete produced by placing cement, aggregates and admixtures in a
truck mixer at the batching plant, the addition of water and admixtures to be added along with mixing
water, and the mixing being carried out entirely in the truck-mixer either during the journey or on arrival
at the site of delivery. No water shall be added to the aggregate and cement until the mixing of concrete
commences.
A typical RMC plant consists of silos and bins for the storage of cement and aggregates respectively, weigh
batchers for proportioning different ingredients of concrete, high efficiency mixer for thorough mixing
of ingredients, and a computerized system controlling the entire production process. The quality of the
resulting concrete is much superior to site-mixed concrete.
Fig.5.3 View of Ready Mixed Concrete Plant
5.5.3 Upkeep of Production Facility: It is necessary that the production facility possess capabilities
to produce quality concrete. The producer of RMC should carry out routine maintenance of storage,
handling, calibration, batching, mixing and transporting equipment as well as weighing equipment as per
the recommended frequencies.
While ordering the RMC, it is recommended that the engineer in charge must visit the plant and ensure
that the facility is in order. Fig. 5.4 gives the suggested frequencies of inspection, maintenance/calibration
as per IS 4926-2003.

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Table 5.5 Production Control: Suggested Frequencies Of
Inspection, Maintenance/Calibration as per IS 4926
Frequency
Item Check for prescribed by
IS4926
Cementitious Materials Visual inspection for weather-tightness and Weekly
leaks
Aggregate Stockpile Visual inspection for segregation and ---
contamination
Conveyor Belts and Rollers Visual inspection for wear and alignment Weekly
Central Mixer Visual inspection of blades and built up Weekly
Trucks Visual inspection of blades and built up Weekly
Scale Calibration for All Weighing 1.Mecanical/knife edge systems
and Measuring Equipment
2.Electrical/load cell systems 2 Monthly
3 Monthly
Water Meters Calibration Monthly
Admixture Dispensers Calibration Monthly
Gear Boxes and Oil Baths Oil change Quarterly
The benefits of RMC in terms of quality, speed, life-cycle cost and environmental friendliness are superior
to those of site mixed concrete. Following brief comparison illustrates this vividly:
• Quality of concrete: RMC Plants use sophisticated plant and equipment, which ensures quality
concrete. RMC Plants exercise strict control on the quality of all ingredients through rigorous
testing, stringent controls on process parameters, meticulously monitors key properties of concrete
in the fresh and hardened state. All these efforts result in providing uniform and assured quality of
concrete. In contrast, in a typical site-mixed concrete there is poor control on the quality of input
materials, batching of ingredients and mixing of concrete, thus the resultant quality of concrete is
poor, non-uniform and inconsistent.
• Speed of construction: Mechanized operations in RMC plants ensure that construction activities
are speeded up. While the production output from a typical site-mixed concrete operation using
8/12 m3/hr mixer is around 4 to 5 m3/hr, the output form a 60 m3/hr RMC plant is around 45 m3/
hr. Thus there is nearly a 10 fold increase in the output from RMC plant, which translates into
direct savings.
• Elimination of material procurement requirements and storage hassles: With the use of RMC,
customers are not required to procure and store raw materials like cement, aggregates, sand,
water and admixtures at site. This reduces the space requirements at construction sites and also
minimizes efforts to procure different materials, ensure their proper storage and check their quality
parameters from time to time. Hence, RMC enthuses good housekeeping at sites.
• Saving in labour requirement: Site-mixed concrete is a highly labour-intensive operation and with
the use of RMC the labour requirements is minimized. Further, as RMC plants look after the entire
QA & QC needs, the manpower requirement for QA & QC operations at site is minimized.

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• Reduction in wastage: In site-mixed concrete job, wastage occurs in handling of all materials,
including cement. The latter is generally of the order of about 2-3 kg per 50 kg bag of cement. All
such wastages are considerably minimized in RMC facility.
• Improved life cycle cost: Increased speed of construction coupled with reduction in labour cost
and wastage results in considerable savings. Further, the improved quality of concrete translates
into enhanced long-term durability of concrete, thus minimizing the maintenance and repair costs.
Overall, when one considers the life cycle costs, the use of RMC becomes cost-effective in the long
run. .
• The use of RMC is beneficial in all angles; better quality, higher speed, better durability, savings in
labour, reduction in wastages, reduction in life cycle cost, etc.
5.6 ORDERING AND HANDLING READY-MIXED CONCRETE AT JOBSITES.

Ready-mixed concrete is an intermediate input material in the entire construction process. Therefore
due importance must be given to other steps in the construction process viz, shuttering, formwork,
reinforcement placements and placement of concrete, vibration, compaction and curing of ready-mixed
concrete on its arrival at job sites. Double stage centring should be strictly avoided in case of Ready-mix
concrete.
5.6.1 Ordering process for Ready-mixed concrete: Before ordering for ready-mixed concrete the
engineer has to look into the following details and properly order the grade and type of concrete required
for the construction as per specifications.
• Type of building
• Exposure conditions
• Cement content
• Water content, water cement tario
• Strength requirements
• Type of aggregates
• Size of Aggregates
• Slump requirements.
• Admixtures type and quantity.
• Time of delivery.

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Table 5.6 Typical Sample Report of Fresh Ready Mixed Concrete
Name of the company: Date:
Location: Truck No.:
Name of the project: Ticket No.:
Pour Location in the structure: Total Quantity:__________M3

Time History Sampled at:
• Time Batched: • End of Chute
• Time Arrival at Job Site: • End of Pump hose
• Time Discharged: • others
• Time Sampled:
• Time Tested:
Ambient Temperature:…… °C No. of Cubes made:
Concrete Temperature:…...°C Cubes stored at:
Slump:……………………..mm Cube prepared by:
Unit Weight:………………Kg/m3 Name of the authorised person:
Signature:
5.6.2 Handling Ready mixed concrete at construction sites: The following points can be followed at
the site to get the good quality concrete.
(a) Verification of delivery challan

• Grade, quantity and dispatch time of concrete while receiving the transit mixer at site.
(b) Workability of concrete

• Slump- a measure of workability. ( Designed to be 125+/-25mm @ site for pumpable concrete)
• The slump will be higher than 150 mm for columns and pile foundations.
• It shall be noted that increase in the slump (or workability) is due to admixture only and w/c will
be kept according to the design parameters.
(c) Duration of consumption

• Concrete, normally, is designed to have the workability to last for two and half hours from the
time of dispatching.
• After two and half hours the workability tends to fall. In this situation re-dosing of admixture
is recommended to increase the workability. However, it should be done with proper care and
planning.
• Site personnel will have to contact QA/QC engineer to know the amount of re-dosing and method
of re-dosing required.

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• It shall be noted that this practice is deemed as very occasional due to problems like, traffic jam,
pipeline choking, pipe line shifting, problem at sites, etc.
• In general, concrete shall be consumed within two and half hours after dispatching and shall be
used within three hours even after re-dosing.
(d) No water addition to fresh concrete

• As adding water to fresh concrete will increase the w/c ratio, the strength and durability of concrete
will get affected adversely and so water shall not be added, strictly.
(e) Mixing of fresh concrete before pumping

• Before unloading concrete into pump hopper for pumping, the fresh concrete shall be mixed in
transit mixer drum at full rpm for 2 minutes.
(f) Placing and compaction of concrete

• Fresh concrete shall be placed in the form work, which is made water tight to prevent any leaking
of slurry water from the concrete in such a way that height and distance of fall and spacing of
rebars are good enough to prevent any segregation.
• Optimum compaction shall be given and over vibration shall be avoided to prevent segregation
and loss of water from fresh concrete.
• Over vibration and escape of water from fresh concrete will result in reduction of volume of the
freshly laid concrete.
(g) Early curing and prevention of plastic shrinkage cracks

• Plastic shrinkage may occur when concrete is in Plastic stage during hot weather and windy
conditions.
• Tarpaulin or plastic sheets shall be used to cover the freshly laid/finished concrete surface in order
to prevent loss of water in the form of evaporation.
• Early curing, as early as 1 to 2 hours after finishing of concrete, shall be done in the form of
sprinkling of water to prevent development of plastic shrinkage cracks.
• A full wet curing in the form of ponding of water or gunny sack wrapping shall be made after 12
to 14 hours approximately.
• If plastic shrinkage crack is observed, it shall be removed immediately by working the concrete
surface with wooden battens. Otherwise, in combination of delayed curing, these cracks could
develop through the thickness of slab.
5.7 ROLE OF READY MIX CONCRETE MANUFACTURER

The quality of ready mix concrete is very important and following are the important parameters to be
considered in the manufacture of good quality ready mix concrete.
Choice of admixture
• Choose Admixture that gives initial workability as per the requirements and very good workability
retention- The slump drop shall not be more than 30mm per hour. The admixture should be
tested for compatibility with cement.
• Note: Avoid Admixture with air entraining effect as this leads to drastic drop in the workability,
arresting of bleeding and drying of concrete surface at faster rate.

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Workability criteria
• Design the mix in such a way that it has a workability of not less than 120mm when Transit Mixer
reaches the site.
• Note: The usual duration for the process - pumping (10 cum/hr), compaction, levelling and finishing
- of the concreting takes about 1 hour, so by the time last one cum is cast and finished it shall have
the workability that does not allow concrete surface to dry fast. This is essential for other valid
reason also, which is, to give site-engineer sufficient time to look back at the portion of slab cast
already and start the early curing during and after the process of concreting.
Water content
• Chose an optimal water content that is required to wet the surface of aggregates to give the
sufficient workability.
• Unless High Grade Super plasticizers with good
slump retention are used it is very difficult to achieve
design workability of 120mm at site (2 hours after
batching).
Control over aggregates
• Coarse aggregate shall be controlled for the presence

of dust content. Fine aggregate shall be controlled
for the presence of clay content completely and to
limit the silt presence by less than 6%, by volume
as clay and silt cause loss of workability.
Fig.5.4 Effect of Low Water Cement Ratio
• When M.Sand / CRF is used it shall be controlled
for excess presence of fines passing through 0.300mm sieve and limit the fines passing through
0.075mm to zero.
• Wetting the Aggregates: Aggregates in the stock pile shall be made wet by sprinkling of water.
This will not only control the absorption rate but concrete temperature too.
5.8 CHECKS AT CONSTRUCTION SITES

Ready-mixed concrete is transported from the place of manufacturing to the place of its placement which
involves considerable time span. It is always recommended to conduct certain checks before accepting it
from the RMC suppliers. Time required for transportation should be checked by actual trips.
Checks at construction sites when the ready-mixed concrete is arrived at sites
• Time of batching
• Right water cement ratio
• Right slump at site
• Concrete to be used with in appropriate time.
Check list for accepting ready-mixed concrete as per Indian standard for Ready-mixed concrete-
IS 4926 -2003

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Check list -1: Type of materials to be used for making ready-mixed concrete
All materials should confirm to IS standards. The following standards are applicable for different
materials used for making ready-mixed concrete.
• Ordinary Portland Cement :IS269, IS8112, IS12269

• Portland pozzolana cement :IS1489
• Portland Slag cement : IS 455
• Fly ash :IS3812
• GGBS : IS12089
• Water : IS3025
• Aggregates :IS383
• Admixture: IS9103
• Micro silica: IS 15388.
Checklist -2: The guidelines for preparation of design mix for making RMC
• Mixes can be designed as per the guidelines given in IS-10262
• The design mixes have to compulsory comply to IS 456
Checklist -3: Time and transport of Ready-mixed concrete.

• The ready-mixed concrete shall be discharged from the RMC Producer’s truck-mixer within 2
hours of the time of loading at RMC batching plant. However, a longer period may be permitted
if retarding admixtures are used or in cool humid weather or when chilled water or ice flakes are
used while concrete is produced.
• Best indicator for usable time of ready-mixed concrete: Slump of concrete on its arrival at job site
is within tolerance limit and also one should be able to easily vibrate the concrete at site without
leaving the vibrator needle hole in location of pour.
Checklist-4: Sampling and testing of ready-mixed concrete

For the assessment of compliance of ready-mixed concrete, the point and time of sampling shall be at
discharge from the producer’s delivery vehicle or from the mixer to the site or when delivered into the
purchaser’s vehicle
• Sampling and testing shall be as per IS 4926-2003

• The frequency of testing shall be as per IS 456 or as mutually agreed with the user by the producer
of concrete.
Sampling of Ready - mixed Concrete:As per IS 4926-2003 the following procedure is followed while
sampling of ready-mixed concrete when it arrives in the RMC Producer’s vehicle to the job site locations.
• After the truck-mixer has re-mixed its delivery on site; allow at least the first one-third of a cubic
metre of concrete to be discharged prior to taking any samples.
• Take at least 4 incremental samples from the remainder of the load avoiding sampling the last
cubic metre of concrete.

85
• Thoroughly re-mix this composite sample either on a mixing tray or in the sampling bucket and
proceed with the required testing.
Fig.5.5 Sample Collection
Table 5.7 Recommended Frequency of Sampling
QC Test on Concrete Frequency

Slump Minimum of one sample for each 50m3 or
every 50 batches
Compressive strength Minimum of one sample (3 test cubes) for
each 50 m3 or every 50 batches for test at
28 days
Additional sample for early age(3, 7 days) strength
test, as mutually agreed
Density As agreed with the user
Temperature/Air content As agreed with the user
Workability requirement of ready-mixed concrete

• Workability is measured in terms of slump of concrete and it is measured as per the standard
procedure laid down in IS 1199: 1959 reaffirmed in 2004-Methods of sampling and analysis of
concrete.
• This is one of the major & very important ways of assessing the quality of concrete received on
site. If the delivery of ready-mixed concrete is delayed from the RMC Producer’s vehicle on arrival
at job site due to lack of preparedness on behalf of the user by more than 30 minutes, then the
responsibility for the concrete is passed on the user
Acceptance Criteria for workability of Ready-mixed concrete

Workability shall be within the following limits on the specified value as appropriate:
• Slump range= required slump±25mm or 1/3 rd of the slump whichever is less.

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Reasons for slump not within tolerance limits
Causes: There are many reasons for variation in the slump and workability of ready-mixed concrete form
the specified value when the ready-mixed concrete is arrived at the job site and they have been listed as
follows
• Early / Late reach of RMC Producer’s vehicle to site (Due to traffic conditions)
• Ambient Temperature Effect (summer / winter).
• Drum Speed of the transit mixer (when starting at plant)
• Change of cementitious material batch & its behavior with Super Plasticizer
• Concrete batched with higher slump
• Wash water left in truck-mixer drum
• Excess Truck-mixer water valve leakage
• water addition at site by customers personnel
• Dosage of Super Plasticizer in excess than design
• RMC Plant malfunctioning during batching of the concrete.
If Slump is marginally less –Action suggested:

• Add Chemical admixture on site as per is 4926 or ACI 212.4R to modify the mix for pumping.
In special circumstances, if necessary, additional dose of admixture may be added at project site
to regain the workability of concrete with the mutual agreement between the producer and the
purchaser.
Reason for more slump at job site in Ready mixed concrete

• More water (Higher w/c, lesser strength)
• Increase in coarser materials
• Increase in chemical admixture
• Wrong batching (may be lesser ingredients)
• A different cement or same cement brand with different properties/chemical composition
Action Suggested to the site personnel

• Check before accepting ,check all details
• May insist RMC to certify the batch
Check list 5: When the Purchaser specifies the Concrete mix as per his
requirement
Prescribed Mix: In case of special requirements, if the user provides the mix design proportions of ready-
mixed concrete, the RMC Producers have to batch the concrete as per the mix design. Under the above
condition the following parameters are applicable:
• If the mix proportions are given by the user it is their responsibility to ensure that all desired
properties are met and the RMC producer only mixes and gives the concrete to the customer.
• The ready-mixed concrete producer has no liability on the workability and strength parameters of
the prescribed mix.

87
Check list 6: Sampling for Strength Test
• Sampling of ready-mixed concrete and numbers of samples to be taken while executing the
concrete pours at jobsites is very important and should be strictly followed as per the specifications
and recommendations of IS standards as follows .
• Recommended Sample Size BIS 4926: 2003 - 6.3.2
• Unless otherwise agreed between the user and suppliers involved, the minimum testing frequency
to be applied by the producer in the absence of a recognized Ready-mixed concrete industry
method of production control should be one sample for every 50 m3 of production or every 50
batches, whichever is the greater frequency. Three test specimens shall be made up for each
sample for testing at 28 days.
Check list 7: CUBE making of fresh ready-mixed concrete

Key aspects of sampling, cube making, curing and testing.
• Representative sample from truck mixer.
• Re mixing of sample
• Standard cube moulds assembled and oiled.
• Full compaction of each layer.
• Maintaining cube moist overnight.
• Curing cube under standard conditions.
• Observation of cube faults.
• Accurate measurement of dimension and weight before testing.
• Accurate measurement of density and strength
Fig.5.6 Concrete Sampling Process

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Check list 8: Making of concrete cubes as per standard procedures
Concrete cube making and storing of concrete cubes after de moulding is very important for testing of
ready-mixed concrete to ascertain its strength on 3 days, 7 days, and 28 days and beyond if required and
special attention is required while casting of cubes at concrete laboratory as well as at jobsites. Cube
making procedure should be followed as per recommended specifications from IS 516 -1959(Reaffirmed
1999)
Checklist -9: Testing of Concrete cubes

Testing of concrete cubes to ascertain the strength of the ready-mixed concrete is a very important
procedure to be followed by the field and laboratory supervisor at job sites as well as at concrete testing
laboratories in the construction industry.
The following procedures are to be followed while handling concrete cubes during testing.
1 Cubes have to be properly marked with identification & cast date.

2 Check cubes for geometry, finish , cast & test date , record observation(investigate abnormal and
rectify for improvement)
3 Take weight to check density of Concrete. (Investigate unusual)
4 Rate of loading should be as per IS (140 kg/sq.cm/minute)
5 Cubes should be centrally placed (not eccentricity)
6 Any abnormal failure to be recorded and investigated.
7 Calibration of machines in time.
8 Use proper cube moulds meeting standard IS 10082.
UK Ready Mixed Concrete manual quantifies the range of effects of deviations on measured cube strengths
as per the following figure
Fig. 5.7 Variation in cube strengths of concrete based on sampling errors

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Checklist-10: Summary of check points for RMC supply to both supplier and
User.
• Materials to be used as per IS 456-2000.
• Ready mix concrete testing as per IS 4926-2003
• Steps at batching plant to prevent contamination.
• Regular calibration of batching plant and other equipments
• Maintenance of batching plants, trucks and weighing scales
• Calibration of Lab Equipments
• Checks at batching plant before the concrete leaves to job site.
• Checks at job site when the concrete arrives in transit mixers to site.
• Forward, Intermediate and retrospective controls
• Delivery ticket, Information to purchaser as per IS 4926-2003
5.9 USE “READY-MIXED CONCRETE (RMC)” FROM A CERTIFIED MANUFACTURER

FOR GOOD QUALITY AND DURABILITY (BIS Codes and other Quality Schemes)
Globally, many associations are working towards manufacturing quality ready mixed concrete by adopting
quality schemes. Some of the organisations are; National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA),USA;
European Ready Mixed Concrete Organization (ERMCO); New Zealand Ready Mixed Concrete Association
(NZRMCA); British Ready Mixed Concrete Association(BRMCA) and many more.
In India also Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC) is used extensively to save time and achieve quality. There are
many plants who manufacture RMC but not all of them do a good concrete. Quality of RMC is becoming
a major issue. To assist the architects, engineers and users, RMCMA (Ready Mixed Concrete Manufacturers
Association-India) has come out with quality manuals. These manuals are prepared with international and
national standards and are very useful for all the engineers and architects. The users can use these manuals
and include the detailed specifications in the tender documents to make sure that the manufacturers
supply good quality Ready Mixed Concrete.
To ensure quality RMC production, Ready-Mixed Concrete Manufacturers Association (RMCMA) has taken
enormous efforts in evolving a quality scheme for RMC. Quality Team follows the best practices from
advanced countries that suited India admirably well. Simultaneously, it was also decided to strictly follow
the relevant provisions from the prevailing Bureau of Indian Standard specifications such as IS 4926 (RMC),
IS 456 (plain and reinforced concrete), IS 383 (Fine and coarse aggregates), IS 9103(Chemical admixtures),
etc.
The quality scheme is in two parts, Quality Manuals - Part I and II. The first part involves thorough annual
audit of RMC production facility based on an extensive Check List contained in QC Manual Part I. The
Check List covers all activities in the production facilities. These are grouped under six heads: material
storage and handling; batching equipment; central mixer; ticketing system; delivery fleet and laboratory.
The basic guidelines are in QC Manual Part II for ensuring quality control and quality assurance.
Cement and Concrete Sectional Committee, CED2 in the second revision of IS 4926:2003 for Ready-Mixed
Concrete has incorporated some modifications found necessary in the context of developments in the
field. The significant modifications included are as follows:

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a. Requirements for materials brought in line with IS 456:2000
b. Minimum testing frequencies introduced for aggregates and water
c. Basis of supply modified to bring it in line with IS 456:2000
d. Transportation time made uniform to 2 hrs
e. Requirement of temperature of concrete deleted
f. Sampling procedure has been modified
g. Tolerance limits for workability have been modified
h. A clause on non-compliance has been included
i. A detailed clause on production and delivery including plant safety and maintenance and
environmental considerations has been included
j. A detailed clause on quality control has been included
k. A detailed clause on order processing and training has been included
l. Detailed provisions on calibration and weighing equipment accuracy has been introduced
INFORMATION TO BE SUPPLIED BY THE PRODUCER OF RMC:
When requested, the producer shall provide the purchaser with the following information before any
concrete is supplied:
a. Nature and source of each constituent material,

b. Source of supply of cement and
c. Proposed proportions or quantity of each constituent/m3 of fresh concrete
When requested, the producer shall provide the purchaser the following information on admixtures:
a. Generic type(s) of the main active constituent(s) in the admixture

b. Whether or not the admixture contains chlorides and if so, the chloride content of the admixture
expressed as a percentage of chloride ion by mass of admixture
c. Whether or not the admixture leads to the entrainment of air when used at the adopted dosage;
d. Where more than one admixture is used, confirmation of their compatibility; and
e. Initial and final setting time of concrete when admixture is used at adopted dosage(tested as per
IS 8142)
DELIVERY TICKET INFORMATION:
The following information shall be included in the delivery ticket to accompany the load to the purchaser:
(Extract from: Clause 9.4, Annex G, IS 4926-2003)
a. Name or number of the ready-mixed concrete depot.

b. Serial number of the ticket
c. Date

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d. Truck number
e. Name of the purchaser
f. Name and location of the site
g. Grade or mix description of the concrete
h. Specified target workability
i. Minimum cement content(if specified)
j. Type of cement and grade(if specified)
k. Maximum free water-cement ratio(if specified)
l. Nominal maximum size of aggregate
m. Generic type or name of any chemical and mineral admixtures included
n. Quantity of concrete in m3
o. Time of loading
p. Signature of the plant operator
q. A statement warning the purchaser of the precautions needed to be taken when working with
cement and wet concrete
On site the following information will be added:
a. Time of arrival on site

b. Time when discharge was completed
c. Any water/admixture added by the supplier to meet the specified workability
d. Any extra water/admixture added at the request of the purchaser of the concrete, or his
representative, and his signature
e. Pouring location
f. Signature of the purchaser or his representative confirming discharge of the load
Conclusions:
The quality of ready-mixed concrete depends on the selection and approval of materials, quality
of admixtures, sampling, testing methods, production, delivery system, the equipment and plant.
To ensure all these parameters, It is also mentioned in the IS code, “ for effective implementation
of the provisions of the standard, it may be desirable that the ready-mixed concrete plants
operate their system under a third party certification scheme to ensure operation of a well
structured system and to build confidence in the users of such concrete.”
References:
1. IS 4926 -2003
2. IS 516-1959, Reaffirmed 2004
3. J.D.Dewar and R. Anderson , Manual of ready mixed concrete
4. Ambuja Technical Education Series.
5. RMCMA

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Chapter
6
Curing of Concrete
6. Curing of Concrete
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The advances in construction industry have contributed tremendously for the new developments in
construction chemicals. The use of various chemicals in concrete alters the properties of strength and
durability. A durable concrete must perform satisfactorily in the working environment during its anticipated
exposure conditions during service. The materials and mix proportions specified and used should be such
as to maintain its integrity and, if applicable, to protect embedded metal from corrosion.
Due to the vast construction activities, different grades of concrete with natural and artificial ingredients
are in use. Mineral and chemical admixtures are added to the standard ingredients where necessary. The
dosage of these admixtures is comparatively more in high grades of concrete especially in READY MIXED
CONCRETES and SPECIAL CONCRETES. In most of the ready mix concrete batching plants, the quality
of raw material and mix proportions are well controlled therefore desired strength of concrete will be
achieved. Nowadays many construction sites use ready mix concrete to ensure consistency in quality. To
have a durable concrete, curing is most important; unfortunately there is less emphasis on curing and
lesser awareness about the science of curing among Engineers.
“Curing is the process of preventing loss of moisture from the concrete while maintaining a satisfactory
temperature condition. The prevention of moisture loss from the concrete is particularly important if the
water cement ratio is low especially in high-grade concretes”.
6.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF CURING

Poor curing practices will badly affect the required properties of concrete. Proper curing of concrete
is essential to obtain maximum durability and design strength. Good fresh concrete can become bad
concrete by lack of proper curing practices. Today curing of concrete is much more important than ever
before for the following reasons:
• The water-cement ratios being used in today’s concretes are much lower which may cause self-
desiccation.
• Modern cements gain strength earlier and allow removing of formwork soon after concrete
placement. Early removal of formwork exposes concrete surface and the surface will become dry.
• Most of the modern concrete mixes contain pulverized fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace
slag, silica fume, etc that have slower reaction rates.
Curing plays a major role in achieving impermeable concrete. The surface will develop shrinkage and
temperature cracks when not cured properly. Due to cracks durability of structure is affected. The
development of shrinkage in concrete is directly proportional to the rate of moisture loss in concrete.
When concrete is kept continuously moist, retained water in concrete would help continuous hydration
and development of enough tensile strength to resist stresses formed due to contraction. Shrinkage of
concrete can be reduced by the continuous development of strength due to proper curing.
6.3 CURING METHODS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Broadly, concrete curing methods can be divided into the following three categories:
1. Methods that maintain presence of mixing water in concrete during early hardening period. E.g.
Ponding, immersion, spraying, fogging, saturated wet coverings, etc.

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2. Methods that reduce loss of mixing water from the surface of concrete. E.g. covering the surface
with impervious papers or plastic sheets or by applying Membrane-Forming curing compounds.
These are generally known as water retaining methods.
3. Methods that accelerate strength gain by supplying heat and additional moisture to the concrete.
This is usually accomplished with steam, heating coils, or electrically heated forms.
Sand, hessian clothes, sawdust and cotton mats, are used to cover the surface of concrete as these
materials have got good moisture holding property for long durations. Periodic wetting of these materials
is necessary. The most effective methods of curing concrete are wet coverings and water spraying that
keeps the concrete continually damp.
Fig.6.1 Curing of concrete by ponding Fig.6.2 Curing of concrete by spraying water
Fig.6.3 Curing of concrete by wet coverings (Hessian cloth wrapping)
Fig.6.4 Curing of concrete by leaving form work Fig.6.5 Curing by covering plastic sheeting
CURING OF CONCRETE
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Fig.6.6 Curing by spraying curing compound Fig.6.7 Addition of self-curing compound during the
production itself
6.4 MEMBRANE FORMING CURING COMPOUNDS

Membrane-forming curing compounds are commonly used for curing of concrete structures like columns,
slabs, bridges, pavements etc. These curing compounds are maintenance free and easy to apply. Curing
compound is a liquid that can be applied as a coating to the surface of a newly placed concrete to retard
the loss of water. Pigmented compounds are applied so as to reflect light back.
Curing compounds are broadly classified as
• Water based emulsion wax curing compounds and

• Polymer based curing compounds
Liquid membrane-forming compounds consist waxes, resins, chlorinated rubber and other materials. These
are used to retard or reduce evaporation of moisture from concrete. This is practical and widely used for
curing fresh concrete and for extended curing. Curing compounds should be able to maintain the relative
humidity of the concrete surface above 80% for seven days to sustain cement hydration.
As per ASTM C 309, Membrane-forming curing compounds are:
1. Type-1: Clear or translucent without dye

Type-1D: Clear or translucent with fugitive dye and
2. Type-2: White pigmented
Clear or translucent compounds contain a fugitive dye that makes it easier to check visually for complete
coverage of the concrete surface when the compound is applied. The dye fades away soon after application.
During hot & sunny days, use of white-pigmented compounds is recommended as they reduce solar-heat
gain, thus reducing the concrete temperature. Following points may be kept in mind while using curing
compounds.
• Curing compounds should be applied by hand-operated or power-driven spray equipment

immediately after final finishing of the concrete.
• The concrete surface should be damp when the coating is applied.
• Dry, windy days or adverse weather conditions could result in plastic shrinkage cracking. Application
of a curing compound immediately after final finishing and before all free water on the surface has
evaporated will help prevent the formation of cracks.

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• Power-driven spray equipment is recommended for uniform application of curing compounds on
large paving projects.
• Normally one smooth even coat is applied at a typical rate of 3 to 4 m2 per liter but manufacturer’s
recommended application rates should be followed.
• If two coats are necessary to ensure complete coverage, for effective protection the second coat
should be applied at right angles to the first.
• Complete coverage of the surface must be attained because even small pinholes in the membrane
will increase the evaporation of moisture from concrete.
• Concrete that has used curing compound and fresh concrete may not develop bond between them.
Curing compounds may not be compatible with adhesives used with floor covering materials.
Consequently, curing compounds should either be tested for compatibility or should not be used
when bonding of overlying materials is necessary.
• Some curing compounds may affect the adhesion of paint to concrete floors.
• Curing compound manufacturers should be consulted to determine if their product is suitable for
the intended application.
• Curing compounds should be uniform and easy to maintain in a thoroughly mixed solution. They
should not sag, run off peaks, or collect in grooves. They should form a tough film to withstand
early construction traffic without damage.
• Caution is necessary when using curing compounds containing solvents of high volatility in
confined spaces or near sensitive spaces such as hospitals because evaporating volatiles may cause
respiratory problems.
• Applicable local environmental laws concerning volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions should
be followed.
6.5 INTERNAL CURING (IC) COMPOUND or SELF CURING COMPOUND:

A liquid curing compound is added into the concrete during production stage itself which is known as
internal curing compound or self curing compound. The compounds reduce moisture loss from fresh
concrete, thereby improve long term strength and reduce drying shrinkage. Trials must be conducted with
and without IC compound to ascertain the fresh and hardened properties of the concrete. This method is
used where traditional methods of curing are difficult or even impossible to adopt like in tunnel linings and
underground mines. Other applications of IC are concrete pavements, precast concrete members, parking
structures, bridges, high performance concrete, architectural concretes, etc. Normally the internal curing
compound dosage is 5 l/m3 of concrete.
6.6 CONCRETE STRENGTH AND CURING

As the degree of hydration is directly related to the length and
efficiency of curing, it is important to cure the concrete properly to
get the desired strength and durability. A typical strength gain curve is
shown in Figure 6.8.
Fig.6.8 Degree of hydration or

strength attained v/s length/
efficiency of curing
CURING OF CONCRETE
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During hydration, the four main compounds generate different amounts of heat as shown in the fig. 6.9
Fig.6.9 Heat output Vs time after mixing by hydration of compounds. Curves become flat at about 28 days.
Cement can continue to hydrate for many years provided moisture is present. However, after about one
year the rate of hydration is so slow that it is assumed to be fully hydrated and therefore attained full
strength. During this period all compounds (C2S, C3A, C3S, C4AF) contribute to the strength of the cement
as shown in the fig. 6.10
Fig.6.10 Strength contribution by hydration compounds

The industry has adopted 28-day strength as a reference point and specifications often refer to compression
tests of cubes of concrete which are crushed 28 days after they are cast.
Fig. 6.11 Effect of duration of water curing Fig. 6.12 Typical Strength gain curve
on the strength of concrete
(Source: Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia)

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During 7 to 10 days of curing it is important that the concrete should not be permitted to freeze or dry out
because either of these occurrences would affect the strength development of the concrete. Theoretically,
if kept in a moist environment, concrete will keep gaining strength forever. However, in practical terms;
about 90% of its strength is gained in the first 28 days. Inadequate curing decreases strength of concrete
by 35-40% as shown in fig 6.11.
6.7 STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS ABOUT CURING

(As per IS 456:2000, the specification of curing is as follows)
Clause 13.5: Curing
Curing is the process of preventing the loss of moisture from the concrete whilst maintaining a satisfactory
temperature regime. The prevention of moisture loss from the concrete is particularly important if
the-water cement ratio is low, if the cement has a high rate of strength development, if the concrete
contains granulated blast furnace slag or pulverized fuel ash. The curing regime should also prevent the
development of high temperature gradients within the concrete. The rate of strength development at
early ages of concrete made with supersulphated cement is significantly reduced at lower temperatures.
Supersulphated cement concrete is seriously affected by inadequate curing and the surface has to be kept
moist for at least seven days.
Clause 13.5.1: Moist curing

Exposed surfaces of concrete shall be kept continuously in a damp or wet condition by ponding or by
covering with a layer of sacking, canvas, hessian or similar materials and kept constantly wet for at least
seven days from the date of placing concrete in case of ordinary Portland Cement-and at least 10 days
where mineral admixtures or blended cements are used. The period of curing shall not be less than 10 days
for concrete exposed to dry and hot weather conditions. In the case of concrete where mineral admixtures
or blended cements are used, it is recommended that above minimum periods may be extended to 14
days.
Clause 13.5.2: Membrane curing

Approved curing compounds may be used in lieu of moist curing with the permission of the engineer-
incharge. Such compounds shall be applied to all exposed surfaces of the concrete as soon as possible after
the concrete has set. Impermeable membranes such as polyethylene sheeting covering closely the concrete
surface may also be used to provide effective barrier against evaporation.
Clause 13.5.3 for the concrete containing Portland pozolana cement, Portland slag cement or mineral
admixture, period of curing may be increased.
As per BS 7542:1992, curing definition is given below:
The definition of curing is maintenance of a sufficient moisture content in freshly placed concrete to
ensure hydration of the binder and hence development of strength.
Water absorption of crushed rock fines are in the range of 4% to 5% as against natural river sand of 1.5%
to 2.5%. During the field study it is observed that concrete containing crushed rock fines start sucking the
water which eventually develops plastic shrinkage cracks. If minimum water content is not present, plastic
shrinkage cracks appear.
To avoid plastic shrinkage cracks, following points may be given importance while handling fresh ready
mix concrete at sites.
CURING OF CONCRETE
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• Plastic shrinkage may occur when concrete is in plastic stage during hot weather and windy
conditions.
• Tarpaulin or plastic sheets shall be used to cover the freshly laid/finished concrete surface in order
to prevent loss of water in the form of evaporation.
• Early curing, as early as 3 to 4 hours after finishing of concrete, shall be done in the form of
sprinkling of water to prevent development of plastic shrinkage cracks.
• A full wet curing in the form of ponding of water or gunny sack wrapping shall be made after 12
to 14 hours approximately.
• If plastic shrinkage crack is observed, it shall be removed immediately by working the concrete
surface with wooden battens. Otherwise, in combination of delayed curing, these cracks could
develop further.
6.8 IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT CURING

COLUMNS
• As soon as deshuttering is done (generally after 24 hours of casting) the columns must be covered
completely by wet hessian cloths
• Cure the columns at least for 14 days
• Wet the hessian cloths at regular intervals; do not allow the hessian cloths to dry out.
SLABS AND BEAMS
• Minimum curing period is 14 days

• It is observed that the side surfaces of the beams are normally not covered by hessian cloths. It
is important to cover the sides of the beams properly. For the purpose of curing, treat beam as a
column and adopt the methods used for column curing.
• The slab area has to be divided into small blocks so that water can be maintained across the
surface.
• General practice of the mason is that constructing small blocks after 24 hours of concreting. In
addition, time required to do the same is around 3 to 4 hours. Until such time water is not even
sprinkled on top of the surface. Because of this process, early curing of concrete does not happen
which results in the formation of plastic shrinkage cracks. Therefore, the better practice is, as soon
as the concreting is finished sprinkle water on top of the surface and do not allow the concrete to
lose its SHEEN PROPERTY. The early curing of concrete i.e. 72 hours or 3 days is very important for
achieving a durable concrete.
BRICK, BLOCK AND PLASTERING WORK:

• Maintain the blocks as well as plastering surface in SSD condition before commencing the work so
that water absorption of the block can be reduced.
• Use Portland pazzolona cement for plastering and block works.

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6.9 IMPROPER CURING PRACTICES
No water in some ponds
Fig 6.13. Improper curing of slab by ponding method
Slab not covered

properly by sheets
Fig 6.14 Improper curing of slab by

wet covering method
Surface is dry
Fig 6.15 Improper curing of columns

by wet covering method
CURING OF CONCRETE
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Columns not covered
properly and fully
Fig 6.17 Improper curing of beams by thin hessian cloths
Beams surface not covered

properly though slab is fully
ponded.
Fig 6.18 Taking bath on the concrete surface
Disturbances break the

mounds.
Fig 6.18 Taking bath on the concrete surface

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6.10 FAQ’S
1. What is curing?
A chemical reaction (Hydration) between cement and water makes concrete strong and durable. The
purpose of curing is to make sure that little or no water is lost from the concrete during early stages of
chemical reaction.
2. What are the factors to be considered for deciding the length of curing?
• Water-Cement ratio
• Cement -Sand ratio
• Particle size distribution
• Presence of accelerators
• Curing compounds
• Environmental conditions
• Location of vapor membrane
• Exposure to water during curing
3. What causes plastic shrinkage cracks?

Plastic shrinkage cracks occur when the top surface layer of the concrete dries out before the lower
portions of the plastic concrete. On an ideal concrete slab, the concrete hardens from the bottom to
the top causing the moisture or bleed water to rise to the top surface of the concrete. Plastic shrinkage
cracking occurs when the rate of surface moisture evaporation exceeds the rate at which the bleed water
comes to top. Weather conditions play a critical factor in plastic shrinkage cracking.
4. What are the ways to minimize plastic shrinkage cracks?

Plastic shrinkage cracking is highly related to weather conditions. Several precautions can be taken to
minimize its occurrence:
• Keep the surface from drying out too fast.

• Erect a temporary wind break or sunshade.
• Dampen the sub grade, formwork, and reinforcement;
• After the initial float or trowel, use a spray as evaporation retardant to minimize surface
evaporation.
• Start curing the concrete as soon as possible with a liquid membrane or cover with wet
coverings.
• If Plastic shrinkage cracking does occur during finishing, the mason or finisher should close them
by refinishing the surface.
5. Will hot weather affect concrete?

• Increased water demand which may lead to higher water/cement ratios and lower strengths.
• Accelerated slump loss.
• Early set time.
CURING OF CONCRETE
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• Increased potential for plastic shrinkage cracking and other types of cracking.
• Decreased strengths if concrete is exposed to continuous high temperatures without adequate
curing.
6.11 MYTHS
1. Curing of concrete is not required during nights.
This is quite a dangerous myth and may have its origin in the difficulty that contractors have in getting the
concrete cured at night and the difficulty that client may have in supervising in the night. It is mistakenly
presumed that evaporation losses are dependent only on ambient temperature. The truth is that the
evaporation losses are dependent in equal measure on wind velocity and atmospheric humidity. Even if
the ambient temperature in the night is lower, the heat of hydration ensures that the temperature at the
concrete surface is still high enough to promote evaporation. The truth is that concrete needs to be cured
24X7 in first 28 days.
2. The purpose of curing is to cool the concrete

This myth may well be attributed to the warm and hot climate prevailing in the country at most of the
places and times and the ubiquitous plastic shrinkage cracking. By itself, the myth may not lead to any
harm unless someone insists chilled water for curing or not curing concrete in the cold regions. The
truth is that the purpose of curing is “to create an environment conducive to continued hydration”. This
mostly requires maintaining a high level of relative humidity at the concrete surface and rarely calls for
temperature control [exceptions being extreme cold weather concrete.]
3. Since the cube specimens are continuously cured for 28 days, the structure
also needs to be cured for 28 days
This is a positive myth which may contribute to longer curing. It is no surprise that this myth prevails in the
minds of the owner/client/PMC and not in the minds of the Engineers of the contractors. There is no denying
the fact that the longer the curing period the better will be the strength gain, but the cost of wet curing
for 28 days can be disproportionately high when compared to the returns. What the overzealous engineers
fail to understand is that the prescription of the method of sampling, making, handling, curing and testing
of specimen has to follow a standardized regime for the test results to be acceptable as Statistical Quality
Control tools. Strengths of working concrete are at variance with the strengths of specimen cubes and an
attempt to eliminate the difference is futile!
4. Lack of curing in the initial period can be compensated by increase in curing

later on
It is OK to carry out intermittent curing of concrete
This myth may not be as wide spread as myth # 2 and 3 above. In order to minimize cracking induced by
shrinkage and thermal contraction, it is necessary that the concrete is allowed to gain strength as early
as possible. Suspending curing in the initial period will lead to inadequate strength gain and cracking of
concrete which cannot be reversed by curing at a later date.
Intermittent curing will not be effective at all. The drying and wetting of concrete begins from the surface
and proceeds inwards. So if water is sprinkled on a dried out concrete say for 5 minutes and then stopped,
it is quite likely that most of the water will evaporate before it finds its way deep inside the concrete where
it is required. Thus the internal pores of concrete will continue to remain dry.

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5. The stipulated curing period is to be counted after the time of de-shuttering
The truth is that the formwork acts as a barrier against evaporation and assists in curing. However, we
need to take check whether there is a gap between the form and the concrete, which could occur because
of concrete shrinkage. In such a case, pouring water over this gap would be sufficient to create moist
conditions at the concrete formwork interface and result in effective curing. Curing should start as early
as possible.
6.12 RECOMMENDATIONS ON GOOD CURING PRACTICES

Water should be sprinkled to avoid shrinkage crack when concrete is in plastic state. Therefore, it is
very important to treat the fresh concrete, where first 24 hours of monitoring concrete is of extremely
important to achieve a durable concrete structure.
The importance of curing for concrete should be explained to the concerned people working at site. The
effect of curing on strength and durability of concrete should be taught.
Main reason for lack of curing at site is because of non availability of curing facilities. Facilities for curing
like, source of water, pipes for water supply are to be provided. It is to be ensured that the pipes and the
motor capacity required for pumping the water for curing in the tall structures should be fulfilled. Date of
casting of concrete should be displayed to monitor curing. The water used for curing should be potable
water.
6.13 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the field study, the following conclusions are drawn:
a) Lack of continuous moist curing results in decrease in the strength of concrete up to 35%. To
40%
b) Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced strength, poor abrasion resistance and cracking.
c) As per the IS specification where mineral admixtures are used, minimum curing period is 14 days
but during the field study it is observed that most of the construction sites are curing 7 days only
irrespective of whether OPC or blended cement is used. So curing minimum 14 days has to be
made mandatory where mineral admixtures are used.
d) The appearance of “Sheen” on the surface of slab cast is an indication of surface being wet – a
condition at which plastic shrinkage cracks may not occur. The loss of “Sheen” is an indication
that surface is drying up and it is right time to start the initial curing in the form of “Spraying of
curing compound” or “Sprinkling of water”.
e) The initial curing can be commenced as early as 1 hour after casting, depending upon the factors
like cement content, ambient temperature, humidity, wind velocity, etc. Initial curing followed by
covering of concrete surface with tarpaulin or plastic sheet to prevent the surface from drying is
the best practice to avoid plastic shrinkage cracks.
f) The plastic shrinkage cracks need to be closed immediately at fresh state by working on the cracks
with wooden runners or floats.
g) Continuous curing after the surface gets hardened is very crucial to avoid “Drying shrinkage
cracks”.
h) Coarse aggregates shall be controlled for the presence of dust content. Fine aggregate shall be
controlled for the presence of clay and silt which shall be less than 6% as clay and silt cause loss of
CURING OF CONCRETE
105
workability. When M.Sand / CRF is used it shall be controlled for excess presence of fines passing
through 300 micron sieve and limit the fines passing through 75 micron to zero.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS and REFERENCES

1. N Gowripalan (2001), “Early age properties of self cured concrete”, University of New South
Wales, R Marks and R Sun, MBT (Australia). Proceedings Concrete Institute of Australia Perth,
Australia
2. “Curing of Concrete”, Cement Concrete and Aggregates, Australia. pp. 1–7.
3. IS 456-2000, “Plain and Reinforced Concrete-Code of practice”, Bureau of India Standard, New
Delhi.
4. A.M. Neville. (2009). “Properties of concrete”, Pearson education, New Delhi.
5. ASTM C 309-98a, Standard specification for Liquid membrane forming curing compounds for
curing concrete.
6. Design and control of concrete mixtures, EB001
7. Ambily P.S, Scientist, and Rajamane N P (2007), Deputy Director and Head, Concrete Composites
Lab, Structural Engineering Research Centre, CSIR (NBMCW July), Chennai.
8. Myths about Concrete Curing and Suggested Cures! By Mr S.M Vaidya, Concretebasics.org
Newsletter

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Chapter
Construction Aids and Chemicals

7. Construction Aids and Chemicals
7.0 Introduction
Concrete has been a major construction material ever since the beginning of over a century and a half
long era of modern day construction. Cement has been a prime ‘construction chemical’ that is being
used in the construction industry for making concrete, mortars and grouts, renders etc. Of late due to
many challenges and demands faced by the construction industry, new generation chemicals are in vogue.
Although there are couple of hundreds of products available in the market, the objective of this section of
the document, is to provide some basic information about a few construction chemicals that are commonly
used in our constructions.
7.1 Cement based construction products:

Apart from the naturally available materials like water, sand, coarse aggregates, soil etc., the awareness
of the synthesized material like cement is known for the constructionindustry since long time. Each time
when a new material is added to a previous mixture/ system a new product is born, which is used in
construction for a different purpose, as illustrated below:
Water+Cement → Cement paste (Used as punning, putty, tile adhesive etc.)
Cement Paste+Fine aggregate ( sand)→ → grout or mortar (Used as plaster, masonry mortar etc)
Mortar+Coarse Aggregate→ → Plain cement Concrete (PCC) (Well-known construction material)
PCC+Steel reinfocement → → RCC (Well-known construction material/system/composite)
RCC+Prestressing Force→ → Prestressed concrete (Used in Bridges, buildings, industrial structures etc.)
In each stage some or the construction chemicals are used.
7.2 Scope
The scope of this section is limited to provide information on the construction chemicals classified under
the following categories:
7.2.1 Chemicals used in the fresh concrete/ mortar to enhance its properties in the green and
hardened state
7.2.2 Chemicals and construction aids used to meet the demands and challenges during
construction
7.2.3 Chemicals used to enhance durability of structures during their service life.
However, the discussion on chemicals used for waterproofing and mineral admixtures are not in the scope
of this section, which are discussed exclusively elsewhere in this document.
7.3 CHEMICALS USED IN THE FRESH STATE OF CONCRETE

Chemicals are used in the fresh state of concrete to essentially achieve the following objectives:
• Extended workability to increase the ‘usable life’ of concrete in the fresh state without increasing
the water-cement ratio of concrete mix. In other words to extend the working time of concrete

108
before it is placed and compacted in the shuttering or in the form work without the loss of other
properties when the concrete is hardened.
• Ease of placement : In order to achieve these objectives, chemical such as plasticizers, super
plasticizers and air-entraining plasticizing agents and retarding admixture are used. Admixtures
are those formulated chemicals that are added into concrete, while mixing, in quantities, generally
not exceeding 5% by weight of cement.
7.3.1 Workability Agents

Workability is one of the most important characteristics of concrete, especially under the following
circumstances:
• If the concrete is to be placed around closely placed reinforcement, deep beams thin sections
etc.
• Where special means of placement are required such as tremie, chute or pumping methods.
• If the concrete is harsh because of poor aggregate characteristics or grading.
• For making high strength concrete when w/c ratio is very low.
• In the above circumstances even the cost of achieving the workability may have to be
overlooked.
• Use of plasticizers and superplasticizers are one of the most commonly adapted methods for
improvement of workability in almost all the situations in the production of concrete.
7.3.2 Air entraining plasticizers

Though the main purpose of using an air-entraining admixture in to the concrete is to increase the
freeze –thaw resistance of the concrete,in the context of our country, cohesiveness of concrete to avoid
segregation of the mix,air-entraining plasticizers are used. This works very effectively by increasing the
cement- paste volume in the mix, by stabilizing the entrained air into the concrete. It should be noted
that air entrainment and air entrapment are totally different phenomena. Air entrainment disburses the
air content of the concrete uniformly in the form of micro- air bubbles, over the mass and does not
escape upon vibration and has a desirable effect. Whereas, the entrapped air leaves behind discontinuities
and honey-combs, that can be removed by vibrating the concreting. Air entrapment in concrete has an
undesirable effect. The Air entraining admixtures are used both in mortars as well as in concrete.
7.3.3 Retarding Plasticizers

Retarding plasticizers are those concrete admixtures that are added at the time of mixing the concrete
to extend the setting time of concrete. Extension of setting time should be understood as extension of
penetration resistance of the concrete. They are used when concrete needs to be poured at higher ambient
temperature than normal, to overcome the problem of fast setting. They work by lowering the speed of
hydration of cement (caused by a chemical reaction between water and the cement), delaying the setting
time. Hence retarding plasticizers will be very useful while doing the mass concreting in situations such as
dams, large raft foundations etc. The common problem often faced in such situations is development of
internal cracks due to generation of enormous heat of hydration, as large volumes of concrete poured in
short span of time. The heat of hydration is reduced by the use of retarders, as these chemicals retard the
rate of hydrations.
• Although there may be some insignificant low strength gain at early ages of concrete, the 28 day
compressive strength is not affected by the addition of retarding admixture.
CONSTRUCTION AIDS AND CHEMICALS

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• The effect of retarding plasticizers can be measured by conducting penetration resistance test as
per IS: 8142-1976 on control samples and the samples cast with retarding plasticizers.
7.3.4 Accelerating admixtures or Accelerators

• Accelerators are those admixtures that are added at the time of mixing the concrete to reduce
the setting time of concrete. The use of these admixtures will be helpful while concreting is done
in the cold weather or concrete is placed underwater conditions etc. Calcium Chloride based
accelerators are commonly known but they shall never be used in reinforced concrete , as the
chlorides present in the admixture can cause corrosion of reinforcing steel; however they can be
uses in un reinforced concrete (mass concrete) where reinforcing steel is not present. In some
cases, a marginal reduction in the compressive strength is reported, even at 28 days of curing
when an accelerator is used in concrete.
• The effect of accelerators can be measured by conducting penetration resistance test as per
IS: 8142-1976 on control samples and the samples cast with accelerators.
7.3.5 Corrosion inhibiting admixtures

• In the alkaline environment of concrete, a natural passive ferric oxide layer forms on the surface
of embedded reinforcing steel and protects the steel from corrosion. This passive oxide layer may
break down in the presence of chlorides and moisture resulting in corrosion of the steel.
• Corrosion inhibiting admixtures delay corrosion by re-passivation of steel surface. The oxide ions
are susceptible to chloride attack. When chloride ions attack the ferrous ions, they combine to
create a ferrous chloride compound and initiate pitting corrosion on the reinforcing steel.
• If untreated, chloride ions continue to attack newly exposed ferrous ions and form additional
expansive corrosion products leading to staining, cracking and spalling of the concrete.
• Calcium nitrite used as an effective corrosion inhibiting admixture. It prevents ferrous chloride
compound formation by reacting with defective ferrous oxide ions prior to chloride attack and
reforming the passive layer. Nitrite ions surround the defective ferrous oxide ion and convert it
to a more stable ferric ion species less susceptible to corrosion. This oxidation reaction serves to
re-passivate the reinforcing steel and re-establish the barrier between the steel and chlorides that
initiate corrosion.
• Sodium nitrate and calcium nitrate have been found to be efficient inhibitors of corrosion of steel
in autoclaved products. Two or three per cent sodium nitrate by weight of cement is said to serve
the purpose. There are number of commercial admixtures available now to inhibit corrosion
• It isalso found that calcium lignosulphonate decreased the rate of corrosion of steel embedded in
the concrete, when the steel reinforcement in concrete is subjected to altering or direct current
• Manufacturer’s specifications should be followed for details such as dosage, addition procedure
etc.

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The following are the do’s and don’ts should be followed while using admixtures:
Table 1: Do’s and Don’ts for concrete /mortar admixtures
Do s Don’t s
Follow manufacturer’s technical literature for Do not use the products that do not have technical
directions to use the products literature
Carry out lab trails with the concrete materials to Do not use products without trails only based on
be used in the mix for ascertaining the right dosage the technical literature
and compatibility of the admixture with the cement
and other constituent materials
Use chloride free admixtures for reinforced Do not use chloride based admixtures for reinforced
concrete. Use chloride based admixtures only for concrete.
plain concrete
Add admixtures to the wet concrete directly in to Never add admixture in to the mixing water
the mixer
Use the products with in the shelf life mentioned Never use expired material
on the container
Store the materials under shade Never expose the containers with products to Sun
while storing
Agitate / stir the material before use Never use the admixtures without agitating/stirring
directly from the container
7.4 CHEMICALS USED TO MEET THE DEMANDS AND CHALLENGES DURING

CONSTRUCTION
7.4.1 Curing compounds
Curing of concrete is one of the most critical activities in concrete construction. It is a key factor in deciding
the durability of concrete. While water curing is a preferred method of curing of concrete, it is many times
become difficult to get enough suitable water for curing of large structures especially concrete pavements
, floorings etc. in such cases chemicals known as ‘curing compounds’ are very useful.
Availability of enough moisture in concrete is the essence for uninterrupted hydration process. In fresh
concrete, the moisture level in concrete is much higher that the relative humidity of atmosphere. Therefore,
evaporation of water takes place from the surface of concrete. To recoup the loss of water from the surface
of concrete and to prevent the migration of water from the interior of concrete to the surface of concrete,
that is to retain adequate moisture in the concrete, certain measures are adopted. Such measures taken
are generally called curing of concrete.
Types of Curing Compounds

Liquid membrane forming curing compounds are used to retard the loss of water from concrete during the
early period of setting and hardening. They are used not only for curing fresh concrete, but also for future
curing of concrete after removal of form work or after initial water curing for one or two days. White
pigmented curing compounds reduce the temperature rise in concrete exposed to radiation from sun by
reflecting the light. Curing compounds are made with the following bases.

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• Synthetic resin
• Wax
• Acrylic
• Chlorinated rubber
Resin and wax based curing compounds seals the concrete surface effectively. With time their efficiency
will get reduced and at about 28 days they get disintegrated and peel off. Plastering can be done after 28
days. If plastering is required to be done earlier, the surface should be washed off with hot water.
Acrylic based membrane forming curing compound has the additional advantage of having better adhesion
of subsequent plaster. The membrane does not get crumbled down or it need not be washed with hot
water. In fact on account of inherent characteristics of acrylic emulsion the bonding of the plaster is
better.
Chlorinated rubber curing compounds not only form a thin film that protects the concrete from drying out
but also fill the minute pores in the surface of concrete. The surface film will wear out eventually.
Application Procedure
The curing compound is applied by brush or by spraying while the concrete is wet. In case of columns and
beams the application is done after removal of formwork. On the horizontal surface, the curing compound
is applied upon the complete disappearance of all bleeding water. In case of road and air field pavements
where texturing is required, the curing compound is applied after texturing. Incase the concrete surface
has dried, the surface should be sprayed with water and thoroughly wetted and made fully damp before
curing compound is applied. The curing compound should be well stirred in the container before use.
At present Bureau of Indian Standard Specification and Code of Practice for membrane forming curing
compounds is not available. ASTM: C 309 of 81, for “Liquid membrane-forming Compounds for curing
concrete” and ASTM C 156 of 80a for “Water Retention by Concrete Curing Materials” give enough
details about type, application procedure and testing of curing
Calculation of Loss in Weight

At the end of the specified curing period (72 hours) weigh the mould and specimen of the uncoated and
coated samples. Find out the average loss in weight of the uncoated and the coated specimen and express
in kg/square meter of surface. This value can be used as an indicator of efficiency of liquid membrane
forming curing compound.
Test results (Water Retention)

The liquid membrane forming compound, when tested as specified above shall restrict the loss of water to
not more than 0.55 kg/m2 of surface area in 72 hours.
7.4.2 Mould Releasing Agents (De-moulding agents)

Wooden planks, ordinary plywood, shuttering plywood, steel plates etc., are used as shuttering materials.
Concrete when set and harden adhere to the surface of the framework and make it difficult to de-mould.
This affects the life and quality of shuttering materials and that of concrete. At times when extra force
is used to de-mould from the form work, concrete gets damaged. Sometime mould surface could be
cement plastered surface, in which case the de-moulding or stripping of formwork becomes all the more
difficult. Conventionally, to reduce the bond between formwork and concrete, some kind of materials
such as burnt engine oil, crude oil, cow dung wash, polyethylene sheet etc. were used. All the above are
used on account of non-availability of specially made suitable and effective mould releasing materials. Now

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specially formulated mould releasing agents, separately for absorptive surfaces like timber and plywood
and for non-absorbent surface like steel sheet are available.
These materials are applied using brush on the concrete contact surface of the form worm after it is
assembled and before installed as a mould to pour concrete. Care shall be taken not to damage the film
during reinforcement fixing etc.
When the deshuttering is done an excellent surface texture of hardened concrete can be achieved.
7.4.3 Surface retarders

Exposed aggregate finish is one kind of architectural concrete. A few years back such an architectural
concrete finish was achieved by bush hammering method, or by wire bushing and water spray methods.
The above old methods are not giving a good finish. Now with the availability of surface retarders, both
for “face up” or “face down” application, a very pleasing exposed aggregate finish can be obtained.
Often exposed aggregate finish can be given for prefabricated panels or for in-situconcrete. The beauty of
exposed aggregate can be further enhancement by using different coloured aggregates. In the face down
application surface retarder is brush applied on the moulds. This is generally done on prefab panels. After
a day when the concrete is strong enough the panel is turned over. The concrete in the entire cross section
will have hardened except the thin layer that is in touch with the mould. This layer remain un hydrated and
can be removed by lightly wire brushing the surface and washed off gently. The coarse aggregates become
clean and fully exposed giving a pleasing architectural effect.
Incase of face up, the surface retarder is directly sprayed or brushed on the concrete surface before
hydration process begins. The cement mortar on the surface does not get set whereas the mortar below
certain depth get. At an appropriate time the unhardened matrix and paste at the surface can be removed
by wire brushing and washing, exposing the coarse aggregate.
Fig.7.1. Typical Surface achieved with the use of surface retarders
Sometimes such exposed aggregate finish is given to the foot paths and walkways on either side of roads
so that the surface becomes non slippery. This kind of treatment is also given in automobile service stations
and parking garages. Different surface retarders are available for different sizes of coarse aggregates. The
above exposed aggregate techniques adopted for “whisper concrete” surface in express highways.
Surface retarders are also used to create mechanical bond for Plastering.
In the conventional system of construction, on removing the formwork, hacking is done on the surface of
columns and beams and also on the ceiling of roof, to form a key between the structure and the plaster.
Hacking generally gives following problem:
Uniform hacking s difficult to achieve.

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If there is delay, the structural concrete becomes so hard that hacking becomes difficult.
Manual hacking is time consuming particularly at ceiling. Slender members particularly cantilever chajjas,
louvers sun breakers develop structural cracks due to inconsiderate heavy hammer blows on young
concrete.
Surface retarders provide an excellent concrete surface to receive the plaster.
7.4.4 Bonding agents

In the large construction projects, it is seldom possible to avoid construction joints. Such joints are also
referred as ‘cold joints’. Often it is very difficult to achieve structurally monolithic joints in such locations
due to loss of bond between the old and the new concrete. Quite often new concrete or mortar is required
to be laid on old concrete surface. Providing an overlay on an existing pavement, providing a screed over
roof for waterproofing or repair work etc, aregood examples for such construction challenges.
The bonding characteristics at the cold joints can be greatly improved by providing a bond coat at the
interphase of old and new concrete. There are essentially two types of bonding agents viz., epoxy based
bonding agents and non-epoxy based bonding agents.
Epoxy based bonding agents are epoxy adhesives for internal or external bonding of renderings, granolithic
toppings, and concrete to concrete. The product should tolerate a degree of moisture before and during
curing and should be insoluble when cured. The ultimate bond strength should be greater than the tensile
strength of concrete. Upon curing it should not shrink and should provide an even and stress free bond.
General Surface preparation

All surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned andprepared. All loose particles, laitance, dust, curing compounds,
oil, grease, bitumen and paints if any must be removed if good bondstrength is to be achieved. Gloss
surfaces mustbe abraded.If oil, grease, fat, etc. are present, they should beremoved before starting any
other form ofpreparation. All laitance weak or friable concreteshould be removed by chipping, grit blasting,
or scrubbing until a sound base is obtained.All laitance should be removed by mechanical scarification, sand
blasting, or by acid etching.New concrete should have cured until theshrinkage and moisture movement
is low.Surfaces heavily impregnated with mould oilshould be degreased and grit blasted ormechanically
scarified to remove thecontaminated surface. All curing compoundsshould have disintegrated or be
removed andapplication carried out only onto a clean, dust free surface.
Application
Generally the epoxy bonding agents are supplied in pre-weighed two packs viz., base and hardener.
Sometimes they are supplied in two different colours. A low rpm paddle mixer is used for mixing the
two components until a uniform colour of the mixed material is obtained. The mixed material will have
a long pot life to enable application to the surface to be bonded. The mixed material should be applied
thoroughly using a nylon brush. New concrete shall be placed on the product applied surface before the
applied bonding agent is set. This can be tested by touching the applied material with the finger. The unset
material will stick to the material when touched. At this time the new concrete is to be placed.
Non- Epoxy based bonding agents

Acrylic and SBR (Styrene Butadiene Rubber) based materials are non-epoxy based polymers used in civil
engineering industry as bonding agents. They should be applied on the wet surface (Saturated Surface
dry) unlike epoxy bonding agents. They are also used in the application of overhead plasters especially for
ceilings and soffits. Their bond strength is less than the bond strength of the epoxy based materials but
sufficient to the purpose they are applied for.

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7.5.Chemicals used to enhance durability of structures during
their service life.
Construction chemicals are used to enhance the durability of concrete by preventing the ingress of harmful
agents into the concrete that cause corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel and deterioration of concrete
itself. These harmful agents are Carbon dioxide, Chloride ions, Sulphates and Sulphides, moisture (water)
etc. Some of the chemicals generally used are dealt in the following discussion under this category.
7.5.1 Protective coatings

Protective are applied on the cured concrete surface and often referred as topically applied coatings. The
coatings applied on the concrete surface exposed to the atmosphere should process certain properties as
follows:
• They should be alkali resistant, as they are applied on concrete which is alkaline in nature
• They should be resistant and should provide barrier properties to the ingress of moisture
• They should be resistant and should provide barrier properties to the diffusion of Carbon dioxide
• They should be resistant and should provide barrier properties to the diffusion of chloride ions
• They should be resistant to ultraviolet rays as concrete is exposed to sunlight
• They should allow transmission of water vapours through them
In addition to the above, the concrete exposed to chemicals like in a factory environment, should
also be resistant to the chemical the structure is expected to expose to.
For general buildings anti-carbonation coatings are in vogue. Many paint companies also
manufacture such coatings in pleasing colours.
The protective coatings basically have three components viz., Resins, pigments and solvents. Resin
is the one that decides the protective properties of the coatings, Pigments will give the colour or
the aesthetic appearance to the coating, whereas solvent is the component of a coating provides
properties like ease of application either with brush or airless sprayer etc. Once the coating is
applied on the surface the solvent generally evaporates and then it does not have any role to
play. Hence for performance of any protective coating, selection of the resin is a key. As a guide
following table provides the properties of resins generally used in the protective coating industry. It
can be noted from the following table that, for an atmospherically exposed concrete, the coatings
based on pure aliphatic acrylates are the most suited ones. However for other exposure conditions,
protectivecoatings based on the suitable resins should be selected.
Durability of coatings of the atmospherically exposed concrete

The durability of the coating is an important factor, to be considered while selecting a protective coating.
This is important because, if the coating is to be applied in short intervals repeatedly, say every year, the
recurring cost towards access arrangements like scaffoldings, working platforms etc., is higher than the
cost of the material, especially for high-rise buildings. In view of this, the life cycle cost of a coating should
be considered rather than the initial cost of the material considering its durability.
The factors affecting durability of a coating system

When the coated surfaces are exposed to atmosphere two important factors need to be considered as far
as durability is concerned. They are UV resistance and breathability or ability of the coating to allow water
vapour transmission through it. Coatings having resistance to about 15,000 UV hours of resistance will
last for about 13 to 15 years. Coatings with good breathability property will not de-bond and blister from
the surface of concrete for long.

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Table 7.2 Properties of common resins used in protective coatings
Resin type Alkali Water Flexibility Breath UV Carbonation Cl SO4
Resistance Resi- ability Resistance Resistance Resistance
stance
Alkyds no yes yes yes no no no
Vinyl no no yes yes no no no
Styrene yes yes no yes no no no
Copolymers
Chlorinated yes yes no no no no no
Rubber
Pure Aliphatic
Acrylates yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
Polyurethanes yes yes no no yes no yes
Epoxies yes yes no no no no yes
7.6 Joint sealants

Joints in buildings are inescapable. They may be expansion joints, construction joints or dummy joints.
Such joints must be effectively sealed to facilitate movement of structure and to provide waterproofing
quality. While providing large openings and windows in buildings there exists gap between wall and
window frames, through which water flows inside. Such gaps in the window should also be effectively
sealed. The gaps resulting in installation of sanitary appliances are also required to be sealed. There were
no effective materials in Indian market hitherto.
7.6.1.General Guide to Joint Sealants

A fundamental design requirement for any building is protection against the elements of nature.
Joint sealants create both a primary and secondary barrier to rain, air, and debris ingress, and
are commonly overlooked as a critical component of both the aesthetic design and functionality of the
building envelope. Joint sealants are also a vital component of air barrier and vapour retarder systems
that are intended to retain a building’s interior environment within the building. The large number of
sealant types available on the market today coupled with misinformation about how to design and install
sealant joints properly often result in improper specification by architects and poor field application by
contractors.
Better performance of the joints can be achieved by paying attention to the following points while
selecting and applying the joint sealants.
• Understand the major causes of sealant joint failure

• Inadequate movement accommodation factor
• Incompatibility with substrates and other joint components.
• Inadequate consideration of the sealant’s service environment.
• Insufficient substrate cleaning, priming or other preparation.
• Improper or no installation of backer rod.
• Poor sealant installation, particularly, lack of or improper tooling of joint.

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• Poor design or construction of sealant joint geometry (profile).
• Poor or no design for joints experiencing movement.
• Over-reliance on a single sealant joint as the only water resistance barrier in the exterior
envelope.
7.6.2 Determine the Selection Criteria for Joint Sealants

Primary Concerns
• What is the expected durability (service life) required of the sealant?
• How much and what type of joint movement is expected?
• What is the best sealant chemistry for the application?
• What substrates need to be evaluated?
• Is substrate staining a concern?
• What is the service environment?
• What is the application environment?
• Will resistance to atypical wall or floor cleaning chemicals be required?
Secondary Concerns
• What non-fading colours are available?
• Is a single- or multi-component sealant required?
• Is a gun-grade or self-levelling sealant required or both?
• Analyse Sealant Joint Movement (Calculate Type and Magnitude of Movements to be
accommodated)
• Calculate the expected thermal movement(s) of the substrates as a linear measurement as illustrated
in the following example:
• Minimum joint width at the maximum mid-summer temperature 20mm
• Maximum joint width at the minimum mid-winter temperature 25mm
• Total joint movement summer to winter 5 mm Total joint movement expressed as % of minimum
joint width 33%
Note: Joint width measurements should take into account casting and other tolerances (e.g. fabrication
and erection) and any movement due to shrinkage or settlement. Temperature movements alone are not
the only cause of joint movement. Many other factors cause joint movement and should be considered
when designing a sealant joint. Such factors include: irreversible expansion of brick, shrinkage of concrete
masonry units and concrete creep of columns and particularly slabs, elastic deformation of structural
members due to varying loads, and building movements due to earthquake and wind (lateral loads)
In the example above, the sealant which will be selected for this application must therefore have a cyclic
movement capability throughout the stated temperature range of at least 33%. This assumes that none
of the factors discussed above will be an issue in this joint. However, this is rarely the case. Another
consideration is that some organic sealants experience hardening or loss of elasticity over time, which can
result in joint failure.

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7.6.3 Analyse substrate Issues
• Common substrates such as concrete and brick pose few problems for most sealants; however,
most sealants require a primer for adequate adhesion to cementitious and sometimes to other
porous substrates such as brick. Other substrates (such as asphalt, marble, some natural stone,
certain plastics, metal alloys and factory-applied organic coatings) can present adhesion and
staining issues.
• It is important at the specifying stage to determine with the sealant manufacturer the level of
substrate preparation, including primer, required to achieve optimum performance. The substrate
preparation method needs to be included in the sealant specification. In some cases, it may be
need for primers and surface preparation methods. After their construction, the mock-ups can
besubjected to sealant peel tests to valuate adhesion of the sealant to the substrate.
• What type of joint backing is most compatible with the sealant considering its service
environment?
7.6.4 Analyse Service and Application Environment Issues

• Consider the effects of weather (e.g. temperature extremes, humidity, UV, acid rain,pollution).
• Is resistance to chemicals, required (e.g. oil, fuels, and hydraulic fluids)?
• Is resistance to biodegradation and color fading required?
• Is resistance to abrasion, wear-and-tear, mold and mildew, and dirt pick-up required?
• Does the sealant joint need to be vandal resistant?
• Determine the loading to be resisted for pavement and floor joints (e.g. Pedestrian or wheeled
vehicles).
• Does the sealant need to be approved for potable water or food service applications?
• At what temperature (can it be reliably attained?) is the sealant likely to be installed?
• Can the sealant achieve proper curing under the application conditions?
• How can the sealant be protected from environmental elements and movement until it is cured?
• Can the sealant properly cure at the depth specified for its joint design?
• How does sealant working time (pot life) affect application?
7.6.5 Application Considerations

• The joint substrate surfaces should be clean, dry and free of contaminants and surface tension
reducing materials such as water repellents and other coatings.
• The joint backing should be correctly sized for the opening and should be compatible with the
sealant.
• The joint backing or bond breaker should be carefully and properly installed to result in a
consistent joint profile. Variations in backer rod setting depth can greatly affect joint geometry
and performance.
• The sealant should be installed using proper tools to result in a consistent and uniform
application.
• The sealant should be tooled as soon as possible after application. Tooling is a critical step to

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compact the sealant, thereby providing an appropriate profile and ensuring adhesion to the
substrates.
• All sealant materials have a shelf-life. One-component sealants slowly cure in their containers.
Always confirm that the sealants are within their shelf life limit before being used.
7.6.6 Additional Guidelines to Consider

• Select low-modulus sealants for low-tensile strength substrates and rapid thermal response
lightweight structures, including building facades such as Exterior Insulation & Finish Systems and
metal curtain walls.
• Consider chemical resistance for sealants used below grade.
• The sealant may have to accommodate significant movement during its curing cycle. This may
require using a sealant at far less than its rated movement capacity.
• Avoid selecting a sealant simply by reference to its data sheet technology.
• Shrinkage of solvent or water based sealants may create stress at the substrate bond. Such sealants
are more susceptible to creating bond line stress when they are applied in larger profiles.
• Understand that in some cases low technology “plastic” sealants can provide good performance
below grade and are less sensitive to application abuse.
• Be aware that oils, plasticizers, and unreacted polymer from many sealants may migrate, stain and
permanently affect porous and non-porous building components.
• Design pavement and floor joints and select sealants for them that have good puncture and tear
resistance.
• Consider that moisture curing single-component sealants may take considerable time to cure in
dry environments and where a closed cell backer rod is used.
• Where possible, select environmentally friendly (“green”) sealants, but be aware of their
performance tradeoffs.
• Use multi-component sealants if fast predictable cure rates are required, but be aware of problems
associated with improper mixing.
• Use primers when sealants are used for pavement joints and when subject to total immersion.
• Question the sealant manufacturer’s movement and long-term performance claims.
• Consider the track record of the sealant being considered (if using proprietary specifications).
• Require a current sealant validation certificate from the SWR Institute Liquid Sealant Validation
Program.
• Bear in mind that joints open in colder weather, putting sealants under tension, which creates
stress at the substrate bond. The low temperature modulus of a sealant should be considered
before specifying.
7.6.7 Background Information by Sealant Chemistry

Although civil engineers are not generally interested in the chemistry of the material, in order to make
the right choice of the sealants, it is often prudent to have a little knowledge of the chemical type of the
sealant material. From this point of view some details about the chemistry of the material and preferred
areas of application are given below:

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Latex (water-based, including EVA, acrylic – sometimes referred to as caulk)
Used mainly in residential and light commercial construction applications, interior and exterior use,
premium products meet ± 25% movement, excellent paint ability (with latex paints). This type of sealant
will have very good exterior durability. They may exhibit some shrinkage after cure. They are not used for
exterior applications, particularly on high rise construction, for applications undergoing significant cyclic
movement, or for high-profile structures.
Acrylics (solvent-based)
Used in residential and light commercial construction, mainly for exterior applications. They generally meet
± 12.5% movement which need special handling for flammability and regulatory compliance. They can be
can be painted. They will have short open time and as such difficult to tool.
They exhibit some shrinkage upon cure, often used for perimeter sealing in windows and other frames in
the openings with low movement joints.
Butyls (solvent-based)
• Excellent adhesion to most substrates.
• Excellent water vapor transmission resistance.
• Limited movement capabilities, generally up to ± 10%
• Excellent weathering properties.
• Sometimes used in curtain wall applications where adhesion to rubber compounds is needed.
• Most are stringy and difficult to apply neatly.
• May show some shrinkage after cure; may harden and crack over time on exposed surfaces.
• Some are not suitable for application where exposed to UV.
• Some are non-hardening and are suitable for concealed application where sealant needs to remain
flexible.
7.6.8 Polysulphides
• First “high performance” sealant;
• Mainly used in industrial applications
• Poor recovery limits their use in joints with high cyclic movements.
• Can be formulated for excellent chemical resistance (especially for aviation fuel).
• Good performance in submerged applications.
• Require a primer on almost all substrates.
7.6.9 Silicones
• Structural bonding and structural sealant glazing (SSG) of glass to frames.
• Excellent joint movement capabilities; can exceed ± 50%
• Excellent low temperature movement capability.
• Excellent UV and heat stability.
• Good adhesion for many substrates especially glass; a primer is recommended on certain substrates,
particularly porous substrates.

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• Not paintable.
• Used in protective glazing systems and insulating glass units to improve thermal performance
(reduce heat loss). Also used for missile impact and bomb blast situations.
• Acetoxy chemistry based sealants have strong odor, but newer chemistries have very low odor.
• Adhesion, as for all sealant types, is adversely affected by less than perfect application
conditions.
• High, medium and low modulus sealants available.
• May stain some types of natural stone without primers.
• Low staining potential formulations are available.
7.6.10 Polyurethanes (PU)

• Used in industrial and commercial applications.
• Very good movement capabilities, up to ± 50%.
• Not used in SSG applications (avoid direct contact to glass).
• Excellent bonding, generally without a primer for many surfaces.
• Can be formulated for good UV resistance, which may be compromised by a selected color.
7.7. Grouting Agents

Grouting under different conditions or for different purposes would necessitate different qualities of
grout-mixture. Sometimes grout mixtures will be required to set quickly and sometimes grout mixtures will
have to be in fluid form over a long period so that they may flow into all cavities and fissures. Sometimes
in grout mixtures, a little water is to be used but at the same time it should exhibit good workability to
flow into the cracks and fissures. There are many admixtures which will satisfy the requirements of grout
mixtures. Admixtures used for grouting are:
a) Accelerators b) Retarders
c) Gas forming agents d) Workability agents e) Plasticizers.
Accelerating agents may be used in grout to hasten the set in situation where a plugging effect is desired.
In such a case calcium chloride or triethanolamine are used.
Retarders and dispersing agents are used in a grout to aid pumpability and to affect the penetration pf
grout into fine cracks or seams. They include gypsum and a commercial brand known as RDA (Ray Lig
Blinder) etc.
Gas forming admixtures are used while grouting in completely confined areas, such as under machine
bases. Aluminium powder is the most commonly used agent, which chemically reacts and forms small
bubbles of hydrogen and produces expansion of the grout. This expansion eliminates settlement and
shrinkage.
Plasticizers and super plasticizers in powder form are always one of the ingredients of the grout mixture
for effective flowability and obtaining high strength.

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7.8. MortarAdmixture
Mortar admixtures are water emulsions of several organic materials that are mixed with cement or mortar
grout for application to an old concrete surface just prior to patching with mortar or concrete. Sometimes
they are mixed with the topping or patching material. Their function is to increase the bond strength
between the old and new concrete. This procedure is used in patching of eroded or spalled concrete or to
add thin layers of resurfacing.
The commonly used mortaradmixture are made from natural rubber, synthetic rubber or from any organic
polymers. The polymers include polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate etc.
Bonding admixture fall into two general categories, namely, re-emulsifiable types and non–re-emulsifiable
types. The latter is better suited for external application since it is resistant to water.
These emulsions are generally added to the mixture in proportions of 5 to 20 per cent by weight of
cement. Bonding admixtures usually cause entrainment of air and a sticky consistency in a grout mixture.
They are effective only on clean and sound surfaces.
7.9. Installation aids

Many a time holes and cavities are left behind in walls, staircases, gate pillars etc., for fixing wash basin,
lamp shades, hand rails or gates Invariably, the holes made or kept, are larger than required. The extra
space is required to be plugged subsequently. Material conventionally used for this purpose is cement
mortar. It has certain short comings in its long term performance.Cement mortar takes a long time to set
and harden, remain vulnerable for damage and it also shrinks. Specially manufactured materials which will
harden to take load in a matter of 10-15 minutes,overcoming the disadvantages of conventional cement
mortars for doing such installations. They can also be in situations of fitting of antennae, fixing of pipes
and sanitary appliances etc.
There are also certain materials which when applied on the concrete floor, convert the lime rich cement
compounds into silicified products which gives extreme chemical and mechanical resistance and also
dustproofing qualities.
7.10. Adhesives for Tiles, Marble and Granite

The normal practice followed for fixing glazed tiles in bathroom, lavatory, kitchen and other places is
the use of stiff neat cement paste. The existing practice, through somewhat satisfactory in the indoor
conditions from the point of fixity, such practices is unsatisfactory when used in outdoor conditions and
also from the point of view of waterproofing quality. The cement pastes applied at the back of tiles do not
flow towards the edges of the tiles and as such water enters at the edges, particularly when white cement
applied as joint filler become ineffective. In large number of cases it is seen that paintings and plaster gets
affected behind these glazed tiles supposedly applied to prevent moisture movement from wet areas.
Cement paste is not the right material for fixing the glazed tiles. There are, polymers based, hydraulically
setting, ready to use, waterproof tile adhesive available in the market. They offer many advantages over
the conventional method of tile fixing such as better bond and adhesion, strengths, faster work, good
waterproofing quality to the wall. They are also suitable for exterior and overhead surfaces. No curing of
tile surface becomes necessary. If the wall and plastered surface is done to good plumb, a screening of only
1 – 2 mm thickness of this modern material will be sufficient to fix the tiles in which case, the adoption of

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this material will also become economical. The modern tile adhesive material offers special advantages for
fixing glazed tiles in swimming pools both on floor and at side walls.
Many a time, the glazed tiles fixed on the kitchen or bathroom walls get dirty or damaged.. Normal
practice is toremove the old tile and replace with new tiles. With modern tile adhesives, it possible tofix
new tiles on old ones . Tile adhesive can be applied on the existing tiles and new tiles are laid over the old
tiles. This saves considerable cost and time and the operation becomes simple.
Marble and Granite are increasingly used for cladding wall surfaces both internally and externally. Marbles
and granite have become the most common treatment for external cladding of prestigious buildings. They
are used in the form of tiles or large panels. In the past for fixing thin marbles and granite tiles cement
paste was used and for fixing large slabs and panels, epoxy and dowel pins were used. No there are ready
to use high strength polymer bonding materials available which can be used with confidence both for
internal and external use. Requirement of dowels are eliminated in most of the except for cladding of large
panels at very high level for extra safety. Marble and granite can even be fixed on boards, inclined surface
underside of beams and in ceiling by the use of these new high adhesion products.
7.11.Material for crack repairs

Conventionally, cement is used for sealing cracks. Cement is not an ideal material for this purpose as it
shrinks while setting and hardening. Non-shrink or expansive cementitious material is the most suitable
for this purpose. materials available in the market for fitting up cracks and crevices in concrete structures
to make them waterproof or for repair and rehabilitation of structures. The grouts are produced with
selected water repellent silicifying chemical compounds and inert fillers to achieve varied characteristics
like water permeability, non-shrinkage, free flow ability etc. They are suitable for gravity grouting as well
as pressure grouting. Grouting of concrete structure is one of the methods for strengthening of structures
in distress.

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Chapter
8
Building Formworks
8. Building Formworks
FUNDAMENTALS AND BASICS
Preamble
Practices used in all stages of Concrete Construction affect both the appearance and structural performance
of the Concrete. When the concrete is not exposed, structural performance is the overriding factor and
when the concrete is exposed, the role of Formwork attains higher and greater importance along with
structural performance.
This chapter is written for architects, constructors and engineers with little or no experience and who are
responsible for designing and erecting formwork during the construction process. It is structured to impart
formwork basics and general awareness about the practical aspects of the subject. Further in-depth study
of the subject can be taken up by an individual.
A chapter on emerging trends is also included to inform the readers about advanced formwork technologies
being adopted internationally. Most of the internationally reputed formwork manufacturers are now
available in India and large amount of information can be obtained by studying the materials used, specific
purpose for which formwork is designed, cost economics etc before arriving at a decision as to what form
is suitable to us.
The author acknowledges use of information and images from many sources with an assurance that this
is mainly to help the fraternity in understanding the subject better.
8.1.0 Introduction
Concrete is undoubtedly the most commonly used construction material throughout the world. No wonder
the demand for it is perennial and ever-growing. It attains its importance mainly because of its ability to
get moulded into any shape and can express any surface texture. The increasing acceptance of concrete
as a major construction material presents the builder a new challenge in the development of appropriate
formwork technology so as to effectively provide the specified surface finish.
Emerging trends in concrete and construction technologies have resulted in tremendous advancements
in formwork technology too. Formwork development has paralleled the growth of concrete construction
throughout the 20th century. Timber was once the predominant formwork material, but developments
in the use of plywood, steel, plastics and other new generation materials together with increasing use of
specialised accessories have changed the scenario completely.
8.1.1 Formwork Function

Formwork functions purely as a temporary structure that holds the fluid concrete in the desired and
designed position until it is able to support its own weight and the various loads imposed on it. It not
only supports its own weight and that of the freshly placed concrete but also other construction live loads
including materials, equipment, and workmen. Fresh concrete will accurately reflect the shape, texture
and finish of the surface against which it is cast. The formwork is critical to the final appearance of the
hardened surface. Any imperfection or inaccuracy in the formwork will be reflected when the formwork
is stripped off.
Formwork is one of the important components due to its cost factor and plays a major role in deciding
the construction methodology especially when it comes to high rise structures. Often designers devote

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considerable time in selecting the minimum amount of concrete and steel for a structure without devoting
adequate attention to the impact of the formwork that must be constructed to form the concrete. For
most structures, more time and cost are required to make, erect, and dismantle the formwork than the
time and cost to place the concrete or reinforcing steel in position. For some structures, the cost of
formwork exceeds the cost of the concrete and steel combined. Formwork has a significant impact on the
cost, time, and quality of the completed project.
The three basic principles of form building can be enumerated as :
• Quality- In terms of strength, rigidity, position, dimensions and finishing of the forms.
• Safety- For both workers and the structure.
• Economy- The least cost consistent with quality and safety required.
8.1.2 Good formwork

Formwork system as a general terminology means total system of support for freshly placed concrete,
including the mould or sheathing that contacts the concrete, the supporting members generally referred
as shores, hardware, and necessary bracing. Shoring is a technique of supporting the mould using vertical
or inclined support members designed to carry the weight of the formwork, concrete, and construction
loads above. Good Formwork should exhibit the following properties;
• Formwork must be water proofed, so as to prevent absorption of water from the fresh concrete.
• Should be light and stiff and facilitate easy handling.
• Should reflect the desired surface.
• Sufficiently rigid under the construction loads to maintain the designed shape of the concrete,
• Stable and strong enough to maintain large members in alignment, and
• Substantially constructed to withstand handling and reuse without losing their dimensional
integrity
8.1.3 Design Factors

While designing suitable formwork for a structure following key factors must be
considered.
• Correct assessment of loads coming over forms
• Pressure due to Green concrete on form surface.
• Selection of proper forming material, considering its strength, durability and cost.
• Selection of proper supporting system.
• Provision for proper ties / anchors for the forms and bracings for the supports.
• Provision of safe working/access platforms for labour and equipment.
• Proper scheduling, stripping, and re-fixing of shores.
• Ease of stripping
• Surface Finish and Patterns if any
• Type of Releasing agent , Stripping Time, Stripping method
• Curing method
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• Re-usability and Easy handling
• Allowable Tolerance
8.1.3.1 Formwork Design

Although design of formwork uses the same structural principles as design of permanent works, there
is a fundamental difference in approach between them. As formwork has to support temporary loads,
advantage may be taken of any enhancement of strength under short term loading that a material may
have.
The loads and working stresses to be used in formwork design must take into account the following:
• Short term loadings- it is permissible to use higher stresses for timber and plywood; where
deflection is the governing factor only the normal modulus of elasticity should be used.
• Misuse on site- damage may arise during repeated handling of forms which could limit their re-use
potential.
• General weather exposure- Allowance must be made for the effects of weather.
• Abrasion and reaction of form to impact, vibration and uneven loading.
8.1.3.2 Applied Loadings

The loads applied to formwork can be divided into following basic types;
Dead loads: It includes the loads and pressures from fresh concrete of the same dimensions as the
finished structure as a dead load, together with the self weight of the formwork. Special consideration has
to be given to self weight when dealing with precast concrete used as permanent formwork.
Imposed loads: Imposed loads include loads from plant, the storage of materials and general loads from
concreting operations. The imposed loading is designed to cater for loads from-
• Construction workers
• Minor items of plant and equipment
• Stacking of materials, if any
• Surcharge of concrete
• Impact due to depositing concrete from overhead skips
• Pre-stressing loads that are transferred to the supporting formwork.
Horizontal loads :
• Wind pressure against deck and edge form

• Concrete against formwork or against the face of previously poured concrete
• Imposed loads from plant, pump lines and such like
• Dynamic loads, especially braking loads from vehicular traffic and crane slewing loads.
• Expansion and shrinkage of the concrete.
Environmental loads
• Wind loads – These should be calculated in accordance with the relevant codes of practice.
• Accidental loads – Wherever possible, formwork should be so designed that damage due to large

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accidental loads is confined to local areas and does not bring about a progressive collapse of the
formwork or false work system.
8.1.3.3 Concrete Pressure

The pressure exerted by concrete on formwork is determined primarily by several or all of the following
factors:
• Weight of Concrete – Fresh concrete is a mixture of solids and water whose behaviour only
approximates that of a liquid, and then for a limited time only.
• Rate of placing concrete- The rate of placing has a primary effect on lateral pressure, and the
maximum lateral pressure is proportional to the rate of placing, up to a limit equal to the full fluid
pressure.
• Temperature – Temperature of concrete at the time of placing has an important influence on
pressures because it affects the setting time of concrete. At high temperatures, the concrete
stiffens faster and therefore, the formwork stripping time is less.
• Effect of retarders, fly ash, super-plasticisers, greater w/c ratio – When the w/c ratio is high or
retarders / super-plasticisers are used, the concrete produced is of a flowing consistency for a certain
period after placement. Formwork must be specially designed considering full liquid head.
• The above is also true for self compacting concrete, where the concrete flows just like a liquid into
the forms, even though the water cement ratio is low. But it should be remembered that for SCC,
vibration is completely eliminated.
• Other variables – Other variables having an effect on the lateral pressure include consistency of concrete,
amount and location of reinforcement, ambient temperature, placing procedures, type of cement,
and depth of placement, cross section of forms, and smoothness and permeability of forms. However,
with usual concreting practices the range of these variable effects is generally small and it is neglected.
8.1.4 Form Economics

Cost plays an important role and while considering the type of formwork its cost implications have to be
well kept in mind. Some of the following factors may be included while doing so.
• Design the forms for maximum number of reuses.

• Avoid using expensive form finishes for surfaces which are going to be covered with plaster.
• When planning forms, consider the sequence and methods of stripping them.
• Use prefabricated panels where it is possible.
• Use precast structural elements such as lintels, sill beams wherever possible.
• Consider using patented form panels and other patented members, which frequently are less
expensive in the longer run than forms built entirely on site.
• Develop standardized methods of making, erecting, and stripping forms. This will increase the
speed of construction.
• Use double-headed nails for temporary connections to facilitate their removal.
• Maintain the forms regularly. Clean, oil, and re-nail form panels, if necessary, between reuses.
Store them carefully to prevent distortion and damage.
• Use long lengths of lumber without cutting for walls, braces, stringers, and other purposes where
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their extending beyond the work is not objectionable.
• Strip forms as soon as it is safe and possible to do so if they are to be reused on the structure, in
order to provide the maximum number of reuses.
• Analyse the formwork cycle for future use and design.
8.1.5 Check List before releasing the Pour-card

Before allowing the concrete to be placed onto the formwork and pour card be released, it is necessary for
a site engineer to perform the following checklist and ensure various factors listed below are satisfactorily
complied with by the contractor executing the job work.
• Whether the right shuttering material is used or not.

• Whether forms used are free from defects such rusting, damages, dents, etc.
• Whether the form work free from gaps to ensure water tightness.
• Whether side shuttering of slabs and beams are properly fixed with stiffeners to avoid any
displacement, deformation, bulging etc.,
• Whether right mould releasing agent is used before tying the reinforcement.
• Whether care has been taken to provide suitable pattern of grooves specified in case of exposed
form finish.
• Whether line, level and other dimensional parameters are correct.
• Whether camber is provided in the form work as per design.
• Whether de-shuttering can be done keeping the form work cycle in mind.
• Whether embedments, duct boxes, sunken areas are properly located.
• Check for line, level etc once again after reinforcement work is completed.
• Whether care has been taken to ensure that the reinforcement / Binding wire does not touch the
form surface.
• In case of Concrete being poured by RMC, ensure whether extra supports are provided to withstand
the impact pressure.
• Check whether proper tie rods have been provided for deeper beams.
• Instruct all the concerned about the period of de-shuttering specifically. This is very vital in case of
post tensioned slabs.
• Ensure proper conduit markings on the form surface in case of slab stressing.
8.1.6 Removal of Forms

Forms should be removed as soon as possible to provide the greatest number of uses but not until the
concrete has attained sufficient strength to ensure structural stability and to carry both the dead load and
any construction loads that may be imposed on it. The engineer-architect should specify the minimum
strength required of the concrete before removal of forms or supports because the strength required for
the removal of forms can vary widely with job conditions.
The minimum time for stripping forms and removal of supporting shores is a function of concrete strength,
which should be specified by the engineering/architect. The preferred method of determining stripping
time is using tests of job-cured cylinders or tests on concrete in place. Most codes provide recommendations

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for removing forms and shores.
Site engineer should study the tender document and become conversant with the stipulations if any in
respect of removal of forms. In the absence of any such guideline, the site engineer should discuss with
the structural engineer with reference to the relevant code provisions.
Delayed deshuttering will reduce number of re-uses of forms without any technical benefit. It also hinders
commencement of curing. This can in fact be detrimental to the structure particularly where steel formwork
is used. Under hot weather conditions prevailing in our country, the steel formwork absorbs solar heat and
contributes to fast evaporation of water form concrete, leaving insufficient water for hydration.
While adopting minimum values for deshuttering vertical surfaces indicated in the table above, care should
be taken to carry out the deshuttering work properly so that no damage to the fresh concrete surface
occurs.
Where retarders are used in the concrete, the deshuttering time should be increased correspondingly
depending upon the time of retardation. If Portland Pozzolana cement or blast furnace slag cement
is used, the concrete setting time is usually increased. The deshuttering time should also be increased
correspondingly.
In case steam curing is resorted to, the process is generally started within 1 or 2 hours of completion of
concreting; hence steam curing is started with all the formwork in place. In such cases even the vertical
formwork can be removed only on completion of steam curing cycle. In case of members being cured
using steam, special care is to be taken well in advance in choosing the shuttering material.
8.1.6.1 Removal of vertical faces

The vertical formwork is required to be in position only until such time that the concrete stiffens sufficiently
to sustain itself. This generally corresponds to the final setting time of concrete. Under hot weather
conditions prevailing for most of the time in India, the final setting time of concrete is between 4 to 6 hours.
As such the vertical formwork may be removed at about 6 hours after the last pour of concrete when the
temperature is above 30°C. At lower temperatures the deshuttering period may vary and following table
provided can be adopted as an indicator.
Reference: BS 5975: 1982
Concrete Temperature Deshuttering time

25°C 9 hours
16°C 12 hours
7°C 18 hours
In case of structures being constructed with using Slipform technology, the shutter form generally moves
up at a speed ranging from 200 to 400 mm per hour in Indian Conditions. This corresponds to deshuttering
times between 3 to 5 hours after the concrete is placed. Only during winter Slipform speed is reduced to
about 100 mm to 150 mm per hour corresponding to deshuttering time of 8 to 10 hours. The functional
requirements for setting of concrete before deshuttering vertical forms being same irrespective of the type
of structure there is no need to increase the deshuttering time for vertical formwork.
8.1.6.2 Removal of horizontal faces

The time and procedure by which soffit formwork of beams and slabs can be struck should be carefully
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controlled. The main consideration is the gain of strength of concrete to ensure that the member when
released can support its own weight together with any imposed construction operation loads. Additional
considerations are the elements of mechanical damage, reduction in thermal shocks and limiting excess
deflections.
The minimum concrete strength at the time of striking the formwork should be specified in the drawings or
technical specifications, where this is not the case the greater of the following two values may be adopted:
10 MPa and or twice the stress to which the member will be subjected at the time of deshuttering.
In case of steam curing, soffit formwork will be deshuttered at the end of steam curing cycle. In case of
prestressed elements, the structure is self supporting as soon as it is prestressed. Thus, soffit formwork can
be deshuttered as soon as first stage prestressing is completed. Thus, for prestressed concrete elements,
criteria for deshuttering is based on prestressing and not based on strength of concrete alone. However,
the concrete proportioning should be for high early strength, prestressing can be normally started after 3
days of concreting and the deshuttering can be done immediately thereafter.
IS 456-Section 11.3 deals with stipulations in respect of minimum time period required for stripping the
formwork which may be referred to in case of any ambiguity.
8.1.6.3 Formwork for construction joints

It is necessary to remove the formwork of vertical construction joints within 2 to 3 hours of concreting to
ensure removal of the cement mortar laitance and expose aggregates before the final setting of concrete.
If for any reason the formwork is to be left for a longer period, the face of the formwork in contact with
concrete should be coated with a surface retarder to facilitate treatment of concrete surface. In any case
formwork should not be left in place for more than 12 hours.
8.1.7 Formwork Materials

Materials generally used for Forms include timber, steel, fibreglass, plastic, aluminium, plaster of Paris.
Additional accessories include nails, bolts, screws, form ties, anchors, couplers, and other components.
Formwork as a system is commonly made of combination of above materials. Based on the basic material
used, quite a few of Formwork Forms have come into picture. To name a few, Timber Form, Steel Form,
Extruded Aluminium Form, Fabric Form, Form-liners, Steel-Fibre forms, etc. Materials used in formwork
system should exhibit the following characteristics.
• Adequate strength
• Adequate rigidity
• Surface smoothness, where required
• Economy, considering initial cost and number of reuses.
8.1.7.1 Steel Forms

Steel forms are of two types: those that are prefabricated into standard panel sizes and shapes and those
that are fabricated for special uses. For some projects either one or both types may be used. Among their
uses are the following:
1. Concrete walls
2. Concrete piers, columns, and related items
3. Combined decking and reinforcing for concrete slabs
4. Built-in-place concrete conduit
5. Concrete tunnel linings and concrete dams

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6. Precast concrete members
7. Architectural concrete
For certain uses, forms made of steel have several
advantages over forms made of other materials. They
can provide adequate rigidity and strength. They can be
erected, disassembled, moved, and re-erected rapidly,
provided suitable handling equipment is available for
the large sections. They are economical if there are
enough reuses. The smooth concrete surface may be an
advantage for some projects. Figure 8.1: Slab Formwork using steel floor forms
Forms made of steel have some disadvantages. Unless

they are reused many times, they are expensive. Also, unless special precautions are taken, steel forms
offer little or no insulation protection to concrete placed during cold weather. Steel forms have to be
thoroughly cleaned before using. Dry mortar sticking to these forms if not cleaned will result in non
uniform surface when reused.
Corrugated metal sheets have been used extensively to form floor and roof slabs of buildings. Patented pans
and domes are often used to form concrete decks of bridges and for structural floor slabs of buildings.
8.1.7.2 Aluminum Forms

Forms made from Aluminium are in many respects
similar to those made of steel. However, because
of their lower density, Aluminium forms are lighter
than steel forms, and this is their primary advantage
when compared with steel. Because the strength of
Aluminium in handling, tension, and compression is less
than the strength of steel, it is necessary to use larger
sections when forms are made of Aluminium. Because
wet concrete can chemically attack Aluminium, it is
desirable to use Aluminium alloys in resisting corrosion
from the concrete. Support trusses fabricated with Figure 8.2 : Modular Aluminium Formwork
Aluminium alloys have been effectively used for
flying forms. These forms are lightweight and allow large lengths of deck forms to be moved easily.
Cast Aluminium alloy moulds have also been used successfully to form ornamental concrete products.
Aluminium wall forms have also been used to produce textures on the surfaces of concrete walls.
8.1.7.3 Plastic Forms

Fiberglass plastic forms can be used for unique
shapes and patterns in concrete. In addition
to their ability to form unusual shapes, plastic
forms are lightweight, easy to handle and strip,
and they eliminate rust and corrosion problems.
Because of temperature and humidity controls
that must be exercised at all times during the Figure 8.3 : Plastic Forms in Columns and Beams
manufacture of plastic forms, fabrication of the
forms is performed under factory conditions. There are several manufacturers of plastic forms. Most of
these forms are fiberglass reinforced for column forms and dome pan forms, which are custom-made
forms for special architectural effects.
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8.1.7.4 Plywood Form
Plywood is used extensively for formwork, especially for sheathing, decking
and form linings. Some of its advantages are:
• Large panels for economical erection and removal

• Availability of several thickness
• Available with a choice of surface treatments to serve various needs
or purposes ad to prolong its life
• Dependable physical properties
• Smooth surfaces to provide desirable concrete surfaces
• Relatively low-cost fabrication
Plywood is a flat panel made of a number of thin sheets of wood (Piles).
The piles are dried and joined under pressure with glues that make the
joints as strong as or stronger then the wood itself. Wherever plywood
of known structural properties is required, it is a good practice to specify
panels carrying the mark of an approved inspection and testing agency,
Figure 8.4.1: Typical Column
which indicates type and grade, species of veneer, and conformance with forms using Plywood Forms
applicable standards. Plywood is readily adaptable as form material where
curved surfaces of concrete are desired.
Tempered hardboard, which is sometimes used to line the inside surfaces of forms, is manufactures from
wood particles that are impregnated with a special tempering liquid and then polymerized by baking. The
boards, which are available in large sheets, have a hard, smooth surface that produces a concrete whose
surface is relatively free of blemishes and joint marks. The thin
sheets can be bent to small radii, which is an advantage when
casting concrete members with curved surfaces.
Form-liners- Sometimes specially designed form surfaces called

Form-liners are attached to the main form sheathing layer to
produce intricate patterns on concrete surface. These form-
liners are normally made of Rubber / silicone / Thermoplastic
or Polystyrene and either form permanent or temporary part
of formwork. Using form liners one can achieve textured
Figure 8.4.2: Exposed concrete surface using
finishes. form-liner
8.1.7.5 Fabric Form

Fabric bags, mats, and tubes can be effectively used as forms under special construction conditions. They
are particularly suited for underwater construction.
8.1.7.6 Form Ties

Form ties connect opposite faces of formwork to restrain the applied
concrete pressures. They transmit loads in tension between stiff vertical
and or horizontal members associated with the main formwork. Several
different types of systems of tie rods are available, including:
• High tensile through ties which are reusable and sleeved in

concrete.
Figure 8.5 : Exposed concrete
• High tensile ties where the tie is lost in concrete. surface using form-liner

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• Taper ties which are reusable but do not require sleeving in
concrete.
• Mild steel ties, which are generally lost, with cones at each end acting
as spacers.
• Coil ties, which are high tensile wires welded to a wire coil at each
end. They are non-recoverable.
• Snap ties, which are wire or flat steel ties with a stress inducer
allowing the end of the tie to be snapped off after concreting.
• Friction clamp ties are clamping devices attached to each end of a

mild steel or high tensile bar.
Figure 8.6 : Typical Form Ties
Tie rods are the most critical parts in the design of formwork because failure
of one can lead to failure of all. The working stress of non-recoverable mild
steel ties should be less than the yield point the steel. For recoverable ties a factor of safety of 2 on failure
load or 1.7 on yield, whichever is lower is used. The different values of factors of safety in both the cases
are justified; the non-recoverable ties are used only once whereas the recoverable ties are used a number
of times.
In Indian project sites, form ties made of reinforcement bars threaded at one or both the ends are commonly
used. On many occasions the ties are used without sleeves and thus get buried in concrete. The projecting
part of the bars beyond the concrete surface are then gas cut and the concrete finished. This practice
should be prohibited. Apart from being expensive, corrosion starts through the cut ends and progresses
towards the main reinforcement. The use of properly designed and manufactured form ties with sleeves
should be insisted upon.
8.1.7.7 Mould releasing Agent :

Formwork needs to be treated with a release agent so that it can be removed easily after the concrete has
set. Failure to use a release agent can result in the formwork sticking to the concrete, which may lead to
damage of the concrete surface when it is removed.
A single application of release agent is all that is required when forms are then used. Care must be taken
to cover the entire surface that will come in contact with the surface of concrete. However, if there is an
excess of release agent, it may cause staining or retardation of the concrete.
There are different release agents depending on what material is used for the formwork. The three most
common release agents for formwork are:
• Neat oils with surfactants: used mainly on steel surfaces, but also suitable for timber and
plywood.
• Mould cream emulsions: good general purpose release agents for use on timber and plywood.
• Chemical release agents: recommended for high quality work, applied by spray to all types of form
face.
It is observed that some contractors use waste oil or mix of grease and diesel in place of mould release
agents and this should be prohibited. They affect the form panels and will lead to decolourisation of
concrete. They will also not allow the concrete to breathe.
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8.1.7.8 Curing Compounds :
One of the preliminary requirements for effective curing is to maintain enough moisture content in
concrete. In membrane curing method membrane forming compounds applied on the concrete surface
prevents evaporation of moisture from the concrete surfaces. The curing compound is applied with brush
or by spraying of curing compound on the wet concrete surfaces. They can be applied even after one day
after concreting provided the dry concrete surfaces are surface wetted before the application of curing
compound. The curing compound may be synthetic resin or wax based or acrylic based or chlorinated
rubber. The efficiency of curing depends up number of coats of curing compound applied, application
method adopted, extent of damage caused during the progress of work, etc. In horizontal members
the curing compound shall be applied only after stopping of bleeding water & before surface dryness
starts appearing on the slab. The application of curing compound shall be as done as per manufacturer’s
specifications. Properly applied & maintained curing compound helps to achieve more than 90 % of the
strength same concrete achieved through conventional method of curing.
8.1.8 Formwork and Scaffolding

Formwork and scaffolding are extensively used in
the construction industry for very specific functions.
When construction teams need to mould wet
concrete or hold it in place until it hardens to the
desired shape, they use formwork. Scaffolding
differs from formwork significantly; they are
temporary structures used as working platforms to
support people during construction, maintenance,
or repair work and enable workers to reach heights
they couldn’t easily access otherwise.
Scaffolding is a modular system consisting of boards,

couplers, and tubes. Its design can be either simple Figure 8.8: Typical Formwork Assembly
or complex, but in all cases, its construction is done
with great care because it supports groups of people
moving about. It needs to be safe and sturdy and is used for a variety of purposes such as a platform for
painting the exteriors of structures, acting as a temporary bridge or walkway, and for bracing props. It
ensures safety by providing handrails, acting as a ramp, or as a stabilizing or supportive structure for a
building. It allows workers to move around on structures easily by giving them access to flat roofs and
ledges. Formwork and scaffolding are indispensable in the construction industry because of the myriad
ways in which they are used.
Formwork needs to have the requisite strength and be

able to withstand the weight of the concrete it holds as
the material firms up. The wet concrete applies a great
deal of pressure to the formwork, with more pressure
being exerted at the bottom compared to the top. If
the formwork is under designed to support the weights
required, it can bend or break as the concrete is being
filled.
Accidents can also happen when the formwork is

removed before the concrete dries thoroughly. For this
reason, formwork is allowed to stay in place for a certain
number of days after the wet concrete is poured into it. Figure 8.9: Typical building scaffold.

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Sometimes, a damp blanket is placed on the outside of the forms for a while. Formwork is also known as
shuttering or forms.
The two nomenclatures, formwork and scaffolding, are used for entirely different purposes and have
completely different requirements. Scaffolding needs to be easy to construct, simple to dismantle, and
convenient to transport. The platforms constructed in scaffolding have to have big enough areas to allow
people to walk freely and handle and transport materials easily. The complete structure must be strong
enough so that it is unaffected by climatic conditions and doesn’t shake, deform, or tilt over time.
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SECTION 2 - TYPICAL CASE STUDY
Let us consider formwork at various stages in a typical 3-storey framed structure construction. This section
deals with general work procedure for formwork for footings, columns, roofs and beams, stairs and
formwork for water tanks.
8.2.1 Formwork Components

Formwork as a system generally encompasses three major components namely, the mould that actually
holds the fresh concrete, the shoring that supports and transfers the imposed loads during the process
and lastly the scaffolding system that makes the accessibility possible. A few important components and
elements are discussed here.
Floor Forms- These are the elements which come in contact with the fresh
concrete and can be of different materials like steel, ply, plastic or aluminium.
Most commonly used floor forms are made of pressed steel. In some cases,
these are also fabricated using regular angle frames. They are available in both
Figure 8.10 : Typical
standard and customized sizes.
Pressed Steel Floor Form
Adjustable Forms- These are forms similar to floor forms but used
near beam slab junction, slab edge.
Telescopic Props – They are also called adjustable props. These are
manufactured conforming to Indian Standards and are usually of
heavy duty MS pipes. These propos can be pulled and locked to the
required heights varying from 1.5m to 5.6m- within the maximum limit
range specified by the manufacturer. It is important for site engineer
to know the maximum load carrying capacity of a prop before coming
to conclusion about the number of jacks /props to be used per square
meter. PROPS provide the ideal and the most economic method of
support for all kinds of formwork, slabs, beams, wall & columns.
They are also invaluable for a wide Figure 8.11: Typical Telescopic Prop
variety of applications in general
building construction and repair work.
Telescopic Spans- They are made of steel sections and can be pulled
and locked to desired spans limiting to the maximum span as per the
manufacturer. They are assembled using inner and outer components.
Figure 8.12 : Typical Telescopic They are available in standard and customised
Spans sizes. Standard sizes vary from 1.75 meters to 5.5
meters.
Swivel Coupler- A tough positive grip enabling

two tubes to be connected together at any
angle, especially for use in cross bracing.
Figure 8.13: Typical
Adjustable Fork Head- Designed to swivel Coupler
support joists. Heads can be installed in
to either a prop or scaffold tube. This unit Figure 8.14 : Typical U Head for Props
provides from
225mm to 450mm adjustment and available in 32 mm dia and
36 mm dia solid bar.
Column Clamps- Column Clamps are quickly adjusted and secured to ensure absolute rigidity of steel

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and timber formwork for concrete columns, beams, hanging soffits and casings to
steel stanchions. The arms of all three sizes are interchangeable and suitable for
square and rectangular sections. The slot arrangement allows for simple, speedy and
accurate adjustment to any dimension within the size range.
Beam Clamps - These are used for beam form clamping and can
be used with both steel and timber shuttering. Figure 8.15: Typical
Column Clamp
Figure 8.16: Typical

beam clamp
Dropheads – Dropheads are designed to fit on standard props

or adaptors for Cuplocks scaffolding. They allow panels and
beams to be struck and re-used after only 3n or 4 days, leaving
the support in position for the remainder of the curing period
of the concrete slab. The primary head remains in contact with
the concrete whilst the secondary head and its supporting
wedge are released by a single hammer blow. The height of
the drophead is 214mm and the striking distance allows the beams and panels to Figure 8.17: Typical
Drophead assembly
drop only 115mm for their safe removal a marked improvement in terms of speed
and safety compared with other systems. The drophead has a load carrying capacity of 40kN.
H frames - are still very popular means of erecting scaffolding.

It is made from standard scaffolding, tubes. Two Rectangular
Frames, also called H Frames, are braced with cross bracing
which are secured on H Frames by split pins. For heavy loadings,
heavy duty Frames are available. Consist of rigidly welded
frames of up to three verticals and two or more horizontals. The
frames are connected by scissor cross braces through pins with
Figure 8.18: Typical H Frame spring clips or gravity locks welded on frames. H Frames satisfy
the requirement for a versatile access system with variability of
platform height and a choice of platform areas. By utilizing one size or a combination of varying sizes of H
Frames, towers or an array can be erected to the exact height required for the job. These frames can also
be erected on varying ground levels like staircases.
By use of cross braces and selection of the location pins on the frames, platform spans up to 8’ (2400 mm)
can be achieved.
8.2.2 General safety guidelines for Shoring

• Determine and use good quality Formwork system. Spans, props, floor forms and other shoring elements
should be free from defects and damages.
• Ensure firm base for all vertical props and supports. If required provide additional wider base plates.
• Do not make unauthorised changes in the formwork scheme.
• Ensure workers safety while working. Provide proper guard bars, platforms etc.
• Provide proper access to all forming deck levels.
• Plan proper concrete pour sequence in advance and be prepared for providing proper construction
joints.
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• Fasten all bracings securely, check to see whether all clamps, pins are properly engaged in
position.
• Take extra care in case of sloped surfaces.
• Avoid eccentric loads on U-heads and top plates.
• Avoid impact loads for which shorings are not designed.
• Avoid placing additional temporary loads on the erected formwork.
• Do not exceed recommended maximum extension of props.
• Support horizontal shoring members properly and firmly.
• Avoid adjustment of shoring heights and deck levels while pouring the concrete.
• Monitor movement of all shoring members and associated components while placing of concrete
is in progress.
• Plan the sequence of formwork dismantling in consultation with the concerned structural
engineer.
8.2.3 Formwork for Footings

The selection of forms for footings will depend on the size and shape of the
footing and the number of repetitions they have to undergo without any
modification. Footings with constant cross section are easy while stepped
footings are complicated. Figure 19 illustrates typical rectangular footing.
Work procedure for footing formwork is described as under.
• Complete excavation as stipulated

• Complete laying of PCC as stipulated Figure 8.19: Typical
rectangular footing.
• Mark centre lines, column locations and external boundaries of
footing
• Place the reinforcement cage with proper alignment
• Check the availability of cover between the footing and the edge of rebar and provide cover
blocks
• Place the formwork system with adequate side supports and props.
• Apply shutter releasing agent before placing
• Cast the concrete in layers with proper vibration
• Level the top surface of the footing
• Provide shear keys at column location
• Allow the concrete to set
• Strip the formwork after the concrete is set. Please refer chapter 1 for stripping details
Formwork system in case of footings comprise of side plates placed vertically and supporting adjustable
props. Wooden poles of not less than 75 mm are also used as props sometimes where the space constraint
exists. Side plates can be either of timber or steel. In case of timber plates, generally 12 mm thick resin
coated water proof ply is used with 3” x 2” or 3” x 4” timber beams (runners) as walers and studs. On
the other hand steel plates are folded steel sheets of 3’ x 2’ or 4’ x 2’ size. These plates are held together

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with 4” to 6” wide, 1” to 1.5” thick wooden planks in between two plates for proving sufficient fixity and
support. It is recommended to use fabricated timber forms for footings with depths greater than 600 mm.
Care should be taken to see that props are properly anchored to the side plates and firmly secured at
the other end. If required additional base plates can be provided at the prop ends. Excess vibration or
vibration done using vibrator needles greater than 40 mm diameter will cause dislocation of side plates if
not properly anchored or secured. For deeper footings it is advisable to provide corner sacrificial tie rods of
suitable diameter but not less than 12mm.
8.2.4 Formwork for Columns

Concrete columns are usually square, rectangular, L-shaped, or round. They may also have different
shapes occasionally due to architectural requirements. Forms
for the first three shapes are generally made of plywood
sheathing backed with either 2” × 4” or 2” × 6” vertical timber
battens. Column clamps surround the column forms to resist
the concrete pressure acting on the sheathing. Circular columns
are usually made of steel and are in two halves held together
using nut and bolt system.
Figure 20 illustrates typical column forms. Modern technology

allows use of new generation materials like FRP, Aluminium Figure 8.20: Typical column forms
in place of wood or steel. These are however more expensive
compared to wood or steel forms. The selection of forms for columns will depend on the size and shape
of the columns and the number of repetitions they have to undergo without any modification. Column
forms are usually filled rapidly and hence the lateral pressure on form sheathing is very high when the
concrete is fresh. The sheathing material should have sufficient rigidity and strength to resist and transfer
this lateral pressure. The maximum spacing of column clamps will be limited by the thickness and strength
of the sheathing.
Work procedure for erecting column formwork is as under.

• Provide proper starter, minimum 75mm. Grade of concrete for starter should be same as specified
for column.
• Provide 2 to 3 mm thick foam sheet around the starter to avoid slurry leak from the bottom of
the form.
• Provide cover blocks as specified.
• Apply mould releasing agent.
• Erect column form gripping the starter.
• Provide clamps surrounding the column form.
• Provide supports for maintaining the verticality during pouring of concrete.
• Ensure proper platform is made to reach the top of column form free from column form.
• Check for verticality before pouring of concrete.
• Check for rebar overlaps.
• Pour the concrete in layers and vibrate.
• Allow the concrete to set.
• Strip the formwork after the concrete is set.
Typical timber column form comprises of water proof, resin coated, shuttering plywood sheathing (12mm
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thick) fabricated using vertical timber runners as discussed and held together using column clamps. Care
should be taken to provide sufficient vertical and horizontal supports to the sheathing to resist the lateral
pressure exerted by fresh concrete. Adjusting verticality after completion of pouring the concrete should
not be allowed.
If column forms are more than 2.4 meters tall then inspection windows of suitable size are to be provided
at appropriate heights without disturbing the vertical and horizontal supporting members. This inspection
window can also be used for vibrating the column. Care should be taken to close the inspection window
when the concrete reaches the bottom of the opening.
Some times to avoid the slurry leakage from the corners of the column form, plastic T sections or beadings
are provided. In case of corner angles, these are to be provided before fixing the column box and properly
anchored to reinforcement.
Figure 21 illustrates a wraparound column form system fabricated

using modular panels. Four panel units are placed in position by
overlapping to obtain the desired column size. Each panel has
a pin that is inserted to its adjacent panel, which is secured by
a special locking device. The panel forms can be changed easily
from one size to another. A pin and lock attachment is used to
secure the panel units. The tap of a carpenter’s hammer quickly
opens or closes the sliding lock from the connecting pin. All
hardware is attached to the column form. There are no loose
bolts, nuts, or wedges.
Figure 8.21- wraparound column form

8.2.5 Formwork for Beams and Slabs system
Forms for concrete beams and slabs should provide sufficient
strength and rigidity at the lowest practical cost, considering
materials, labor, and any construction equipment used in making, erecting, and removing them.
Consideration must be given to both the static dead load and any impact loads that may be applied to
the forming system. The forming system must provide adequate resistance to lateral forces that may be
imposed, in addition to the vertical loads from concrete, workers, tools, and equipment. Figure 22,23
illustrates typical Beam-Slab arrangement system.
Horizontal concrete formwork, such as formwork for slabs, consist of sheathing, normally made of plywood,
which rests on joists, and joists are supported by
stringers, and stringers are supported on shores
which carry the weight of the entire system.
Prior to erecting the forms to support a concrete

slab, it is necessary to know the magnitude of the
loads that the forms must support. The loads that
will be applied to the slab forms include the dead
weight of the reinforcing steel and the freshly
placed concrete, the dead load of the formwork
materials, and the live load of workers, tools, and
equipment.
In many instances, the failure of formwork is a

result of improper or inadequate shoring for slabs.
Figure 8.22: Typical slab-beam formwork The shores that support slab-forming systems must
using Doka System have sufficient load capacities, and they must be

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Figure 8.23- typical Beam-Slab arrangement
securely fastened at the bottom and top ends to prevent movement or displacement while they are in
use. It is especially important to attach both ends of the shores to the slab form because it is possible for
the slab form to lift off the top of a shore due to unbalanced loading during placement of concrete. Also,
a shore system may shift due to inadequate support at the bottom of a shore. Two-way horizontal and
diagonal braces should be installed to brace the shores adequately for slab formwork.
Figure 24 illustrates the components of a Beam-Slab system. Term definitions are described below.
‘Decking’ is the plywood or steel layer that forms the floor of the formwork against which the fresh
concrete is placed. It provides resistance to the vertical pressure of the freshly placed concrete with all the
Figure 8.24- components of a Beam-Slab system Figure 8.25- Typical decking system
imposed loads. Refer Figure 25.
‘Joists’ are the members under the decking that provide support for the floor decking. Joists are usually
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single members of wood with a depth that depends on the loads
applied to the form. Joists may also be steel beams or trusses.
‘Stringers’ are members under the joists that provide support for the
joists. Stringers are usually single members of wood with a depth that
depends on the loads applied from the joists. Stringers may also be
steel beams or trusses.
‘Shores’ are members that support the joists and stringers and beam
bottoms for beam-slab forming systems. Shores may be wooden
poles, steel pipes or props or shoring frames. Figure 6.26- Typical Beam-Slab
arrangement
Work procedure for erecting Beam-Slab system formwork is as
under.
• Cast all columns upto beam bottom

• Start beam formwork as described above
• Assemble decking system using all required shoring and supporting components as described
above.
• Place floor forms as specified. Ensure only good quality forms free from defects are used.
• Clean the deck and check for level.
• Seal the joints using shuttering tapes.
• Fabricate the beam reinforcement cage as per design and lower the same into beam forms.
• Fabricate the slab reinforcement as per design with proper overlaps and anchor lengths.
• Complete laying of conduits if any.
• Mark slab thickness levels/pads.
• Cast the slab.
• De-shutter as described above.
8.2.6 Formwork for Retaining Walls

Formwork as a system for retaining walls, tanks, stairs etc has to be developed at site considering the
available standard modules. Now-a-days, multiple basements are common and many a times the treated
earth surface (with shotcrete, soil nailing etc) itself acts as one side shuttering. Under these circumstances
single sided form panels or
shuttering system has to be used
with extra care especially in respect
of supports. When retaining walls
are designed to have double skin
shuttering, proper care to be taken
to see that the two faces are held
together firmly using form ties and
adequate supports as indicated.
Work procedure for erecting Figure 8.27: Typical wall form panel.
wall forms is as under :

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• Ensure reinforcement as per design is in place.
• Proper starter is provided to start with. Starter should not be less than 150 mm high in case of
retaining walls.
• Pre plan panel size, number of panels, height of wall to be cast, openings in the wall etc.
• Position the first wall panels along the wall route and ensure that they are firmly set in place using
the props. Walers to be provided through out the length of the wall to provide the stability and to
be engaged with bolt nut system with of the form tie.
• Provide spacers at frequent intervals to maintain the wall thickness. Any allowance in concrete
thickness due to vibration to be avoided. This is a wrong practice.
• In particularly difficult situations such as if there is a lack of space or there are obstacles in the way,
the stability of the wall should be safeguarded using the anchor rail connectors.
• Seal the joints between form panels
• Provide necessary supports using props, brackets and work platforms.
• Provide scaffold brackets at suitable locations for working platforms.
• Extra care to be taken in corner zones by providing additional diagonal bracings.
• Plan concrete pour in layers of about 600 mm and vibrate. Compaction can be done using
appropriate size needle vibrators or form vibrators attached to panels.
• Remove wall panels one by one if manual or lift the wall assembly using crane by releasing the
anchor bolts.
• After removal of panels, grout the tie wholes using appropriate grout as per the grade of
concrete.
8.2.7 Formwork for Stairs

Formwork for linear stairs to be designed based on the width, treads, risers and the waist slab thickness
as per the design. Typical formwork arrangement for stairs is shown below. Work procedure for stairs is
as under;
• Ensure slab and landing levels are accurate and are as specified. If not, proper changes in the risers
and treads to be planned in consultation with architects and structural engineers at this stage.
• Mark the staircase configuration on the adjacent wall if available or on plywood fixed for this
purpose. All dimensions to be properly checked at this stage.
• Provide form panel for the waist slab with proper shoring components.
• Tie reinforcement. Care should be taken to see that the staircase gets properly anchored with
the main slab dowels left for this purpose. If the lap length is inadequate, then rebars have to be
welded. Fix cover blocks as specified.
• Fix riser panels as indicated in the figure below.
• Allow for tile variations if any.
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• C a s t and de-shutter
Figure 8.28: Typical formwork for stairs
a s described
above.
Conclusion:
Formwork for a particular structural element has to designed and verified by the field engineer based on
site parameters, available resources without compromising the quality of the formwork material. Once the
concrete is cast and the finished surface obtained is not as desired, the restoration becomes an extremely
painful and expensive procedure affecting the life cycle cost of any formwork system.

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SECTION 3 - FAILURES AND PREVENTION
8.3.1 Formwork Failures

Formwork failures happen at the time of placing concrete or during the maturity of concrete. Generally,
some unexpected event causes one member to give away, then others become overloaded or misaligned
and the whole formwork structure collapses. The failure of formwork is always embarrassing, unsafe and
expensive. Some of the main causes are listed below. It is site engineer’s responsibility to ensure to keep
the following probable causes in mind while allowing placing of concrete.
• Improper or inadequate shoring

• Inadequate bracing of members-Inadequate cross bracing and horizontal bracing of shores is one
of the factors most frequently involved in formwork accidents. Investigations prove that many
accidents causing thousands of rupees of damage could have been prevented only if a few
hundred rupees had been spent on diagonal bracing for the formwork support. High shoring with
heavy load at the top is vulnerable to eccentric or lateral loading. Diagonal bracing improves the
stability of such a structure, as do guys or struts to solid ground or competed structures. When a
failure occurs at one part, inadequate bracing may permit the collapse to extend to a large portion
of the structure and multiply the damage. Suppose a worker accidentally rams or wheelbarrow
into some vertical shores and dislodges a couple of them. This may set up a chain of reaction that
brings down the entire floor. One major objective of bracing is to prevent such a minor accident
or failure from becoming a disaster.
• Lack of control of rate of concrete placement-The temperature and rate of vertical placement
of concrete are factors influencing the development of lateral pressures that act on the forms. If
temperature drops during construction operations, rate of concreting often has to be slowed down
to prevent a build up of lateral pressure overloading the forms. If this is not done, formwork failure
may result. Failure to regulate properly the rate and order of placing concrete on horizontal surfaces
or curved roofs may produce unbalanced loadings and consequent failures of formwork.
• Improper vibration or consolidation of concrete- Forms sometimes collapse when their supporting
shores or jacks are displaced by vibration caused by passing traffic, movement of workers and
equipment on the formwork. Diagonal bracing can help prevent failure due to vibration.
• Improper or inadequate connections
• Improper or inadequate bearing details-Shores must be set plumb and the ground must be able to
carry the load without settling. Shores and mudsills must not rest on frozen ground; moisture and
heat from the concreting operations, or changing air temperatures, may thaw the soil and allow
settlement that overloads or shifts the formwork. Site drainage must be adequate to prevent a
washout of soil supporting the mudsills.
• Premature stripping of formwork- Premature stripping of forms, premature removal of shores, and
careless practices can produce catastrophic results.
• Improper or lack of, design of formwork
• Inadequate strength of form material
• Failure to follow codes and standards
• Modifications of vendor-supplied equipment.
• Negligence of workers or supervisors
• Unstable or improper base
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8.3.2 Preventive measures
There are many risks in the process of erecting and dismantling of forming systems. Every precaution
should be taken to ensure a safe working environment. Below is a partial list of rules that can be used to
reduce the potential of formwork failures.
• Prepare a formwork plan that includes detailed drawings and written specifications for fabricating,
erecting, and dismantling of the formwork. Such a schedule should be prepared by a competent
person.
• Follow all state, local, and federal codes, ordinances, and regulations pertaining to formwork,
shoring, and scaffolding.
• Post guidelines for shoring and scaffolding in a conspicuous place and ensure that all persons who
erect, dismantle, or use shoring are aware of them.
• Follow all instructions, procedures, and recommendations from manufacturers of formwork
components used in the formwork.
• Survey the jobsite for hazards, such as loose earth fills, ditches, debris, overhead wires, and
unguarded openings.
• Ensure adequate fall protection for workers during erection of formwork, pouring of concrete,
and dismantling of formwork.
• Inspect all shoring and scaffolding before using it, to ensure it is in proper working condition and
to ensure workers are using the equipment properly.
• Make a thorough check of the formwork system after it is erected and immediately before a pour,
in particular connections between formwork components.
• Never take chances. If in doubt regarding the safety, contact a safety officer and management. It
is best to prevent an accident.
8.3.3 Concrete Repairs

Concrete elements are generally achieved by a casting process: the fresh concrete is placed and compacted
in formwork or a mould which is removed when the concrete has hardened. The quality of any cast
product depends on material selection, equipment used and workmanship. Surfaces of acceptable quality
and accuracy are difficult to achieve and, depending on functional and aesthetic requirements, some
repairs may be necessary. Repairs may also be necessary where surfaces are damaged in service. Only
relatively superficial repairs are discussed here under.
Types of defects:
Minor defects may be categorized as follows:
• Small cavities such as those formed by tie-bolts and by impact damage to the surface.
• Honeycombing, i.e. concrete in which mortar is partially or completely absent. Honeycombing is
usually caused by the use of concrete which contains too much stone, or by segregation of the
stone and mortar.
• Misplaced surfaces which are usually the result of incorrectly aligning or positioning formwork or
movement of formwork while the concrete was being placed. Under or overfilling of formwork
may also be a cause.
• Blowholes, i.e. relatively small voids of roughly spherical shape which often occur in surfaces

148
formed by formwork or moulds. They are usually caused by inadequate compaction of the thin
layer of concrete in contact with formwork.
Basic types of repair materials

Repairs are carried out usually after some drying, and consequent shrinkage, of the concrete has taken
place. Repair material therefore tends, when it dries out, to shrink relative to the concrete being repaired.
Cracking of the repair, which may result from this relative shrinkage, is functionally and aesthetically
unacceptable. Repair materials are therefore formulated in order to reduce the likelihood and severity of
cracking. This is done by reducing potential drying shrinkage and possibly by reducing the tendency to
crack as a result of a given shrinkage strain. Two possible approaches are discussed here.
Semi-dry mixtures
Semi-dry mixtures have, because of their low water content, very low potential drying shrinkage and
consequently a low tendency to crack. These mixtures can be used only in confined spaces such as cavities.
For effective use, semi-dry mixtures must be applied by trained, experienced and skilled operators.
Plastic mixtures
The inclusion of a suitable amount of specially formulated polymer in a cement-water-aggregate mixture
imparts two important effects namely, reduction in water content for a given consistency and the hardened
material, which incorporates a three-dimensional network of coalesced polymer, exhibits greater creep
and toughness. Consequently, potential drying shrinkage is relatively low; tensile stresses resulting from
restrained shrinkage are low (because of low shrinkage and high creep); cracking is significantly reduced
(because of low stresses and good toughness). Polymers are usually based either on styrene-butadiene
rubber (SBR) or acrylic, and are used in emulsion form. Plastic mixtures are relatively easy to apply.
Polymer emulsions formulated for use with cement are obtainable from specialist suppliers. Such emulsions
should be based on styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) or acrylic. Do not use polymer emulsions formulated
as paint. Emulsions based on polyvinyl acetate (PVA) are best avoided unless the repair can, after curing
is complete, be kept in a permanently dry state. PVA emulsions, after drying and coalescing, are unstable
in wet conditions.
Repair Fundamentals
• Time-Repairs to new concrete should be done as soon as possible after formwork has been
removed. This reduces differential shrinkage and improves bond between original concrete and
repair material.
• Surface Preparation-Good adhesion between original concrete and repair is essential. To ensure
good adhesion, the surface of the original concrete must be strong, rough and clean. Any loose
or weak material must therefore be removed. It is important to remove concrete in such a way
that the remaining concrete is damaged as little as possible. Sharp chisels driven by relatively light
hammers are suitable. Sand-blasting, which can remove small volumes of concrete, is an excellent
means of achieving a rough surface free of loosely adhering material. Before doing the repair, all
dust and detritus must be removed from the surface. Washing with clean water may be used for
vertical and near-vertical surfaces. An industrial vacuum cleaner is an effective means of cleaning
all surfaces.
• Bonding-To ensure good adhesion of fresh concrete or mortar to a substrate of hardened concrete,
the substrate should have enough suction to absorb the water film at the interface but should not
desiccate the repair material. This condition of limited suction can be achieved in different ways,
depending on the age and denseness of the concrete. If the concrete is fairly young - say within 48
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hours of being placed – it should be sufficient to allow the surface to become visibly dry.
• Older concrete should be assessed for absorptiveness by wetting the surface: if water is rapidly
absorbed, absorptiveness may be regarded as high; if water is hardly absorbed; absorptiveness
may be regarded as low. Concrete with high absorptiveness should be saturated for some hours
before repairs are to be carried out. Surface water must then be removed and the surface allowed
becoming visibly dry. Repairs must be started as soon as this state is achieved.
Technique-Concrete with low absorptiveness does not require pre-wetting and should be repaired in a dry
state. The substrate should be primed with slurry immediately before the repair material is placed. Priming
slurry should be a mixture of equal volumes of cement and dry plaster sand with sufficient water to achieve
a paint consistence. (Neat cement paste is difficult to mix and is therefore not recommended). Polymer
emulsion may be added to the mixing water – 1 part emulsion to 2 parts water is usually satisfactory.
Primer slurry must be applied as a thin coating to the substrate using suitable brushes. Do not allow primer
to accumulate in depressions in the surface. Do not allow primer to dry before applying repair material.
Priming must therefore be done immediately ahead of repairing and is best done in a small area at a
time.
Compaction-Good compaction is essential. Semi-dry mixes must be compacted by heavy tamping. Plastic
mixes must be applied with heavy pressure on the trowel or spatula.
Finish-Where appearance is important, repairs should be finished to match the texture of the surrounding
concrete. (Color matching is discussed in section A1 of the appendix). Finishing tools include wood floats,
steel trowels, sponges, wire and nylon brushes, etc.
Curing-Repairs must be moist cured for at least seven days. Plastic sheeting, fixed along the edges to the
concrete with pressure-sensitive tape, is an effective way of trapping moisture and ensuring good curing.
Good quality membrane-forming curing compounds may also be used. After completion of the curing
period, polymer-modified repairs must be allowed to dry out completely before being subject to wet
conditions. This allows the emulsion to coalesce and so become water-resistant. Note that drying may be
retarded if curing compounds are used for curing and not removed from the surface.
Edges-Feather edges to repairs must be avoided. Where necessary the outline of a repair should be cut
with a masonry cutting disc or saw to ensure a square edge. See Figure.29.
Correct Incorrect
Figure 8.29: Edges to repairs – use saw cuts to avoid feather edges
Repair methods
The information in this section is arranged according to type of defect. Defects dealt with are small cavities,
honeycombing, and misplaced surfaces.
Small cavities and honeycomb- Remove all weak, soft or honeycombed material to expose hard, sound
concrete. Ensure that feather edges will not be formed in the repair; use saw cuts at least 10 mm deep
to outline the repair if necessary. Install mechanical anchoring devices if necessary. Remove all debris

150
and dust from the surface to be repaired. Check surface
absorptiveness, control if necessary and prime surface as
described.
Semi dry mixture method

Mix the cement and aggregates dry until the colour is uniform.
Add water in small increments while mixing until the mix is
cohesive: a lump squeezed in the hand should remain in one
piece on release of pressure.
Place the mix in a continuous operation but in layers not Figure 8.30: Filling a cavity to ensure that the
exceeding 20 to 30 mm thick and ram it into place using the final layer is of uniform thickness
end of a piece of reinforcing rod or hardwood. If the surface
of the repair is visibly wet when compaction is complete, the mixture is too wet and the repair must be
removed and redone with a slightly drier mix. A mix containing too much water will shrink and crack or
pull away from the surrounding concrete. Cure the repair for at least seven days using moist method.
Plastic mixture method

Use a ratio, by volume, of 1 part of cement to 2 parts dry sand. Sand should be a fairly coarse sand which
has been passed through a 2,36 mm sieve. If necessary, plaster sand may be substituted for some of the
coarse sand to improve workability.
Mix cement and sand dry until the colour is uniform. Mixing liquid should consist of 2 parts water to 1
part polymer emulsion or the ratio recommended by the manufacturer. Add mixing liquid gradually while
mixing until a trowel-able consistence is achieved. Thorough mixing is essential with this type of mixture.
Apply the mixture, using a suitable trowel or spatula, in layers not exceeding 20 mm thick. If the repair
depth exceeds 20 mm, the repair should be built up in layers, not exceeding 20 mm thick, applied on
successive days. Roughen the surface of intermediate layers to ensure good adhesion of the next layer.
Cover each layer with plastic sheeting until the next layer is applied.
Blowhole repair
No surface preparation is necessary but it is important to fill blowholes immediately after formwork is
removed. Do not pre-wet the concrete because water left in the blowholes dilutes and weakens the repair
material. Mix liquid consists of 2 parts water and 1 part polymer emulsion or the ratio recommended by
the manufacturer. No priming is required. Work the repair mix over the whole area with a sponge until
holes are filled. Immediately afterwards, remove excess material from the surface with a wet sponge,
taking care not to obscure any surface texture. Spray surface lightly with water using a mist sprayer and
cover immediately with plastic sheeting. Keep covered for seven days and then allow drying slowly.
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8.3.4 Defects in Formwork
Table 1 shows list of defects in formwork and their effects on concrete surface. It is very important for a
site engineer to focus on these defects before putting the forms in use.
Table 1
SL.NO DEFECTS IN FORMWORK RESULTS IN

1 Impermeable Formwork Blow holes due to entrapped air
2 Joint Leaks Honeycombing and Grout loss
3 Deformed Formwork Misalignment
4 Poor thermal insulation Plastic Cracking
5 Low absorbency Crazing – Random pattern of fine shallow cracks.
6 Improper form releasing agent Colour Variation and difficulty in stripping
7 Bad maintained Form surface Chipping and scaling of concrete
8 Stains, Rust, dirt etc Contamination
9 Retarder on form surface Retardation dusting
10 Oil as releasing agent Affects bonding of plaster to element surface
11 Lack of bracing Formwork system fails to work in unision.
12 Gaps between floor forms Results in slurry leaking, no cover, exposure of rebar.
13 Rebar touching form Improper cover, exposed to rust and deterioration of
concrete.

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SECTION 4 - EMERGING TRENDS in FORMWORK TECHNOLOGY
The Indian Construction Industry is growing at a very rapid rate and it is estimated that the current concrete
production is about 300 million cum per annum is going to be doubled in the very near future. In the
recent years, concrete technology has grown leaps and bounds. Advancement in concrete technology has
resulted in many innovations and emerging trends which have occurred as a result of two major driving
forces namely- Speed of Construction and Durability. New Concrete variations like High Strength / High
performance Concrete, Self Compacting Concrete, Fibre Reinforced concrete, Polymer Modified Concrete,
High Volume Flyash Concrete, Reactive Powder Concrete, concrete with super-plasticisers have changed
the very perception of design and at the same time have posed new challenges in the arena of Formwork
System.
It is estimated that the Formwork market in India commands the share of approximately INR 15 billion and
out of this only about 20% is shared by the modern formwork systems leaving about 80% as untapped
market. The Formwork industry including Scaffolding industry in India is still in its embryonic stage. With
the impetus provided by the Government to the Infrastructure development, the growth and hence the
growth possibility is enormous. The way RMC has made its dent in the construction industry, standardized
formwork system will be accepted by the construction industry.
Current Scenario
As structures grow taller and floor plates bigger, end users are looking for formwork systems that are cost
effective, light, reusable, safe, easy to assemble and dismantle, durable and flexible. There are quite a few
formwork companies in India who are confident of providing the total integrated formwork design system
for a specific project with fully engineered and compatible components.
Classification
Formwork system can be classified as under depending upon the material used while manufacturing.
Advantages and disadvantages of different forms are already discussed in the main feature article.
• Aluminium Forms
• Plastic Forms
• Fibre Forms
• Fabric Forms
• Timber Forms
• Steel Forms
• Form Liners
• Com Shells
• Inflated Forms
Form Types
Depending upon the function and use, Forms are generally classified as; Foundation Forms, Column and
Beam Forms, Slab and Beam Forms, Wall Forms, Fly Forms, Gang Forms, Slip Forms, Climbing Forms, Jump
Forms, Cantilever Forms, Single Sided Forms, Tunnel Forms, Bridge Deck forms, Shaft Lining Forms and
Arch Forms, Suspended Slab forms, Insulating Concrete Forms, Architectural Forms.
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Insulating Concrete Forms
For years, ‘Insulating Concrete Forms’ (ICF) were used almost strictly for residential construction, but not
anymore: the method is rapidly gaining popularity in commercial construction. Today approximately one-
third of ICF structures are non-residential, according to the ‘Insulating Concrete Form Association’.
For design and construction, it’s hard

to find an easier system than ICFs:
hollow foam blocks or panels are
stacked into the shape of the walls of
a building. The forms are filled with
steel-reinforced concrete to form a
solid structure, sandwiching a heavy,
high-strength material between two
layers of light, high-insulation foam.
The resulting walls are air-tight,
strong, quiet, highly insulated, pest
and fire resistant, and durable in the Figure 8.31: Insulating Concrete Forms
face of even the harshest weather.
The forms can be installed quickly and easily using common construction tools and equipment. The industry’s
wide variety of manufacturers, shapes, and sizes makes it easy to custom design smaller commercial
structures. ICFs are commonly used for industrial buildings, hotels, business parks, government facilities,
schools, churches, shopping centers, and warehouses.
The high R-value of the insulation, the thermal mass of the concrete, and the system’s ability to moderate
temperature swings all combine to make structures with ICFs ideal for climates with large temperature
variations…but ICFs can increase energy efficiency (and cut operating costs) in any region. Structures
with ICFs are strong and durable—even in seismic zones, structures with ICFs can offer protection during
earthquake activity. ICF systems are accepted by all the major model codes in the U.S., and by the R-2000
program in Canada.
Wall Forms
With the explosive growth in high-rise residential construction, the Load-Bearing Wall (LBW) system is
gaining recognition. The walls and slab are poured simultaneously when using the innovative tunnel
form construction method. Since the forms
are stripped in 24 hours, the daily cycle meets
the demand of fast-track construction for
repetitive cell layouts, synonymous with many
hotel and condominium projects.
The benefits of using aluminium forms are

superior to the old method of plywood forming
for formed cast-in-place concrete. Apart from
the dimensional stability of the forms, the
Figure 8.32: Typical Aluminium Wall Forms overall quality of the pour seems much better
with tighter tolerances.
This system of formwork facilitates casting of all walls, floor slabs, columns, beams, stairs, balconies,
together with joinery openings in a single operation. The resulting structure is monolithic, strong, and
accurate and with high quality finished surface. It tremendously improves the time cycle and very cost
effective when used with repetitions.

154
This system is made of extruded aluminium sections, welded to an aluminium sheet and hence very light
with an excellent stiffness to weight ratio, yielding minimal deflections under concrete loading. Panels
are manufactured in standard sizes with non-standard elements produced to the required size and shape
to suit the project requirements. The panels are made from a high strength aluminium alloy, with the
face or contact surface of the panel, from 4mm thick plate, which is welded to a framework of specially
designed extruded sections, to form a robust component. Manufacturers claim that this system can have
approximately 250 repetitions.
Com-shells
A Comshell roof is a
steel-concrete composite
shell roof formed by
pouring concrete on a
thin stiffened steel base
shell which serves as both
the permanent formwork
and the tensile steel
reinforcement. The steel
base shell is constructed Figure 8.33: Dome with Figure 8.33a: Typical Comshell plate
Comshell Formwork
by bolting together
modular steel units in the
form of an open-topped box consisting of a flat or slightly curved base plate surrounded by edge plates.
The edge plates may have lip stiffeners for enhanced local buckling resistance.
Architectural Forms
Architectural concrete differs from structural concrete in that sense the appearance or color of the exposed
surfaces of the forms may be more important than the strength of the members. The properties of fresh
concrete are such that it may be cast or molded to produce any shape that forms can be made. A variety
of colors may also be obtained by adding a color admixture to the concrete mix or by adding a surface
coating after the concrete has hardened.
The surfaces may be extremely smooth or they may be quite rough, depending on the desired effects.
The appearances of large and possibly drab areas can be improved greatly by the use of recessed or raised
panels, rustications, ornaments, and other designs. Metal molds can produce concrete having extremely
smooth surfaces. A variety of surface patterns can be obtained using form liners that are placed on the
inside of plywood sheathing. A large variety of shapes is available from companies that supply formwork
accessories.
Because the quality of the finished concrete is limited by the quality of the forms, it is necessary to exercise
care in selecting the materials for the forms. Also, high-quality
craftsmanship is required in building and stripping the forms of
architectural concrete if the desired effects are to be achieved with
a satisfactory degree of perfection.
Form liners
Sheets of rigid form liners are attached to the formwork or casting
bed prior to placing the concrete. Screws or nails are recommended
for mounting form liners. Following placement and normal curing
time, the formwork and liner are stripped, leaving a textured
concrete surface. Figure 8.34: Decorative Formliners
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The sheets generally are 4 ft wide and 10 ft long with square edges to allow the placement of adjacent sheets
for large areas of concrete. The hard, void-free surface will not absorb moisture or cause discoloration.
Sheets of rigid form liners are lightweight and easily stripped.
Rustication or reveal strips are recommended at the liner joints that do not blend with the pattern. A
properly sized rustication will complement the pattern and enhance the overall appearance of the structure.
For uniformity of color and texture, the concrete should be secured from a single supplier so that all of the
ingredients will come from the same source.
Drophead Formwork
Peri, one of the biggest formwork manufacturers offers a
unique ‘Uno Monolithic Housing Formwork’ which is used
for monolithic construction method. The Uno formwork is
predominantly used for residential housing development
and similar, whereby large numbers of residential units with
identical dimensions are extended horizontally and vertically.
The company says all Uno elements, girders and stopend plates
are made of aluminium and weigh a maximum 23 kg/m². This
means problem-free forming can be done manually. It is very
easy to assemble. A hammer is sufficient when working with
Uno.
Thanks to the new mechanism, the wall formwork elements Figure 8.35: Peri’s Drophead Formwork
can easily be dismantled even with slab formwork elements
still installed. After dismantling the Spacer Clamps, the wall element is simply unscrewed from the wall/
slab transition area. The transition to the horizontal formwork is flexibly designed so that striking can be
easily carried out in this area as well.
The design of the slab formwork as drophead formwork allows early striking to take place – usually after
only one day. For setting of stopends and box-outs, Uno Stopend Plates are available, which are adapted
to the wall thicknesses in 1 cm increments. In addition, the integrated toothed rack of the shuttering strip
absorbs the concrete load and thus replaces the formwork tie.
Flying Forms
Flying Deck Form or the Table Form consists of various
structural components, such as trusses, stringers,
joists, and decking layer. The unit is rigidly assembled
to be used and reused in moulding the concrete slabs
of a building. The forms may be used to support
concrete beams, girders, slabs, and other parts of a
structure.
Once the casting of the slab and the consequent Figure 8.36: Fly Form
curing period is over, the flying form is lowered without
dismantling the parts of the system and moved outwards horizontally and shifted to the new location to
cast the next level slab. The term is derived from the process of moving (flying) the form outward, away
from the building, as it is moved upward to the next floor level in the structure.
In case of a high-rise building where the formwork system is designed using these table forms, cost of
construction will come down substantially.

156
Inflated Forms
Inflated forms are generally used where the accessibility is difficult and the time available for erecting
the structure is very short. Though this method is quite old, innovations have made it possible to gain
popularity. There are several methods of construction
using inflatable forms but in general, it comprises of
inflating the fabric form and then applying the shotcrete
along with nominal reinforcement followed by curing.
Shotcrete can be applied either from the outside or from
inside. After the desired curing period these inflatable
forms are either left in place as a part of structure or
deflated and taken out. These forms can also be used in
the construction of thin-shell concrete dome structures.
Innovations in the field have resulted in the advent of

new inflatable forms popularly known as Concrete
Canvas. Concrete Canvas (CC), is a flexible, cement Figure 8.37 - U.S. Borax and Chemical Co., Boron,
impregnated fabric that hardens when hydrated to form California.
a thin, durable, water proof and fire resistant concrete
layer. CC allows concrete construction without the need for plant or mixing equipment. Simply position
the Canvas and just add water.
Concrete Canvas (CC)

CC consists of a 3-dimensional fibre matrix containing
a specially formulated dry concrete mix. A PVC backing
on one surface of the Canvas ensures the material is
completely water proof. The material can be hydrated
either by spraying or by being fully immersed in water.
Once set, the fibres reinforce the concrete, preventing
crack propagation and providing a safe plastic failure
mode. CC is available in 3 thicknesses: CC5, CC8 and Figure 8.38 - Concrete Canvas for slope protection.
CC13, which are 5, 8 and 13mm thick respectively.
CC is a low mass, low carbon technology which uses up to 95% less material than conventional concrete
for many applications. It has minimal impact on the local ecology due to its limited alkaline reserve and
very low wash rate. The impact on the environment is further decreased by reducing the need for plant
equipment.
Concrete Canvas Shelters (CCS)

Extension of Concrete Canvas
technology resulted in Concrete
Canvas Shelters which are are
rapidly deployable hardened
shelters that require only water
and air for construction. The key to
CCS is the use of inflation to create
a surface that is optimized for
Figure 8.39: Concrete Canvas Shelters
compressive loading. This allows
thin walled concrete structures to
be formed which are both robust and lightweight. A 25sqm CCS can be deployed by 2 people in less than
1 hour and is ready to use in only 24 hours. Concrete Canvas (CC) is fire-safe, does not contribute to the
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surface spread of flames, and has a low level of smoke development and minimal hazardous gas emissions.
Each shelter is lined with a flame retardant fiber reinforced polyethylene inner with a B1 (DIN 4102-01
05/98) fire rating.
CCS can be fitted with a ventilation system along with security door. CCS provides all the benefits of a
permanent structure without the associated cost and time delays.
Fabric Forms
A new construction method replacing rigid formwork panels with a flexible
textile membrane that deflects under the dead weight of wet concrete provides
numerous advantages and opportunities for architecture, engineering, and
construction technology in both advanced and basic building economies.
Inexpensive formwork fabrics provide the options of sacrificial or reusable
formworks in both precast and cast-in-place applications. Methods have been
developed for fabric-cast foundations, walls, columns, capitals, slabs, and
beams.
Permeable membranes allow air bubbles and excess mix water to bleed out,
Figure 8.40: Fabric Façade
Forms producing a flawless, cement-rich finish and a stronger and more durable
concrete. Structurally efficient variable section members are easily formed,
reducing dead weight and material expenses.
Fabric forming applications include Foundations, columns, walls, thin shell structures, concrete trusses,
vaults, thin-shell funicular compression vaults- nearly anywhere a rigid formwork is used.
Some of the main advantages are;

• Economical, Extremely light weight compared to conventional form.
• High level of refinement in the surface finish and texture of cast concrete.
• Production of stronger and less permeable concrete surfaces.
• Possibility of casting complex structural elements of any size and shape.
Slipform
Slipform is an ever moving form at such a speed that the concrete
when exposed has already achieved enough strength to support
pressure from concrete above as well as to withstand lateral
pressure. The major advantages of this system are mainly speed and
economy. It also results in a monolithic structure. In many cases, the
cost of materials and building of the Slipform is about the same as
for fixed forms. The economy comes from shorter construction time.
The Slipform process requires a more experienced crew at all levels
– forms should be designed and built by individuals experienced in
the field. Figure 8.41 : Work in progress-on
deck view
Slipform construction is normally used for vertical structures such
as bridge piers. In Vertical Slipform, the system usually moves by an integrated system of jacks riding on
smooth steel rods or Jack rods which subsequently get embedded in the hardened concrete. Horizontal
Slipform generally moves on a rail system.
Factors to be taken into account when considering Slipforming as a system of formwork:
• Construction time is greatly reduced, though the initial setting-up of the formwork is usually a

158
lengthy process.
• Working in shifts becomes inevitable, increasing the labour costs, but the greater degree of
mechanisation and control allows higher productivity.
• Back-up plant must be held on site in cases of breakdown.
• The concrete surface will exhibit slide marks and may need surface finishing.
• Formwork must be properly designed and must include adequate bracing and a jack layout which
will accommodate variations in frictional loading which may occur due to irregularities in plan
shape, and openings being formed.
• The dead load of the form, the frictional load, weight of materials, personnel, and equipment and
working platforms must be accounted for during the design of the jacks.
New Proprietary trends

Groups like Paschal have come out with an innovative modular slab formwork branded as - E-Deck. The
frame of the new elements is made from profiled steel and, with a height of 7.5 cm provides very good
grid compatibility and flexible application options, for transportation as well as for installation. The facing
of the formwork consists of a 9-layer, 12 mm thick sheet of birch plywood, so that the weight of the
individual elements is a maximum 20 kilograms and can be
used with no problem without a crane. The E-Deck has the
advantage that damage to the frame can be repaired, which
is not possible on comparable aluminium products.
Framed Formwork Frami xlife from DOKA is a new complete

system, which also comprises high-performance safety and
workplace accessories. The Frami Xlife panels are lightweight
and easy to handle, so they can be erected very quickly
by hand. Frami Xlife lets you form extremely quickly and
economically, without the use of a crane. On sites with a Figure 8.42: New Proprietary trends
crane, it is also possible to lift several panels at a time, in a
gang-form. The ingenious modular design (with six different
widths and three different heights of panel) makes for optimum adaptability to all job site conditions.
Codes and References

IS 6461 (Part V)-1972- Glossary of terms related to Cement Concrete-Formwork for Concrete.
IS 1200 ( Part V)- 1982- Method of Measurement of Building and Civil Engineering works; Formwork
IS 456 – 2000- Plain and Reinforced Concrete- COP-Section 2/11
IS 4990-1983-Plywood for concrete Shuttering work
IS 10421-1983-proforma for rate analysis – Shuttering and Formwork
IS 14687-1999- Falsework for concrete structures- guidelines
Acknowledgements
The author has borrowed liberally material available in the public domain on the internet and the books
and papers of eminent authors and thanks all the authorities for the information that is made available.
The intention of the article is to comprehensively cover the information available on the subject matter
and to disseminate the awareness among the engineering fraternity. Author claims no copyright or
ownership of any of the information collated and presented. Our acknowledgements are also due to M/s
Peri, Doka,Paschal, Flydeck and others.
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160
Chapter
9
Measuring and
Testing Instruments
9. Measuring and Testing Instruments
9.1 Introduction:
Due to the advancement in electronics and computer technologies, the digital and laser based instruments
are preferred over conventional instruments. The digital instruments are not only handy; they are very user
friendly and give precise values. With the introduction of these equipments, not only the efficiency of the
work has increased but the jobs can be performed with more precision and accuracy.
With the inclusion of data recording facilities in these equipments, a large amount of data can be stored
in proper format which can then be analysed with the computer. Some of the modern equipments are
Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) equipment, Optical and Electronic Theodolites, Auto and Digital
Levels, Total Stations and Global Positioning System (GPS). These equipments can provide accurate data that
can be recorded in suitable media which can then be connected to a computer for further processing.
Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments: Direct measurement of distances and their
directions can be obtained by using electronic instruments that rely on propagation, reflection and
reception of either light waves or radio waves. The types of EDM’s are Infrared wave instruments, Light
wave instruments and Micro wave instruments.
Infrared Wave Instruments:

• These instruments measure distances by using amplitude modulated infrared
waves. (prisms mounted on target are used to reflect the waves.)
• These instruments are light and economical and can be mounted on theodolites
for angular measurements.
• The range of such an instrument will be 3 km and the accuracy achieved is ±
10 mm
Light Wave Instruments:

• These are the instruments which measures distances based on propagation of
modulated light waves.
• The accuracy of such an instrument varies from 0.5 to 5 mm / km distance and
has a range of nearly 3 km.
Microwave Instruments:
• These instruments make use of high frequency radio waves.
• The range of these instruments is up to 100 km and can be used both
during day and might.

162
Laser Tape:
Laser tapes are alternatives to traditional metal tapes; they’re used to calculate lengths, widths and heights
of up to about 200198 meters. They’re generally considered accurate up to 3 millimeters when measuring
a distance of up to 100 meters.
To use a laser tape, place the device on one end and then aim the laser beam so that it hits an object at
the other end. If there’s no wall, pole or anything like that, put a target at the spot. The process is similar
to using a conventional tape, except use of a laser beam instead of metal tape. Once the laser is set at
the right spot, press the button, and the tape calculates the distance and displays it on its screen. The
calculation is done through precision optics and laser physics using the phase-shift method, in which a
laser hits an object and compares its reflection with the beam sent out, or using the time-of-flight method
in which the time it takes for an optical pulse to reflect back is calculated. Some laser tapes measure
multiple distances and add them together automatically.
Laser tapes are normally quicker to use than conventional ones, and avoid the inaccuracies that can
be caused by twisted or sagging tapes. It is easier to read a digital display of the measurement than to
count little lines on a tape. Laser tapes also eliminate the complications of measuring high ceilings and
other hard-to-reach spaces. Range finders are used for measuring linear, angular, areas and volumetric
measurements.
Laser distance measuring tools are also known as “Electronic Tape Measures”, “Laser Distance Finders” or
“Digital Measuring Devices” or “Laser Range-Finder, or LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging”.
Laser Tape Sonic Tape with Laser
Theodolite:
A surveying instrument and precision instrument for measuring angles in the
horizontal and vertical planes. There are two types of Theodolites namely Optical
reading Theodolites and Electronic reading Theodolites. In optical Theodolites
the readings can be viewed through Reading Eye Piece and Micrometer Screw.
In electronic Theodolites the readings will be displayed on L.C.D display with H.A
(horizontal angle), V.A (Vertical angle) and a numeric screen.
Use of Theodolites:
• Mapping applications and in the construction industry…

• Measurement of Horizontal and vertical angle
• Measurement of magnetic bearing of lines
• Locating points on line
• Prolonging survey lines
MEASURING AND TESTING INSTRUMENTS

163
• Determining difference in elevation
• Setting out curves
• Aligning tunnels
• Mining works etc.
Total Stations:
It is a light weight, compact and fully integrated electronic instrument
combining the capability of an EDM and an angular measuring instrument. It
can perform the following functions.
• Distance measurement
• Angular measurement
• Data processing
• Digital display of point details
• Storing data is an electronic field book
9.2 Anchor Test System:

Measures a wide range of anchor strengths in construction materials.
Heavy duty anchor testing machine. (Test capacity 145kN)
Concrete Compression Tester:

The test cycle with closed loop digital feedback is automatically performed by simply pressing the start
button. The load-time graph and the actual load rate are displayed in real time during the test. Correct test
execution according the selected Standard, is continuously and automatically controlled. This is the new
automatic concrete compression tester for cubes and cylinders with Energy saving technology.
Once the machine has been switched on, the specimen positioned and centered, the only required
operations are:

164
• Set test parameters, including load rate, on the touch screen (can be avoided by default for
repetitive tests)
• Press the start button on the touch screen
• Move the oil delivery valve upwards
• The machine automatically: starts the rapid approach; switches to
the test speed once the specimen comes into contact with the upper
platen; releases the pressure upon specimen failure
• Save the test including data results and load-time graph. The test
execution conforming to Standards can be easily proved.
Modular Testing System for Building Materials:

Modular & Flexible Platforms for Compression, Bending & Tensile Test on Building Materials are shown
below.
3000kN Concrete Compression 10,000kN Concrete Compression Test Test Machine

Machine with Integrated Control System with Digital Control System

165
Section II NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING INSTRUMENTS
9.3 General
Non Destructive testing methods have been in use for more than four decades. Over the years considerable
developments have taken place and it is now considered as a powerful method for evaluating existing
concrete structures with regard to their strength, durability and quality of hardened concrete, apart from
crack depth, progressive deterioration, voids, location of reinforcement, cover concrete etc.
Though NDT methods are relatively simple to perform, the analysis and interpretation of test results are not
so easy. In the NDT methods attempts are made to measure some properties of concrete from which an
estimate of strength, durability and elastic behavior of material are obtained. Further, in NDT the members
are not loaded to failure and the results obtained from testing are not absolute values of the properties
of materials.
Comprehensive laboratory correlations on the field materials have to be established between strength
parameters to be predicted and the results of in-situ NDT. Some times in addition to NDT results, semi
destructive testing (SDT) like concrete core testing, Pull-out / Capo test, Windsor probe test and even load
test may become necessary. The concrete core testing is absolutely necessary in situations where NDT
results indicate internal cracking or zone of weaker concrete. Where cores could not be extracted from the
RC members (viz., beam column junctions / slender member / heavily loaded members etc) Capo test may
be conducted for in-situ strength estimation.
I. The commonly adopted NDT methods are:
• Rebound Hammer test

• Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test
• Covemeter test
• Half-cell Potential Measurement test
• Impact echo / pulse echo test
• Ground Penetrating Radar test
II. The commonly adopted SDT methods are:
• Concrete core test

• Capo test
• Windsor probe test
• Load test for flexural member
III. The commonly adopted other methods are:
• Carbonation test
• Chloride determination test
• Sulphate determination test
• Determination of pH

166
9.4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
Rebound Hammer Test
The most commonly used method employs Schmidt Rebound Hammer, which consists of a spring
controlled hammer that slides on a plunger. The hammer impacts against the concrete surface and the
spring controlled mass rebounds, taking a rider along with it along a guide scale which is used as rebound
number.
The Schmidt hammer is simple and the method provides a quick and inexpensive means of checking
uniformity of in-place hardened concrete. However, the results of the tests are affected by smoothness,
degree of carbonation and moisture condition of surfaces, type of coarse aggregate in concrete. If properly
calibrated hammer is used, the accuracy of predicting concrete strength is ± 25 percent.
The Rebound Hammer tests are conducted generally for the determination of uniformity of quality concrete,
strength development monitoring, in-situ strength estimation,
testing of precast elements prior to erection, relative strength
determination of structural members, determining stripping time
of formwork etc.
The most popular equipment used for this test is Schmidt Rebound
Hammer of Proceq, Switzerland.
Method of testing
For assessment of surface hardness & strength of cover / surface concrete, rebound hammer test will be
conducted on the concrete surface at five different positions depending on the location of the concrete
surface.
Test positions:
a. Horizontal
b. Vertically upwards (+90o)
c. Vertically downwards (-90o)
d. Inclined upwards (+45o)
e. Inclined downwards (-45o)
Rebound Hammer test on RC member
After discarding the freak values and applying correction factor for position of Rebound Hammer average
rebound number will be worked and the same is correlated with standard values for estimation of in-situ
strength of concrete near to surface.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity method consists of measuring the time travel of an Ultrasonic wave passing
through the concrete. The times of travel between the initial onset and reception of the Pulse are measured
electronically. The path length between transducers, divided by the time of travel gives the average velocity
of wave propagation. The relationship between pulse velocity and strength are affected by a number of
variables such as the age of concrete, moisture condition, aggregate / cement ratio, type of cement and
aggregate, location of reinforcement etc. The method is therefore normally recommended for the purpose
of quality control apart from use of this method for detecting the presence of voids, honeycombing,
detecting cracks, determination of modulus of elasticity of concrete.

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There are three methods which are generally adopted at site depending
on the accessibility of structural members.
a. Direct transmission
b. Indirect transmission; and
c. Semi-direct transmission
UPV instrument
Direct transmission method Direct transmission method
Direct transmission method Direct method of test
Semi-direct method of test In-direct method of test

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Average pulse velocity is worked out and the same is correlated with standard quality grading chart to
know the quality of homogeneity of interior concrete.
Covermeter test
Covermeters are electromagnetic devices consisting of a search head and a control box. The Covermeter
test is used for assess the concrete cover and mapping of rebars. It can also be used for estimating the size
/ dia of rebars. The rebars which are close to surface can be detected however, it may not detect second
layer of rebars if any. Further, if rebars are closely spaced / congested then the estimation of number of
rebars may not be reliable.
The accuracy of data on rebar diameter, generally vary in the range of 10 to 20%.
Covermeter – Profometer Scanning of rebars in RC member
Ferroscan Image scan
Half-Cell Potential Measurement test

The Half-cell Potential measurement test essentially consists of measurement of absolute potential at the
concrete surface with a reference electrode. The measured absolute potential considered to be the best
criterion for assessing the corrosion status of the embedded rebars.

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Corrosion Analyser Measurement of corrosion in rebar
The measured values are correlated with standard values for determination of corrosion in rebars for RC
members.
However, the corrosion of rebars shall be confirmed by chloride and pH value tests by conducting further
chemical analysis of concrete for determination of pH value, chloride and sulphate content in concrete.
Impact echo test

In this method, the impacting device such as hammer will be struck on the concrete surface. The sound
waves that reflect off or other features are picked up by a recovery receiving probe and conveyed to signal
processor.
From this, the wave form is analysed at the signal processor and amplitude and travel time of waves are
evaluated for determination of homogeneity and integrity of concrete.

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Ground Penetrating Radar
‘GPR’ is a non-destructive testing method that can be used to gather information on subsurface elements
in roads, bridges, sports grounds, golf coarses, cemeteries and all reinforced concrete structures. It can
accurately locate metallic and non metallic reinforcements and pipes below concrete slabs. In addition, GPR
detect flaws in concrete structures. It is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image subsurface.
GPR uses high frequency polarized radio waves for transmitting them into ground. When the wave hits a
buried object or a boundary with different dielectric constants, the receiving antenna records variations in
the reflected return signal. The GPR equipment normally consists of a transmitter and receiver antenna, a
radar control unit and suitable data storage and display devices.
GPR is well suited for structural investigations. The high frequency system is capable of generating high
resolution 2D and 3D representations of features of scanned surface.
Some of the applications of GPR are;
• Determining concrete thickness and cover concrete.

• Locating rebars, post tensioned cables, conduits, metal
and PVC pipes.
• Locating pipes, water lines, storm and sewer system
buried in soil.
• Detecting irrigation and septic field systems,
underground storage tanks and underground utilities. The Penetradar Integrated Radar Inspection
System (IRIS)
9.5 SEMI-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

Extraction of cores and testing
Cores test is one of the most appropriate method to assess the strength, homogeneity and quality of
interior concrete.
Electrically driven motor provided with diamond / TC segment core bit are generally used for extraction
of cores.
The maximum size of coarse aggregate used in concrete decides the criteria for selecting the dia of core
to be extracted. Core will be extracted after scanning the concrete surface for avoiding existing rebars
interference during core extraction.
Extraction of concrete core

sample from RC column Capping of core specimen

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The both ends of the extracted cores will be trimmed and capped
with sulpher / high strength free flow grout or epoxy to ensure
the ends are even and horizontal.
After ensuring the strength of capped material, the core shall be

subjected to compressive strength test in a testing machine.
Core test is the most acceptable method especially when there

is dispute regarding strength of concrete. Core test results are
also used for calibrating other NDT equipments.
Computerized CTM
Capo test
In this type of Semi-Destructive test, appropriate dia and depth of hole are made
using a special tool. The specially designed tool with enlarged mouth will be
driven into the hole and thoroughly fastened. Then the insert will be pulled off
with hydraulic system. The required force to pull the inserts along with concrete
is measured and correlated with calibration chart furnished by the manufacturer
for the test equipment for assessment of strength of concrete.
This test is generally conducted when the core test cannot be conducted.
Capo test
Windsor probe test

In this type of Semi-Destructive test, a standard steel pin is driven into
the surface of concrete with a special tool (gun) operated by spring
charge. The depth of penetration is measured.
Since the depth of penetration is inversely proportional to compressive

strength, the device provides a fast and safe way of determinating the
strength of concrete.
The device can also be used for testing of mortar in masonry joints.
One should be very careful while using this device as there will be
chances of causing injury to neighboring person if it is not held properly
during testing. Windsor probe test
Load testing of structure
Measurement of deflection by Measurement of deflection by

Deflectometer during load test LVDT during load test

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If the NDT and SDT results fail to give satisfy information regarding the strength and quality, then load test
will be conducted and it is most acceptable method of test for flexural member only.
The structure is subjected to load equal to full dead load of structure plus 1.25 times the imposed load for
a period of 24 hours and imposed load shall be removed. The deflection due to imposed loading shall be
recorded and recovery of deflection is calculated.
Load test on PSC deck of Railway bridge Load test on deck slab of major bridge
Load test on RC floor slab of building
9.6 The commonly adopted other methods are:

Carbonation test
The carbon dioxide and water pebbles present in atmosphere forms carbonic acid. The calcium hydroxide
present in the concrete reacts with carbonic acid to form calcium carbonate and resulting in reduction
of alkalinity of concrete. If the concrete is pervious the carbonation reaction continuous and reaches the
concrete surrounding rebars resulting drop in pH value of concrete.
Extraction of smaller core sample from member Spraying of phenolphthalein solution

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To measure the depth of penetration of carbonation in concrete 20 to 40 mm dia core samples are
extracted from the members and immediately sprayed with phenolphthalein solution on the concrete
surface commencing from external surface to interior concrete.
If sprayed concrete surface turns pink, it is considered as non carbonated. If the concrete surface does not
turns pink, then it is considered carbonated.
The depth of carbonation is measured in mm from the external surface.
Chloride content test

This test will be carried out on the concrete samples collected from the
members to find out the extent of chlorides in concrete.
The presence of higher amount of chlorides in concrete surrounding rebars

will result in corrosion. The process of corrosion will be faster especially in
the presence of moisture.
The quantity of chlorides in concrete is determined generally by well

defined chemical analysis in the laboratory and expressed in term of
percentage of chlorides by weight of concrete.
There are standard chloride analysing kit also available for carrying out this
test at site to get faster information.
Chloride analysing kit
Sulphate determination test

This test will be carried out on the concrete sample collected from the members to find out the extent of
sulphates in concrete. The presence of higher amount of sulphates in concrete will result in reaction of
calcium present in cement with sulphates, resulting in expansion and disruption of concrete. This in turn
results in corrosion of rebars.
The quantity of sulphates in concrete is determined generally by well defined chemical analysis in the
laboratory and is expressed in term of percentage of sulphates by weight of concrete.
Determination of pH
This test will be carried out on the concrete samples collected from the members to find out the level of pH
in concrete. The level of pH in concrete will indicate the status of corrosion of rebars in concrete.
Conclusion:
In general, there are many types of NDT and SDT methods available for evaluating strength of structural
members. Depending on the requirement, any one test or more than one test can be conducted to
get the required information regarding the quality / strength of concrete. Further, interpretation of test
results requires competent persons to arrive at acceptable evaluation of concrete regarding the quality and
strength of concrete.
References:
IS: 13311-(Part II)-1992-(Reaffirmed in 2008), IS: 13311-(Part-1)-1992-(Reaffirmed in 2008), BS:1881- (Part 204),
ASTM-C-876-71-(Reaffirmed in 1999), IS: 456-2000 and IS: 516-1959-(Reaffirmed in 1999), IS: 1199-1959-
(Reaffirmed in 1999), IS: 456-2000, ASTM – C42 – 77, ASTM – C 1383, ASTM – C 900, ASTM – C 803, IS: 456-2000
and IS: 800-2007, Ref: BS: 1881-(Part 201)-1986, Ref: BS: 1881-(Part 124)-1988, Technical paper – Built Expressions
magazine – October & November 2012.

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Chapter
10
Construction Equipments
10. Construction Equipments
10.1 BATCHING PLANT
10.1.1 Brief on Machine Usage:
Ready mix concrete is a type of concrete that is manufactured in a factory or batching plant, according
to a set recipe and then delivered to the work site, by truck mounted transitmixer.This results in precise
mixture, allowing specialty concrete mixture to be developed and implemented on construction site.
Ready mix concrete is preferred over on site concrete mixing because of the precision of the mixture and
reduces site work
The batching plant is equipped with visualized production management software and also PLC controller
which ensures consistency and accuracy in batching. Batching plant are available in various capacity ranging
from 18 cum/hr to 120cum/hr or more and various mixing system like twin shaft, pan and planetary mixer
for various types of concrete.
Fig 10.1 Batching plant
Do’s
1. The load indicator device should be visible to the operator
2. The preset controls should be calibrated at regular intervals using stamped test weights.
3. The water meter/weigh batcher should be equipped with cut off capable of stopping the flow with
in tolerance.
4. Chemical admixture shall be added to the concrete mixture with the help of dispenser.

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5. The accuracy, sensitivity and arrangement of weighing devices shall be such as to enable the
material be batched with in the allowable tolerance.
6. The central mixer shall be capable of producing uniform concrete with in time specified in the
operational manual of the manufacturer
7. The central mixer blades and linear are to be checked for excess wear at regular intervals.
8. The storage silo should be clearly marked with colour code to identify cement and cementous
material like OPC, GGBS, And Fly ash etc.
DONT’s
1. Do not allow unauthorized personnel to operate the plant. Ensure the plant is operated as per the
manufacturer recommendations, safety procedure and all applicable local law and regulations.
2. Never enter any area in which you may come in contact with moving parts. Before entering ensure
the plant is shut off and lock off procedure are followed.
3. Do not allow unauthorized person to test, inspect adjust or repair any electrical or electronic
controls.
4. Do not wear ties or loose clothes while working near conveyor as they start automatically.
5. Do not operate before all machine guards are in place and secure. Ensure personal protective
equipment (PPE) which includes eye protection, hard hat, and foot protection, and ear protection,
gloves etc.are worn in accordance with the local and plant rules and regulations.
10.2. TRANSIT MIXER

A standard transit mixer is a concrete delivery vehicle used for jobs where large pour volumes are required.
Transit mixer trucks maintain the material’s liquid state through agitation or turning of drum, until delivery.
The interior of the drum is fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the concrete is pushed
deeper into the drum. This is the direction the drum rotates while the concrete is being transported to the
site. This is known as charging the mixer. When the drum rotates in the other direction the concrete flows
out of the drum called discharge.
Fig 10.2 Transit Mixer
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
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Concrete mixers generally do not travel far from the plant. Many contractors require that the concrete be
placed with in 90 minutes. Transit mixer trucks come in verity of sizes ranging from 3 cum to 14 cum and
can be supplied with array of optional extras and special modifications.
Do’s
1. The truck mixer is to be maintained in an efficient and clean condition.
2. Ensure the hardened concrete build inside the drum is removed periodically.
3. Mixer blade wear out shall be less than 2/3rd of the original radial height.
4. The recommended operating speed of the drum shall be between 4 and 14 rpm.
5. A gauge/ meter on water tank to be available
6. Water pump/ injection should be free from leakage
DONT’s
1. Do not operate without valid road permit, emission certificate, goods permit, and fitness
certificate
2. Do not allow addition of water during transport of concrete. This may alter the desired strength of
concrete.
3. Do not park the truck in slopes
4. Do not operate the drum in high speed during transportation of concrete.
5. Do not allow unauthorised drivers to operate the truck as it carries dynamic load.
10.3. CONCRETE PUMPS

A concrete pump is a machine used for transferring liquid concrete by pumping. There are two main types
of concrete pumps.
The first type of concrete pump is either mounted on truck know as truck mounted pump or placed on
trailer. This pump use steel pipes to convey the concrete and flexible hose to place concrete. The pipeline
has to be fixed manually from the outlet of the pump to the delivery point.
Fig 10.3.1 Concrete Pumps

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The second type of concrete pump is attached to the truck. It is known as truck mounted boom pump as
it uses a remote controlled articulated robotic arm (boom) to place concrete with pin point accuracy.
Concrete pumps are available in various capacities between 30 to 120 cum/hr and pumping a vertical
height upto 100 metres.
Do’s
1. Before pumping concrete, lubricate the Pipe Line Walls.
2. Always use pumpable (cohesive) concrete.
3. Ensure proper truck positioning and stability
4. Use sponge ball to clean out the pipeline after pour.
Don’ts
1. Do not use excessive worn out pipeline
2. Do not open coupling that is under pressure.
3. Face an open discharge end of the pipeline
4. Pick up clogged hose that is under pressure.
5. Climb on hydraulic system to clean clogged lines.
10.4. VIBRATORS
Concrete vibrators consolidate freshly poured concrete so that the trapped air and excess water are
released and the concrete settles firmly in the formwork. Improper consolidation of concrete can cause
products defects, compromise the concrete strength, and produce surface blemishes such as bug holes
and honey combing.
Fig 10.3.2 Ensure the pump, pipeline and boom is at a distance from power line or any other obstructions
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Fig 10.4 Concrete Vibrator
Do’s
1. Select the largest Vibrator suitable for the job.
2. Avoid Sharp bends in the flexible shaft.
3. Insert Vibrator vertically, allows is to sink into desired depth by its own weight; forcing may lock
between rebars.
4. Hold the vibrator 5 -15 Seconds then slowly lift vibrator up, staying behind the trapped air’s
upward movement, allowing about 15 seconds for a 2 foot distance , to avoid retrapping air.
5. A slight up and downward movement will close the hole formed by the vibrator.
6. With draw the vibrator quickly when near the top, to prevent churning air into the top layer.
7. Move vibrator and re-insert at a distance of 1 ½ times the radius of action.
8. Allow vibrator to penetrate 3 to 6 inches into the preceding layer to knit the two layers together
to prevent “lift lines “when forms are removed.
Don’ts
1. Do not vibrator to move concrete laterally as it can cause segregation (use a shovel). Place vibrator
in center of mounds to knock them down.
2. Never operate head out of the mix for more than a few minutes to prevent over heating. Wet
concrete Keeps head at proper operating temperature.
10.5. TOWER CRANE

Crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with hoist that can be used both to lift and lower materials
and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other
places. It uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond
the normal capability of a man.
Cranes are commonly employed in the construction industry for movement of material.

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Do’s
1. The lifting team will consist
of an appointed person,
supervisor, crane co-ordinator,
tower crane operator, and
signaler.
2 Overall planning of lifting
operations
3. Carry out risk assessment
4. Ensure that all the members
of the lifting team are briefed
before lifting operations.
Fig 10.5.Tower Crane
Don’ts
1. Lifiting load that are in excess of the true load capacity to be avoided
2. Avoid lifting of embedded or fixed down objects
3. Dragging loads which are out of radius.
4. Lifting of personnel except when using purpose designed man riding cage with a site specified
man riding method statement.
10.6. HOIST
Hoist means lifting machine with carriage, platform or cage.
The movement of the cage is restricted by a guide or guides.
A hoist shall be so constructed that it can be operated only
from one position at one time.
Do’s
1. A hoist shall be of good mechanical structure and
properly maintained, fixed and anchored by adequate
arrangements.
2. A suitable cabin to protect its operation from weather
and also gives a clear and unrestricted view enabling
the safe use of the hoist.
3. The rope that terminates at the winding drum of the
hoist shall have at least two turns of rope remaining
on the drum at every operation position of the hoist. Fig 10.6 Hoist
4. A hoist winch shall be fitted with one or more efficient brakes to prevent a load suspended from
the hoist from falling out of control.
5. The hoist way shall be efficiently protected by a substantial enclose at all points.
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6. The hoist must be inspected and certified for safe operation at regular intervals as mention in the
manual.
Don’ts
1. The hoist shall not be used to carry any load greater than the applicable safe working load.
2. Do not carry any load unless securely suspended or supported when being raised or lowered.
3. Neither loose material nor goods are carried on a hoist platform unless they are prevented from
falling.
10.7. FRONT END LOADER & EXCAVATORS

10.7.1 Brief on Machine Usage
There are many makes, types, model and sizes of loaders and excavators. Each of them has been designed
for a range of work under certain conditions. They can be fitted with various attachments. Excavators are
generally used for digging of trenches, foundations and material handling. Hydraulic excavator’s capability
has expanded far beyond excavation tasks such as breaker or an auger.
Fig 10.7.1 Excavator Fig 10.7.2 Front End Loader
Do’s
1. Keep the machine under control all the times
2. Carry the bucket as close to the ground as possible and racked back to allow greater stability and
better vision.
3. Have someone direct your machine in hazardous area.
4. Always look towards the direction you are traveling, even if only a short distance.
5. When traveling downhill stay in gear. Do not shift into neutral.
6. When filling a trench the machine must approach at a 90 Degree Angle to the trench.
7. Keep at least 2 Mtr Clear of the distribution lines and at least 6 Mtr of transmission Lines
towers.
8. Keep the work area, as level and smooth as possible .If necessary, Prepare a sloping by cut & fills
method.
9. Any trench likely to be unsafe even if it less than 1.5 Mtr deep must be shored, fattened or
benched.

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10. The operator must know how to operate the machine.
11. Under stand the limits of the machine.
12. Regular inspection of the machine.
13. Attend the site induction program.
14. Check the working area for hidden holes, drop-offs, embankments, overhead obstructions, under
ground Services, over head Power and telephone lines or obstacles that could be dangerous.
15. Ensure the area is well ventilated .In case of working in confined space a shaft or a tunnel, then
an exhaust emission control unit to be fitted
Don’ts
1. Do not start or use a defective machine.
2. Do not drive when tired, ill or under the influence of alcohol/medication.
3. Do not carry passengers unless an approved seat is fitted.
4. Do not operate close to an over hang or a deep ditch. The weight could collapse the sides of the
trench.
10.8. DOZERS
10.8.1 Brief on Machine Usage
Dozers are designed to provide high draw bar pull and traction efforts. They are standard equipment for
land cleaning, dozing and assisting in scraper loading.
10.8.2 Blades
The dozer blade consists of mold board with replaceable
cutting edge and side bits. Blades vary in size and design
based on specific work application. Straight blade is used
for pushing material and cutting ditches. Tilting the blade
allows concentration of driving power on a limited length
of the blade.
Pitching the blade provided increased penetration for

cutting or less penetration for aback dragging. Angle blades
are used when back filling or when making side hill cuts. Fig 10.8.1 Dozer
Do’s
1. Keep the machine in low gear when towing a heavy load Down Hill.
2. Always lower the blades when machine is parked.
3. Ensure only one person is on the machine.
4. Keep the dozer in control at all times.
5. Operate equipment at safe speed.
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Don’ts
1. Never turn around on steep slopes, back up or down instead.
2. Do not put the transmission into neutral to allow the machine to coast.
3. Do not change the gears while going down hill.
10.9. SOIL COMPACTORS (ROLLERS)

Compaction equipment ranges from hand held vibratory tampers to
large self propelled rollers and high speed compactors.
The following factors are to be considered when selecting the

compaction equipment.
A) Type and properties of the soil.

B) Density desired Fig 10.9 Roller
C) Placement lift thickness
D) Size of Job.
10.9.2
9.2.1 Tamping –Foot Compactors: Produces High Unit Pressure are best for predominately fine
grained cohesive material such as clay and sandy clay.
9.2.2 Large, steel drum Rollers: are best for larger particle material such as gravel.
9.2.2 Vibrator Roller: are ideal for well graded as gap graded material because the shaking action
causes the smaller particles to fill voids around the larger
10.9.3 Equipment Testing

Since the use of several types of compaction equipment overlaps, it is good to use a test strip to make the
final determination of the most efficient compaction and compaction procedures.
The Information obtained includes:
1 Most effective type of compaction equipment

2. Optimum depth of Lift.
3. Optimum Compactor Speed
4. Number of Passes required.
5. Amount of ballast required
6. Vibration Frequency required.

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10.10. Spray Type Plastering Machine
Plastering machine is particularly designed for building
and construction industry. It sprays better quality concrete
to the target like wall and floors. The advantage of using
plastering machine is better quality of plastering, which
eliminates leakage, cracking and peeling of plaster. It
reduces on-site labour, material wastage, and shortens
working time. Plastering machine can deliver mixtures
up to 80 meters.
Do’s
1. It is mandatory to use the personal protection
devices.
2. Operate with the bodywork closed.
Fig 10.10 Spray Type Plastering Machine
3. Before loosening the material flow pipe joint, make
sure that the master switch is in position zero, the by-pass lever is in vertical position and ensure
that the manometer drops to zero bar pressure.
4. Check the state of wear of the pipes and relative joints every day, due to the danger of explosion,
projection of the mixture and cutting, in the case of breakage and disconnection from the joints.
5. It is mandatory to read the instruction manual before starting to operate
6. Move with extreme caution in proximity of the conveyor piping, due to the possibility of unexpected
movements.
Don’ts
1. The machine must never operate if the piping is not connected to the pump unit and the spray
gun.
2. Do not introduce any objects through the protection grill.
3. It is prohibited to disconnect pressurized pipes.
4. It is prohibited to remove safety devices and protection.
5. The gun operator must never aim the jet towards any person.
6. If the gun is blocked, for no reason must you look into the hole of the gun deflector. The unexpected
escape of the blocked parts or mortar could cause serious eye injury
RESPONSIBILITY
The operator of all above said equipments must be thoroughly taught and trained in regard to the
operations and safe use of the machine .The operator is responsible for assuring that the fellow team
members are well aware of the instructions in the proper job execution.
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186
Chapter
11
Soil Investigation and
Design of Foundations for
Buildings (up to 5 Floors)
11. Soil Investigation and Design of Foundations
for Buildings (up to 5 Floors)
Introduction:
The first activity in a building construction program is to investigate the soil from engineering point of view.
In a general sense the foundation soil can be described as a medium which safely distributes the foundation
loads below without causing any distress to the super structure. The ability to distribute the loads safely
below is recognized as the safe bearing capacity. The safe load a foundation can carry without causing
excessive settlement/deformation is defined as the allowable soil pressure. The settlement a structure can
safely withstand depends on the type of structure, column support spacing and the allowable differential
settlement.
Soil is a multi-phase particulate medium and it deforms under change of stress conditions reflected as
compression/settlement or rebound/expansion and with change in the state of moisture with season
reflected as swelling or shrinkage. The compression is defined as the volume change under an applied
static load while the consolidation is the process of volume change due to expulsion of pore-water and
dissipation of pore-water pressure with time. The swelling is the process of dissipation of capillary stresses
which are negative in nature with time due to moisture migration into the soil mass resulting in increase
of soil volume while the shrinkage is the process of mobilization of capillary stresses with evaporation of
moisture with reduction in the soil volume.
Hence the objective of the soil investigation will be to estimate the Safe bearing capacity and the allowable
bearing pressure and to adopt lower of the two in the design of foundation structure. Also the swelling
and shrinkage nature of the soil has to be assessed to place the footing in a zone free from excessive
change of moisture causing volume changes.
The major geological factors which affect the engineering properties of soils are: Natural cementation and
aging, over-consolidation and mode of formation of soil deposits. Generally the soil investigation has to
be carried out at three stages of a construction activity. The stages are:
1. Preliminary and inventory investigations to be carried out during the feasibility and planning study
stage of the project. This will help to decide on the possible types of foundations.
2. Detailed investigations to be carried during the detailed structural designs of the project. This is
the most important stage which will decide the design schemes, project cost and methodology of
implementation.
3. Supplementary investigations to be carried during construction of the project if required. This will
provide mid-course corrections for the designs.
Preliminary Investigations:
Based on the local experience and judgment the geotechnical engineer may skip the first stage of preliminary
investigations. However the following steps may be followed.
1. Obtain information about the foundations of similar buildings in the area.
2. Get the geological details of the region.
3. Get at least one bore hole data for every acre of the plot, investigated to a depth of about 5 to
10M below the proposed level of foundation.
The report from the data obtained from such investigation must include:
1. Visual and physical examinations report,
2. Index properties and
3. Standard Penetration, N values from the bore log and location of water table.

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Visual and Physical Examination:
The soil strata should be identified as filled up soil, residual soil or deposited soil based on topography of
the region, type of parent material and the soil sample from the borings. Generally in Karnataka, the soil
is residual type with or without an overlay of sediment soil. The sediment soil cover if present will be quite
shallow in the high altitude. It may be for several meters thick in low altitude areas covering essentially
alluvium and marine deposits.
If the color of the soil is very dark it generally reflects the presence of clay and it must be investigated
more intensively including swelling characteristics. In contrast all the light colored soils are generally coarse
grained. If the soil is gritty and hurts the fingers when pressed between the thumb and fore-finger it will
reflect the presence of angular sand and gravel particles. If it is dry and dry strength is high for the lump
and becomes soft and buttery for the touch with addition of moisture it reflects the presence of clay.
When the natural soil lump (not dry) sprinkled with water and dashed against a wall or hard surface, one
can estimate the relative proportion of the fine grained and coarse grained soils. All coarse particles will
wither out while fine particles stick to the surface. The usual dilatancy test should indicate the presence or
other wise of the silt. For this test make a soil cake with sufficient moisture and place it on the palm. Tap
the palm with soil on the other palm. If a glossy surface of the soil is observed and upon squeezing with
thumb the cake releases the water and looks like dry cake then it reflects the high silt content.
Index Properties:
As the name itself suggests the index properties are those which give indication of the engineering
properties. Generally soils of high values of liquid limit and plasticity index are highly compressible and vice-
versa is less compressible. The free swell index indicates the swelling potential of the soil. Also the swelling
and shrinkage properties are very much related to the liquid limit, plasticity index and field dry density.
Similarly low water content below water table reflects high field dry density which would also indicate the
over-consolidation state which in turn indicates the range of high shear strength and consequently high
bearing capacity and lower compressibility.
There are a number of correlations relating the engineering properties with index properties. Soils of a
given geological origin follow common correlations with their index properties and are very much valid
for field applications. Grain size distribution of the soil with wet sieve analysis gives the percent finer than
different sizes. Very useful engineering parameters could be obtained from the grain size distribution. One
of the important parameter is the co-efficient of permeability which can be obtained from the Hazen’s
equation as k = D102 where k is in Cm/sec and D10 is the size of 10% finer particle in mm. With well
graded soils good compacted density can be achieved. With uniformly graded coarse grained soils high
permeability can be expected. In coarse grained soils the relative density which defines the position of
the field density with respect to the possible maximum and minimum densities of the same soil is a
good parameter to define the engineering properties of the soil. The relative density reflects the number
of contacts each particle could have with its neighboring particles. The shear strength and consequent
derived parameters will depend on the number of contacts.
Bore log and N Values:

It is necessary to obtain variation of standard penetration number N with depth and location of water
table level in the bore log. Generally the field N value requires some corrections. There are several schools
of thought about the corrections to be applied to the field measured standard penetration values. If the
standard penetration values are determined at field conditions which may not alter post construction
situation, water table corrections need not be applied. However overburden and energy corrections are
needed to be applied. Further overburden corrections need not be made for non-granular and cemented
soil deposits especially with N greater than 50. The water table corrections given in most of the codes are
SOIL INVESTIGATION AND DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS FOR BUILDINGS (UP TO 5 FLOORS)

189
not applicable for residual soil deposits. The correlations which have all been developed during sixties of
last century can be treated to have been developed for an energy transmission efficiency of only 55%.
If energy efficiency of the current field test is more than 55%, positive corrections are needed to be
applied.
However at preliminary investigations stage corrected value can be considered as the field value itself.
Once the N value is available at different depths the net allowable soil pressure for a settlement of 25mm
can be computed as N’ Tons/M2 at different depths where N’ is the weighted average of N values below
that level to a depth of 2B. This will help to decide on the depth of foundation and type of foundation.
For example if the corrected and weighted average N value is 25 the net allowable soil pressure is 25Tons/
M2 for a settlement of 25mm. For other permissible settlement values it could be linearly extrapolated.
In basement constructions the weight of soil removed need to be added. The permissible settlement is
a function of structural system. For normal framed structures the rotation limit of L/300 between the
neighboring columns defines the permissible differential settlement and the maximum settlement will
be twice the differential settlement. Regarding the shear failure criterion it should be understood that
the ultimate bearing capacity equations have been derived based on limit state equilibrium of rigid body
penetrating into a homogenous isotropic semi-infinite elastic medium. The actual soil condition of residual
soil deposits in Karnataka has increasing N values with increase in depth. And in most cases the refusal
strata is met within the significant depth of 2B below the foundation level. Hence in such cases the shear
failure criterion is not applicable.
Detailed Investigations at Design Stage:

This is the stage in which all the engineering properties have to be evaluated by actual experimentation
in addition to those obtained from field studies. From the preliminary investigations the size and type of
foundations would have been estimated. For buildings up to 5 floors the load intensity will be such that
normally it does not warrant pile foundations. Hence geotechnical investigations need not be to greater
depths than 5M or 3B below the foundation level. From detailed investigation point of view the number
of boreholes shall be at one bore hole for every 500M2 with minimum of 2 bore holes and one additional
bore hole wherever the topography has changed and are taken to depths of at least 2.5 to 5B below the
foundation level depending on the spacing between the adjoining footings.
The tests to be performed in addition to those field and laboratory tests discussed earlier are:
1. The consolidated un-drained tri-axial shear tests with pore pressure measurements at the range of
confining pressures expected at below footings.
2. One dimensional odometer consolidation tests with swelling tests if required.

190
SELECTION & DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS FOR BUILDINGS (Upto 5 floors)
After having assessed the type of sub-soil and its variation within the foot print/influence zone of the
proposed structure, one needs to decide on type of foundation and its founding level. The element
of structure resting on sub-soil and connected to super structure forming an interfacial bridge forms
foundation. This bridge element shall be selected & designed in such a manor that it matches the stiffness
of sub-soil on one hand and that of super structure in the other. In certain difficult/poor sub-soil conditions,
the super structure/system may have to be altered to cater to the poor sub-soil condition.
In a fairly good soil (in terms of ‘N’ value say >10 in sandy soil and UCC value >1.0 kg.cm2, in clayey soil),
without much variation in its type, in horizontal & vertical influence zone, for a load bearing masonry
construction, a simple stone masonry spread foundation will suffice upto 4 to 5 floors (of course now a
days due to non availability of quality bricks, it has become a convention to adopt R.C. framed work even
for 3 floors). The founding depth (normally 1.5 to 1.8m will suffice) may be decided on shear & settlement
consideration. The minimum depth of foundation shall be decided such that it is well below the root zone
and volume change at that level is negligible.
In case of structures having large span (say >5.0m), wherein R.C. framed construction is normally adopted,
isolated spread footing placed at 1.5 to 1.8m depth will suffice. The footing shall be proportioned
considering column loads, moments and bearing capacity/settlement considerations.
If the sub-soil is poor upto a shallow depth, either the footings may be taken upto a firm strata or
alternatively the poor sub-soil may be improved to increase the shear strength and reduce the settlement.
The simplest method to improve poor granular soil is to provide displacement type sand pile to increase
density. In case of clayey soil, the sand pile can be of displacement/bored type to provide drainage, there
by accelerating consolidation to improve shear strength and reduce settlement characteristics.
The sites having poor sub-soil (very loose defined by ‘N’ values <5 to 6 in case of granular soil and UCC
<0.5 kg/cm2 in case of clay) but fairly uniform within the foot print of the building, for a structure with
closed column spacing and moderate variation in column loads (say within 20 to 25%), one can adopt
combination approach of improving the soil and providing combined/raft foundation.
However for large span construction with vide variation in column loads, and sub-soil being poor/highly
erratic, deep pile foundation taken into firm stratum will be only choice.
In sites wherein, the thickness of overburden sub-soil varies widely, say rock at ground level in one portion
of building and rock at 5.0 to 6.0m depth on the other edge of the building, wherever rock is met, the
footing may be placed on it after leveling, in region where rock is not available (say upto a reasonable
depth of 1.5 to 2.5m), the sub-soil overlying rock shall be assessed for settlement and the footing in soil
region shall be proportioned (including founding depth) such that the differential settlement between the
portion of structure resting on rock and the soil is well within the tolerable limits.
In case of very high volume change soil, such as black cotton soil, the foundation shall be taken upto no
volume change zone. The foundation can be spread foundation or under reamed pile type. In either case,
the founding level shall be below the volume change zone. In black cotton soil, it is advisable to replace
top 1.0 to 1.5m by non swelling type soil to avoid effect of volume change on floor and services/utilities.
Alternatively, lime piling may be provided to moderate the volume change of the swelling soil and to
reduce its effect on structure.
SOIL INVESTIGATION AND DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS FOR BUILDINGS (UP TO 5 FLOORS)

191
192
Chapter
12
Masonry Constuction
12. Masonry Constuction
12.1 Introduction
Masonry construction is the oldest and mostcommon building technique, together with timberconstruction.
The word “masonry” actually encompasses techniques which may differ substantially depending on type
and shape of materials and construction methods. In general, masonry may be defined as a structural
assemblage of masonry units (such as stones, bricks and blocks) with a binding material known as mortar.
A vertical two-dimensional structure of such an assemblage is known as masonry wall. The walls of a
masonry building and the building itself are designed to be stable, strong and durable to withstand a
combination of design loads.
The basic advantage of masonry construction is that it is possible to usethe same element to perform
a variety of functions, which in aframed building, for example, have to be provided for separately,with
consequent complication in detailed construction. Thus masonrymay, simultaneously, provide structure,
subdivision of space, thermaland acoustic insulation as well as fire and weather protection. As amaterial,
it is relatively economical, durable and produces external wallfinishes of acceptable appearance. Masonry
construction is flexiblein terms of building layout and can be constructed without very largecapital
expenditure on the part of the builder.
General Benefits of Structural Masonry

• Modularity: Modularity allows larger number of units to be produced which are of very high
quality (factory level control), easy erection since construction becomes modular and very low
wastage on site due to high quality. More the modularity, less the variation on site, and lesser the
ultimate cost.
• Fast construction: A single EMU (Engineered Masonry Unit) of 200 x 200 x 400 size replaces
about 9 to14 bricks. Also, the weight of one hollow EMU is only 17.5 kg compared to about 36
kg for an equivalent solid concrete block. Hence construction is speeded up considerably resulting
in labour and consequent cost saving.
• Mortar Saving in Joints: Because of the high dimensional accuracy, the blocks can be laid with
very thin mortar joints. 10 mm mortar joint is standard compared to nearly 25-35 mm for normal
concrete blocks. It is possible to source cementitious adhesive which does not require curing and
apply it as bedding mortar only 5 mm thick since the blocks are so perfect. This not only speeds up
construction, it also saves curing water. Environmentally sustainable.
• Mortar saving in plaster: Again, because of high dimensional accuracy, the blocks being of
almost perfect size and shape, plastering can be reduced from the normal 25-40 mm thickness to
less than 10mm. In most cases, it can be completely eliminated outside by just giving a waterproof
coating.
• Material Saving: Mortar saving in joints and plastering leads to saving of sand and cement.
In addition, we have to brace ourselves for the non-availability of river sand within a few years
due to the overexploitation of sand mining. This move to EMU will help us to be future ready.
Environmentally sustainable.
• Load bearing ability: These blocks are load bearing (the lowest strength being M6 compared to
the generally available concrete block which is only M3.5 in strength). Hence, it is possible to build
multiple storeys with EMU blocks without the use of an RCC framed structure. If rebar is required
anywhere, they can be easily inserted vertically or horizontally into the blocks without the need for
expensive and time consuming shuttering. Depending on the design, savings of up to 30 percent
can be achieved by reducing the use of RCC. Reinforcement can be introduced almost anywhere –

194
along the length of the wall and/or along the height of the wall, alternative load transfer paths are
available. Masonry structures have more redundancies than moment-resisting framed structures
where only discrete elements transfer loads.
• Energy conservation and Sound Insulation: Due to the hollow space inside, EMU blocks act
as a thermal insulator. There is considerable energy saving by reducing the load on air conditioning
and heating. There is also a reduction in noise levels inside the building.
• Water Resistance: EMU blocks are pressed under very high pressures and are water resistant.
Water absorption is less than 7 percent compared to more than 10 to 20 percent in the case of
ordinary cement concrete block.
• Earthquake Resistance: Easily adaptable to Earthquake resistant construction since rebar can be
inserted horizontally and vertically anywhere.
• Clean and Neat Construction: Grooves need not be made in the wall to insert electric pipes and
then plastered. They can be inserted while the wall is being built. This contributes to time saving
and aesthetic construction.
• Weight advantage: Since hollow blocks weigh lesser, the dead load is lesser on the structure
and hence the structure can be designed more efficiently for a lower load.
• Avoid un-necessary wet-works: Cast-in-situ lintels and chejjas can be avoided using lintel and
chejja blocks leading to better finish and faster construction
• Green Manufacturing: Manufactured sand and Fly ash can be incorporated into the blocks with
an optimal design mix to ensure a far lesser carbon footprint in the manufacturing process.
• Productivity and Social Impact: A masons job is not an enviable one. Every year, there are
less and less people who join the trade due to low wages and the difficult nature of work. Skill
up-gradation allows masons to earn more and move up the social hierarchy. Today, a mason
lays about 300-400 bricks a day. A professionally trained mason can lay 3000 bricks a day. A
mason lays about 40 solid concrete blocks a day. He can lay 120 EMU blocks a day with just a
little training which is equivalent tolaying about 1680 bricks a day! Therefore the mason may be
paid far more than what is done at present. The client, contractor, mason and the manufacturer
of blocks all stand to benefit because of their focus on improving the process of construction in a
holistic manner.
Stabilized Mud Block (SMB) masonry and Engineered Hollow Concrete Block (ECB) work masonry are two
examples of overall benefits of structural masonry, in the modern context. Plate 12.1 and Plate 12.2 shows
examples of load SMB buildings in Bangalore.
Plate 12.1: SMB building – exposed masonry walls Plate 12.2: Blend of architectural and structural benefits of
SMB building
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
195
Plate 12.3 (a) and (b) shows a wide range of engineered HCB units with a wide variety of surface
finishes, available in India. Plate 12.4 (a) and (b) shows a load bearing engineered HCB building under
construction.
Plate 12.3 (a): Wide range of engineered HCB units(photo courtesy M/s AXON
Concrete Technologies Inc., Bengaluru)
Plate 12.3 (b): Variety of surface finish of engineered HCB Plate 12.4 (a): Engineered HCB masonry construction –
(photo courtesy M/s AXON Concrete Technologies Inc., amenable for modularity
Bengaluru)
Plate 12.4 (b): Engineered HCB masonry construction

196
The term “structural masonry” is used in the present context to associate the performance, analysis,
design and construction of un-reinforced and reinforced masonry buildings and structures.
In India, at present, IS-1905 (1987, reaffirmed 1998) is the code of practice for “Structural Use of Un-
reinforced Masonry”. A detailed hand book on Masonry Design and Construction is published by Bureau
of Indian Standards in the form of SP-20 (S&T, 1991). An IS code for Structural Use of Reinforced Masonry
is under preparation.
There are some guidelines for construction of reinforced masonry in IS-4326 (1993, reaffirmed 1998),
mainly for earthquake resistant design and construction of masonry buildings. Guidelines for improving
earthquake resistance of low-strength masonry buildings are covered separately in IS-13828 (1993,
reaffirmed 1998).
This chapter of the hand book briefly deals with the following;
1. Terminologies in structural masonry

2. Masonry Materials – units, mortar and reinforcement - types and standards
3. Basics of design of load bearing masonry
4. Guidelines for design of free-standing wall and retaining wall
5. Concepts for reinforced masonry and earthquake resistant masonry
6. Typical check list for masonry construction
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
197
12.2 Terminologies in Structural Masonry
Table 12.1: Terminologies and abbreviations commonly referred in Structural Masonry
Sl.
Terminology Definition and remarks
No.
Bed Block A block bedded on a wall, column or pier to disperse a concentrated load on
a masonry element.
Cross-Sectional Net cross-sectional area of a masonry unit shall be taken as the gross
Area of Masonry cross-sectional area minus the area of cellular space. Gross cross-sectional
Unit area of cored units shall be determined to the outside of the coring but
cross-sectional area of grooves shall not be deducted from the gross cross-
sectional area to obtain the net cross sectional area Remark: Net section
area is difficult to ascertain especially in hollow masonry units. In case of full
mortar bedding as shown in Fig 10.1 it is the gross sectional area based on
the out-to-out dimension minus hollow spaces. Often alignment of cross
webs is not possible while laying hollow units and the load transfer takes
place through mortars on the face shells only. In such cases, it is conservative
to base net cross-sectional area on the minimum face shell thickness.
Net cross sectional area = shaded area or gross area if the block is more than
75% solid
Net area = shaded area = full-mortar bedding area
Net area = shaded area if face-shell bedding is adopted (provided alignment

of cross webs is ensured)
Grout A mixture of cement (or any binding material), sand and water of pourable
consistency for filling small voids.
Remark: used extensively for filling the surrounding the reinforcement in

masonry
URM Un-reinforced masonry
RM Reinforced masonry
MI Masonry In-fill, the masonry wall between the columns and beams of a frame
structure
EMU Engineered Masonry Unit – engineered for architectural (colour, shape,
texture etc), physical (density) and structural requirement (strength, elasticity
and durability)

198
Sl.
No.
HCB Hollow concrete block (A masonry unit of which net cross-sectional area in
any plane parallel to the bearing surface is less than 75 percent of its gross
cross-sectional area measured in the same plane)
ECB Engineered concrete block
SMB Stabilized Mud block
SCB Solid concrete block
TMB Table moulded brick
WCB Wire-cut brick
Grouted Hollow That form of grouted masonry construction in which certain designated cells
Masonry Unit of hollow units are continuously filled with grout.
Grouted Multi- That form of grouted masonry construction in which the space between the
Wythe Masonry wythes is solidly or periodically filled with grout.
Wythe A continuous vertical tie of masonry one unit in thickness.
Grouted Multi- That form of grouted masonry construction in which the space between the
Wythe Masonry wythes is solidly or periodically filled with grout.
Joint A prefabricated reinforcement in the form of lattice truss which has been hot
Reinforcement dip galvanized after fabrication and is to be laid in the mortar bed joint.
Ladder type reinforcement Truss type reinforcement

Prism An assemblage of masonry units bonded by mortar with or without grout
used as a test specimen for determining properties of masonry. (preferably
with a height/thickness ratio between 2 to 5)
Grouted Cavity Two parallel single leaf walls spaced at least 50 mm apart, effectively tied
R e i n f o r c e d together with wall ties. The intervening cavity contains steel reinforcement
Masonry and is filled with infill concrete so as to result in common action with masonry
under load.
Pocket type Masonry reinforced primarily to resist lateral loading where the main
Reinforced reinforcement is concentrated in vertical pockets formed in the tension face
Masonry of the masonry and is surrounded by in situ concrete.
Quetta Bond Masonry at least one and half units thick
Reinforced in which vertical pockets containing
reinforcement and mortar or concrete
Masonry infill occur at intervals along its length.
Quetta bond
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
199
Sl.
No.
Specified Minimum Compressive strength, expressed as force per unit of net cross-
Compressive section area, required of the masonry used in construction by the contract
document, and upon the project design is based.
Strength of
Masonry Remark: Whenever the quantity fm is under the radical sign, the square root
of numerical value only is intended and the result has units of MPa.
Wall Tie A metal fastener which connects wythes of masonry to each other or to
other materials.
Bond Arrangement of masonry units in successive courses to tie the masonry
together both longitudinally and transversely; the arrangement is usually
worked out to ensure that no vertical joint of one course is exactly over the
one in the next course above or below it, and there is maximum possible
amount of lap.
Column An isolated vertical load bearing member, width of which does not exceed
four times the thickness.
Pier It is an isolated vertical member whose horizontal dimension measured at
right angles to its thickness is not less than 4 times its thickness and whose
height is less than 5 times its length.
Column and pier

Buttress A pilaster of masonry built as an integral
part of wall and projecting from either
or both surfaces, decreasing in cross-
sectional area from base to top.
Curtain Wall A non-load bearing wall subject to lateral

loads. It may be laterally supported by
vertical or horizontal structural members,
where necessary

200
Sl.
No.
Effective Height The height of a wall or column to be considered for calculating slenderness
ratio.
Effective Length The length of a wall to be considered for calculating slenderness ratio.
Effective The thickness of a wall or column to be considered for calculating slenderness
Thickness ratio.
Joint A junction of masonry units
Remark:
• Horizontal joints are known as bed joints

• Vertical joints are known as perpends, and
if they are perpendicular to the plane of the wall they are known as cross
joint
• Vertical joints are known as collar joints if they are parallel to the plane of
the wall
• Wall joints are the junctions of walls
Leaf Inner or outer section of a cavity wall.

Lateral Support A support which enables a masonry element to resist lateral load and/or
restrains lateral deflection of a masonry element at the point of support.
Remark: Lateral support is a primary requirement in structural design of

masonry. A lateral support may be provided along either a horizontal or a
vertical line, depending on whether the slenderness ratio is based on a vertical
or horizontal dimension. Horizontal or vertical lateral supports should be
capable of transmitting design lateral forces to the elements of construction
that provide lateral stability to the structure as a whole.
RC slab as a lateral support at the

top of wall in the horizontal plane
Cross walls as lateral support in the vertical plane
Pilasters as lateral supports in the vertical plane
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
201
Sl.
No.
Load Bearing A wall designed to carry an imposed vertical load in addition to its own
Wall weight, together with any lateral load.
Masonry Unit Individual units which are bonded together with the help of mortar to form
a masonry element, such as wall, column, pier and buttress.
Partition Wall An interior non-load bearing wall, one storey or part storey in height.
Panel Wall An exterior non-load bearing wall in framed construction, wholly supported
at each storey but subjected to lateral loads in out-plane direction such as
wind loads, earthquake loads etc.
Shear Wall and A wall designed to carry horizontal forces acting in its plane with or without
Cross wall vertical imposed loads. The walls normal to shear walls are known as cross
walls.
Slenderness Ratio Ratio of effective height or effective length to effective thickness of a masonry
(SR) element.
Cavity Wall A wall comprising two leaves, each leaf being built of masonry units and
separated by a cavity and tied together with metal ties or bonding units to
ensure that the two leaves act as one structural unit, the space
between the leaves being either left as continuous cavity or filled with a non-
load bearing insulating and waterproofing material.
Faced Wall A wall in which facing and backing of two different materials are bonded
together to ensure common action under load backing shall be provided by
toothing, bonding or other means.
Veneered Wall A wall in which the facing is attached to the backing but not so bonded as to
result in a common action under load.
Ks Stress reduction factor
Ka Area reduction factor
Kp Shape modification factor

202
Sl.
No.
Pilaster A thickened section forming integral part of a wall placed at intervals along
the wall, to increase the stiffness of the wall or to carry a vertical concentrated
load. Thickness of a pilaster is the overall thickness including the thickness of
the wall or when bonded into a leaf of a cavity wall, the thickness obtained
by treating that leaf as an independent wall
Jamb Side of an opening in wall. Jamb (example: door jamb)
Non-Load Bearing A wall that is not resisting or supporting any loads such that it can be removed
Wall with the approval of a structural engineer without jeopardizing integrity of
the remaining structure
Partition Wall An interior non-load bearing wall, one storey or part storey in height
Veneered Wall A wall in which the facing is attached to the backing but not so bonded as to
result in a common action under load.
Wall Tie A metal fastener which connects wythes of masonry to each other or to
other materials.
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
203
12.3 Masonry Materials – units, mortar and reinforcement - types
& standards
12.3.1 Masonry units
Choice of masonry units is generally made from the consideration of:
(a) Local availability,

(b) Compressive strength,
(c) Durability,
(d) Cost,
(e) Ease of construction.
Brick has the advantageover stone that it lends itself to easy construction and requires less labour for laying.
Stone masonry, because of practical limitations of dressing to shape and size, usually has to be thicker
and results in unnecessary extra cost. Thus, the first choice for abuilding at any place would be brick, if
it isavailable at reasonable cost with requisite strengthand good quality. In hills as well as in certainplains
where soil suitable for making bricks is notavailable or cost of fuel for burning bricks is veryhigh and stone
is locally available, the choicewould be stone. If type and quality of stoneavailable is such that it cannot
be easily dressed toshape and size, or if the cost of dressing is too high, use of concrete blocks may prove
to be moreeconomical, particularly when construction is to bemore than two storeys, since thickness of
walls canbe kept within economical limits by using concreteblocks. In areas where bricks and stone of
suitablequality are not available and concrete blocks cannotbe manufactured at reasonable cost, and lime
andsand of good quality is available, masonry unitscould be of sand-lime bricks. However, formanufacture
of sand-lime bricks, special equipmentis required, and thus use of sand-lime bricks is notcommon in India
as yet. They shall comply with the standards given in Table 12.2;
Table 12.2: Standards for Masonry units
Burnt Clay Building bricks IS : 1077-1986* or

IS : 2180-1985** or
IS : 2222-1979***
*Specification for common burnt clay building
bricks (Fourth revision)
**Specification for heavy-duty burnt clay building
bricks(second revision)
***Specification for burnt clay perforated building
bricks (second revision)
Stones (in regular sized units) IS : 3316-1874* or
IS : 3620-1979**
*Specification for structural granite (First revision).
**Specification for laterite stone block for masonry
(First revision)
Sand lime bricks IS : 4139-1976*
*Specification for sand lime bricks (First
revision)

204
Concrete blocks IS:2185(Part 1)-1979* or IS:2185 (Part 2)-1983**
(Solid & hollow) *Specification for concrete masonry units:
Part 1 Hollow and solid concrete blocks (second
revision).
**Specification for concrete masonry units: Part 2
Hollow and solid lightweight concrete blocks (First
revision).
Lime based blocks IS : 31151978*

*Specification for lime based blocks (First
Revision
Burnt clay hollow IS : 3952-19785*

blocks *Specification for burnt clay hollow blocks for walls
and partitions (First revision).
Gypsum partition IS : 2849-1983*

blocks Gypsum partition blocks are used only for
construction of non-load bearing partition walls.
*Specification for non-load bearing gypsum
partition blocks (solid and hollow types)
(First revision )
Autoclaved cellular IS:2185 (Part 3)-1984*

concrete blocks *Specification for concrete masonry units: Part 3
Autoclaved cellular (aerated) concrete blocks (First
revision).
Use of other masonry units, such as precast stone blocks, not covered by the above specifications, can
also be permitted based on test results.
Remarks
1. Masonry units that have been previously used shall not be reused in brickwork or block work
construction, unless they have been thoroughly cleaned and conform to the code for similar new
masonry units. This is because bond between mortar and masonry units is largely influenced by
suction rate (IRA, initial rate of water absorption) of masonry units. Masonry units, which have
been previously used in masonry would not possess adequate suction rate and as a result may
not develop normal bond and compressive strengths when reused. It is therefore not advisable to
reuse such units in locations where requirement of masonry strength is critical.
2. The shape and dimension of masonry units, construction practices, including methods of positioning
of reinforcement, placing and compacting of grout, as well as design and detailing should be such
as to promote homogeneity of structural members. As a general rule, apart from strength of
masonry units and grade of mortar, strength of masonry depends on surface characteristics and
uniformity of size and shape of units as well as certain properties of mortar. Units which are true in
shape and size, can be laid with comparatively thinner joints, thereby resulting in higher strength.
For this reason, use of A grade bricks gives masonry of higher strength as compared to that with B
grade bricks, even though crushing strength of bricks of the two grades may be same. For similar
reasons ashlar stone masonry which uses accurately dressed and shaped stones is much stronger
than ordinary coursed stone masonry.
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
205
12.3.2 Masonry mortars
Mortars are intimate mixtures of some cementing materials, such as cement, lime and fine aggregate
(such as sand, burnt clay/surkhi, cinder, etc). When only fat lime is used, which sets very slowly through
the process of carbonation, it becomes necessary, for the sake of better strength, to use some pozzolanic
material, such as burnt clay/surkhi or cinder. Plasticizers are used in plain cementsand mortars to improve
workability. Mortars could be broadly classified as cement mortars, lime mortars and cement-lime mortars.
Main characteristics and properties of these three categories of mortars are:
(a) Cement mortars

These consist of cement and sand, varying in proportion from 1:8 to 1:3, strength and workability improving
with the increase in the proportion of cement. Mortars richer than 1:3 are not used in masonry because
these cause high shrinkage and do not increase in strength of masonry. Mortars leaner than 1:5 tend to
become harsh and unworkable and are prone to segregation. Cement mortars set early and gain strength
quickly. Setting action of mortar is on account of chemical changes in cement in combination with water,
and thus these mortars can set and harden in wet locations. In case of lean mortars, voids in sand are not
fully filled, and therefore, these are not impervious. Rich mortar, though having good strength have high
shrinkage and is thus more liable to cracking.
(b) Lime mortars:

These consist of intimate mixtures of lime as binder and sand, burnt clay/surkhi, cinder as fine aggregate
in the proportion 1:2 to 1:3. As a general rule, lime mortars gain strength slowly and have low ultimate
strength. Mortars using hydraulic lime attain somewhat better strength than those using fat lime. In fact,
lime mortars using fat lime do not harden at all in wet locations. Properties of mortar using semi-hydraulic
lime are intermediate between those of hydraulic and fat lime mortars. When using fat lime, it is necessary
to use some pozzolanic material such as burnt clay/surkhi or cinder to improve strength of the mortar.
The main advantage of lime mortar lies in its good workability, good water retentivity and low shrinkage.
Masonry in lime mortar has, thus, better resistance against rain penetration and is less liable to cracking,
though strength is much less than those of masonry in cement mortar.
(c) Cement/lime mortars:

These mortars have the good qualities of cement as well as lime mortars, that is, medium strength along
with good workability, good water retentivity, freedom from cracks and good resistance against rain
penetration. Commonly adopted proportions of the mortar (cement: lime: sand) are 1:1:6, 1:2:9 and
1:3:12. When mix proportion of binder (cement and lime) to sand is kept as 1:3, it gives a very dense
mortar since voids of sand are fully filled.
Requirements of a good masonry for masonry structures are workability, flow, water retentivity
in the plastic state and bond, extensibility, compressive strength, and durability in the hardened
state. Compressive strength of mortar, in general, should not be greater than masonry unit. It
should be noted that cement-lime mortars are much better than cement mortars for masonry
work in most of the structures.
Mortar for masonry shall comply with the requirements of IS: 2250-1981 [Code of practice for preparation
and use of Masonry mortars (first revision)]. It has been observed from experimental results that lime-based
mortars give higher ratio of strength of brickwork to mortar as compared to non-lime mortars. This can
be explained as follows: Normally brickwork fails under a compressive load on account of vertical tensile
splitting, for which bond strength of mortar is more important than its compressive strength. Since lime-
based mortars have much higher bond strength, as compared to cement the former produce brickwork of
higher strength. Table 12.3 giving test results abstracted from literature illustrates this point very clearly.

206
Table 12.3: Influence of Mortar Mix on the strength of brick work
Effect of Mortar Mix on Strength of Brickwork (using high strength bricks, ~ 32.0MPa)
Mortar mix Mortar Compressive Brickwork compressive Ratio
(Cement: Lime: Sand) Strength (28 days) X strength (28 days) Y Y/X
1:¼:3 17.8 8.9 0.5
1:½:4½ 10.8 9.3 0.86
1:1:6 4.7 8.5 1.82
1:2:9 1.7 4.6 2.69
Note: Use of lime in the form of matured putty is highly recommended, as is recommended in
the codes of practices in other countries
Mix proportions and minimum compressive strength, are given in Table 12.4. This is as per IS 1905 (1987),
cl. 3.2.1.
Table 12.4: Mix Proportion and Strength of Mortars for Masonry (Clause 3.2.1)
Sl. Grade of Minimum

Mix proportions by loose volume
No. mortar Compressi ve
Cement Lime Lime Pozzolana Sand Strength at 28
Pozzolana Days In MPa
mixture
1 H1 1 ¼ C or B 0 0 3 10.0
2(a) H2
1 ¼ C or B 0 0 4 7.5
2(b) 1 ½ C or B 0 0 4½ 6.0
3(a) M1
1 - 0 0 5 5.0
3(b) 1 1 C or B 0 0 6 3.0
3(c) 0 0 1(LP-40) 0 1½ 3.0
4(a) 1 0 0 0 6 3.0
4(b) 1 2B 0 0 9 2.0
4(c) 0 1A 0 0 2 2.0
4(d) 0 1B 0 1 1 2.0
4(e) 0 1 C or B 0 2 0 2.0
4(f) 0 0 1(LP-40) 0 1¾ 2.0
5(a) M3 1 0 0 0 7 1.5
5(b) 1 3B 0 0 12 1.5
5(c) 0 1A 0 0 3 1.5
5(d) 0 1B 0 2 1 1.5
5(e) 0 1 C or B 0 3 0 1.5
5(f) 0 0 1(LP-40) 0 2 1.5
6(a) L1 1 0 0 0 8 0.7
6(b) 0 1B 0 1 2 0.7
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
207
6(c) 0 1 C or B 0 2 1 0.7
6(d) 0 0 1(LP-40) 0 1½ 0.7
6(e) 0 0 1(LP-20) 0 2½ 0.7
7(a) 0 1B 0 0 3 0.5
7(b) 0 1C or B 0 1 2 0.5
7(c) 0 0 1(LP-7) 0 1½ 0.5
Remarks
1. Sand for making mortar should be well graded. In case sand is not well graded, its proportion shall
be reduced in order to achieve the minimum specified strength.
2. For mixes in SI No. 1 and 2, use of lime is not essential from consideration of strength as it
does not result in increase in strength. However, its use is highly recommended since it improves
workability.
3. For mixes in SI No. 3(a), 4(a), 5(a) and 6(a), either lime C or B to the extent of l/4 part of cement
(by volume) or some plasticizer should be added for improving workability.
4. For mixes in Sl No. 4(b) and 5(b), lime and sand should first be ground in mortar mill and then
cement added to coarse stuff.
5. It is essential that mixes in Sl No. 4(c), 4(d), 4(e), 5(d), 5(e), 6(b), 6(c), 7(a) and 7(b) are prepared by
grinding in a mortar mill.
6. Mix in Sl No. 2(b) has been classified to be of same grade as that of Sl No. 2(a), mixes in SI No. 3(b)
and 3(c) same as that in Sl No. 3(a) and mixes in SI No. 4(b) to 4(f) same as that in SI No. 4(a), even
though their compressive strength is less. This is from consideration of strength of masonry using
different mix proportions.
7. A, B and C denote eminently hydraulic lime, semi-hydraulic lime and fat lime respectively as
specified in relevant Indian Standards.
Compressive strength shall not be sole criterion for the selection of mortar. Bond strength, in
general, is more important, as is good workability and water retentivity, which are required
for maximum bond. Lime-based mortars of Table 12.4 should be preferred for it is desirable
to sacrifice some compressive strength of the mortar in favour of improved bond. A set of
preferred mortar mixes are given in Table 12.5, as per cl. 3.2.3.3 of IS 1905 (1987)
Table 12.5: Preferred mortar mix combination
Preferred mix
Mortar type
Cement Lime Sand
H1 1 ¼ 3
H2 1 ½ 4½
M1 1 1 6
M2 1 2 9
An unnecessarily strong mortar concentrates the effect of any differential movement of masonry
in fewer and wider cracks while a weak mortar (mortar having more of lime and less of cement)
will accommodate movements, and cracking will be distributed as thin hair cracks which are
less noticeable. Also stresses due to expansion of masonry units are reduced, if a weak mortar

208
is used. Lean mortars of cement alone are harsh, pervious and less workable. Thus when strong
mortars are not required from considerations of strength or for working under frosty conditions
or for work in wet locations, it is preferable to use composite mortars of cement, lime and sand,
in appropriate proportions.
Masonry reinforcement
For the purpose of general load bearing construction, Fe 415 grade steel is acceptable, with the generic
requirements as given in Table 12.6. However, for the purpose of earthquake resistant masonry, a variety
of reinforcement can be used, typically the ones which impart to the system ductility.
Table 12.6: Specification for reinforcement in load bearing masonry
Tensile strength
MS Bars confirming to IS 432 (Part I) 140 MPa for diameter ≤20 mm
130 MPa for diameter >20 mm
HYSD Bars (IS 1786) 230 MPa
Compressive strength
MS Bars confirming to IS 432 (Part I) 130 MPa
Size and spacing of reinforcement
The maximum size of reinforcement used in masonry shall be 25 mm diameter bars and minimum size shall
not be less than 5 mm.
The diameter of reinforcement shall not exceed one-half the least clear dimension of the cell, bond beam,
or collar joint in which it is placed.
Clear distance between parallel bars shall not be less than the diameter of the bars, or less than 25 mm. In
columns and pilasters, clear distance between vertical bars shall not be less than 1.5 times the bar diameter,
nor less than 35 mm.
Stabilized Mud Blocks

Stabilized Mud Blocks (SMB) are cost effective and low energy alternatives to conventional masonry units.
Soil, consisting of clay, silt and sand is the basic raw material used for the production of SMBs. These
masonry units are produced using a compaction machine, usually located at the site itself. The strength
gain by the blocks is due to a combination of stabilizer and densification through compaction using a mud
block making machine. Stabilised mud block shall be manufactured from a mixture of suitable soil-sand
mixture and stabilizers such as ordinary Portland cement (confirming to IS: 8112 – 1989 and IS: 12269 –
1987) or a combination of lime (confirming to IS: 712 -1973) and ordinary Portland cement. A uniform
mixture of soil-sand-stabiliser is compacted into a high density block at optimum moisture content using
a machine. The blocks so manufactured are cured and then shall be used for masonry construction. The
following section presents the brief specification for production of SMBs and SMB masonry.
Manufacturing Process
Salient steps to be followed while manufacturing the stabilised mud blocks are follows.
a. Screen the suitable soil and sand using 4.75mm sieve in dry state.
b. Mix the soil and sand first and then mix with requisite quantity of stabiliser (cement/lime). Soil, sand
and stabilisers should be mixed thoroughly to obtain uniform mixture. These mixing operations
should be carried out in dry state.
c. Mix the soil-sand-stabiliser mixture with optimum quantity of water. Optimum quantity of
water does not depend upon the Proctor OMC. The compaction process used for compacting
the stabilised mud blocks is a static compaction process whereas Proctor test employs dynamic
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
209
compaction with a fixed amount of compaction energy input. Optimum quantity of water to be
used depends upon the workability of the wetted mix. The workability should be such that the
wet mix should not stick to the machine mould while ejecting the block and should have enough
green strength to handle. It has been found that for any given dry density the blocks compacted
with higher moulding water content give better strength. The block characteristics greatly depend
upon dry density of the block.
d. Measure a known weight (depending upon dry density and block dimensions) of the wetted mix,
feed into the machine mould, compact it through piston operation, eject the block and stack it
for curing. The blocks shall be stacked closely without gap, one above the other up to 5-6 blocks
height. The stack of blocks should be covered with a wet hessian cloth or straw or similar material
and under shade.
e. The block curing shall commence a day after the manufacture. Sprinkle water on the stack and
keep the entire stack of blocks always under moist condition for at least 28 days. Cured blocks
shall be air dried and then used for construction.
(a) Sand
The sand used for diluting the soils shall consists of natural sand, crushed stone sand or crushed gravel
sand conforming to IS: 2116 – 1980.
(b) Soil
Soil shall be of the quality suitable for the stabilised mud blocks. Generally soils contain clay minerals and
inert particles such as silt and sand. The quantum and type of clay mineral controls the characteristics of
soil. Use of soils containing expansive clay minerals such as montmorillonite requires lime as a stabilising
additive to manufacture stabilised mud blocks. In majority of the cases the clay mineral content of the
soil has to be controlled and adjusted by diluting the soil with sand, in order to make the soil suitable
for stabilised mud blocks. The soils or soil-sand mixtures satisfying the specifications given in Table 12.7
could result in production of good quality soil-cement blocks. Some soils may contain deleterious salts
or chemicals or organic matter which can impair the stabilization process when cement or cement-lime
is used. The behaviour of stabilised block using such soils depends upon the nature of salts or chemicals
or organic matter present. In such situations ascertaining the SMB characteristics through strength and
durability tests (detailed in the subsequent sections) has to be strictly adhered to. Acidic soils having pH
<6.0 can be stabilised with addition of 1 to 2% calcium hydroxide (lime) in addition to cement. Soils
containing excessive silt fraction can lead to SMB having very low green strength for handling during the
block manufacturing process. In such situations it is advisable to add some coarse gravel or sand fraction
to the soil.
Table 12.7 Specifications for soil and stabiliser ratios
Sl. No. Specification Limiting values

1. Granular composition of soil or soil-sand mixture 10-15%
a) Clay fraction (<0.002mm) >65%
b) Sand fraction (0.075 – 4.75mm)
2. Plasticity index pH ≤ 12
6.0 – 8.5
3. Stabiliser to Clay ratio:
a) For soils having non-expansive clay minerals ≥ 0.50
b) For soils having expansive clay minerals ≥ 0.75
(c) Dimensions and Tolerances

210
Stabilised mud blocks can be manufactured in different sizes and shapes. Maximum size of the block is
limited by the capacity of the machine to supply required compaction force or energy during the block
production process. Range of actual block dimensions shall be as follows.
Length: 200mm to 305mm, Width: 100mm to 200mm, Height: 75mm to 100mm
The surface area of the block (length x width) shall be less than 45,000 mm2 when manually operated
machines are employed for the compaction of blocks. Some typical sizes for the stabilised mud blocks
currently used in India are given in Table 12.8. Blocks of special shapes such as rounded corner, corbelled
or any other shape for the purposes of enhancing aesthetic appearance of masonry and the building can
be manufactured with special attachments to the machines. The maximum variation (from the specified
block size) in the dimensions of the units shall be restricted to ±2mm.
Table 12.8: Typical block size
(d) Static Compaction Process and Machine Requirements for Block Production
Manually operated or semi-automatic or fully automatic machine can be employed for the compaction and
manufacture of stabilized mud blocks. All these machines employ static compaction process for achieving
the requisite dry density of the block. The compaction ratio of the machine shall not be less than 1.70.
Figure 12.1 illustrates the major steps involved in the static compaction process. The compaction ratio =
(H) / (T)
(a) Loosely filled wet mixture of soil-sand-stabiliser (b) Compaction through piston movement
Fig. 12.1: Static compaction process employed for block manufacture
(e) Dry Density of the Block

The quantum of wet mix that is fed into the machine mould (i.e. fresh block density) should be such that
the dry density of the block achieved shall not be less than18 kN/m3.
(f) Compressive Strength of the Block

The wet compressive strength of the stabilised mud blocks shall be determined in saturated condition
and the strength test shall be carried out following the procedure outlined in IS: 3495 (Part 1): 1992. The
wet compressive strength of any individual block shall not fall below the minimum average compressive
strength specified by more than 20%. The wet compressive strength reported shall be the mean strength
of a minimum of blocks sampled from the lot as per IS: 5454-1978. The number of blocks to be sampled
varies between 5 and 15 depending upon the lot size. The mean wet compressive strength required shall
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
211
be arrived at by following the masonry design guidelines specified in IS: 1905 – 1987.
(g) Water Absorption

To determine water absorption value, the blocks shall be tested in accordance with the procedure laid
down in IS: 3495 (Part 2): 1992, soaking in cold water for 24 hours test. The mean (of at least 3 specimens)
water absorption value shall not be more than 20%.
(h) Linear Expansion on Saturation

The test shall be performed on at least 3 specimens and the mean value shall be calculated. The test shall
be conducted on 28 days cured block specimens according to a specified procedure. The mean value of
linear expansion on saturation shall not exceed 0.10%.
(i) Weathering Test

Weathering test involves monitoring the weight loss after 12 cycles of cyclic wetting and drying including
scratching the block surfaces with wire scratch brush as per the standard procedure. The mean value (of at
least 3 specimens) of weight loss after 12 cycles of weathering test shall not exceed 3.0%.
(j) Mortars for Stabilised Mud Block Masonry

Composite mortars such as cement-lime-sand or cement-pozzolana-sand or cement-soil-sand mortars are
best suited for stabilised mud block masonry. Composite mortars specified in IS: 2250 – 1981 code shall
be used. Use of pure cement-sand mortars should be avoided for the construction of stabilised mud block
masonry walls. In addition to the composite mortars mentioned in IS: 2250 code, cement-soil mortars
mentioned in Table 10.9 can also be used. The mortars should possess adequate workability for facilitating
the mason to fill the joints easily. The workability can be quantified by measuring the flow value following
the guidelines of BS: 4551- 1980. The mortar shall have a flow value of at least 100% and use of very
dry mortar shall be avoided. The mortar selection shall be based on masonry design and the nature of
application such as plastering, pointing, etc.
Table 12.9 – Proportions of cement-soil mortars
(k) Construction of Stabilised Mud Block Masonry

Types of masonry bonding
A number of bonding patterns are practiced in masonry construction. Bonding patterns and details in
stabilised mud block masonry depend upon the dimensions of the block. English bond or Flemish bond
type of masonry patterns are possible provided the block dimensions permit. Generally, stabilised mud
blocks are much larger in size and designed to build the masonry walls using running bond or stack bond.
Figs. 12.2 and 12.3 illustrate typical details of L-joint and T-joint in using stack bond. Stack bonded walls

212
are generally stronger than the English bonded walls.
Fig. 12.2: L- joint, stack bond Fig 12.3 T- joint, stack bond
(l) Moisture content of the blocks during construction

The bond development between the block and mortar is influenced by a large number of parameters
pertaining to the blocks and mortars. Moisture content of the block at the time of wall construction plays
a significant role in bond development. There is enough evidence in the literature that partially saturated
blocks (75% saturation) yield much higher masonry bond strength. Thus the stabilised mud blocks used
for masonry shall possess moisture content equivalent to 75% of saturation value at the time of wall
construction. It is ideal to establish a relationship between soaking duration and moisture content of the
block to know exact duration of soaking leading to 75% saturation for the block. In the absence of such
a relationship it is suggested to soak the blocks in water for a short duration of about 5 minutes and then
allow the surface moisture to evaporate before laying the block in masonry wall.
12.4 Basics of Load Bearing Masonry

It is very important to note that the first step in masonry building design is to ensure a stable configuration.
Masonry structures gain stability from the support offered by cross walls, floors, roof and other elements
such as piers and buttresses Load bearing walls are structurally more efficient when the load is uniformly
distributed and the structure is so planned that eccentricity of loading on the members is as small as
possible. Avoidance of eccentric loading by providing adequate bearing of floor/roof on the walls providing
adequate stiffness in slabs and avoiding fixity at the supports etc., is especially important in load bearing
A note on masonry bonding for concrete block work masonry

Generally engineered hollow concrete blocks are available in a size of 400mm (length) x 200mm (or
190mm) height, with thickness being 100mm, 125mm, 150mm and 200mm. In addition to these full-
blocks, the manufacturers produce ½ blocks(200mm)
and sometimes even ¼ blocks (100mm). Such blocks
may be used conveniently to break the vertical joints
in masonry, without having to cut the blocks. Thus,
if the clear inside dimensions across the walls are in
multiples of 100mm, modularity can be achieved
easily. Figs 12.4 (a) to (m) are presented to help the
field engineers in laying out the alternate courses,
using the types of blocks available in India. Note
that nominal vertical reinforcement and grouting
is needed only at the intersection of two walls of
identical thicknesses due to the lack of availability of
Fig. 12.4 (a): L-junction of 200mm x 200mm walls
corner blocks.
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
213
Fig. 12.4 (b): L-junction of 200mm x 150mm walls Fig. 12.4 (c): L-junction of 200mm x 100mm walls
Fig. 12.4 (d): L-junction of 150mm x 150mm walls Fig. 12.4 (e): L-junction of 150mm x 100mm walls
Fig. 12.4 (f): L-junction of 100mm x 100mm walls Fig. 12.4 (g): T-junction of 200mm x 200mm walls
Fig. 12.4 (h): L-junction of 200mm x 150mm walls Fig. 12.4 (i): T-junction of 200mm x 100mm walls

214
Fig. 12.4 (j): T-junction of 150mm x 150mm walls Fig. 12.4 (k): T-junction of 150mm x 150mm walls
Fig. 12.4 (l): T-junction of 100mm x 100mm walls
Fig. 12.4 (m): Intersection of 200mm x 200mm walls.

(Note: Intersection should be reinforced and grouted)
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
215
walls in multistory structures. These matters should
receive careful consideration during the planning
stage of masonry structures.
In order to ensure uniformity of loading, openings in

walls should not be too large. and these should be
of ‘hole in wall’ type as far as possible; Bearings for
lintels and bed blocks under beams should be liberal in
sizes; heavy concentration of loads should be avoided
by judicious planning and sections of load bearing
members should be varied where feasible with the
loadings so as to obtain more or less uniform stress
in adjoining parts of members. One of the commonly
occurring causes of cracks in masonry is wide variation
in stress in masonry in adjoining parts.
An ‘opening (hole) in wall’ type opening is defined

as an opening where total width or height of solid
masonry around the opening is equal to or greater
than the corresponding window dimension (Refer Fig. Fig 12.4: Opening in wall
12.1).
Achieving lateral stability through lateral supports

Lateral support may be in the vertical or horizontal direction, the former consisting of floor/roof bearing on
the wall ‘or properly anchored to the same and latter consisting of cross walls, piers or buttresses. These
can be achieved by;
a) In case of a wall, where slenderness ratio is based on effective height, any of the following
constructions are provided:
(i) RCC floor/roof slab (or beams and slab), irrespective of the direction of span, bears on the supported
wall as well as cross walls to the extent of at least 9 cm;
(ii) RCC floor/roof slab not bearing on the supported wall or cross wall is anchored to it with non-
corrodible metal ties of 60 cm length and of section not less than 6 x 30 mm, and at intervals not
exceeding 2 m as shown in Fig. 12.5;
(iii) Timber floor/roof and pre-cast floor/roof require
special connection details (not covered in this
part)
In case of a wall, when slenderness ratio is based on its
effective length; a cross wall/pier/buttress of thickness
equal to or more than half the thickness of the supported
wall or 90 mm, whichever is more, and length equal
to or more than one-fifth of the height of wall is built
at right angle to the wall (Fig 12.3) and bonded to it
according to provision of 4.2.2.2 (d) of IS 1905 (1987)
b) In case of a column, an RCC or timber beam/R

Fig 12.5: Anchoring a slab when it is not bearing
S joist/roof truss is supported on the column. In this on the wall
case, the column will not be deemed to be laterally

216
supported in the direction right angle to it; and
c) In case of a column, an RCC beam forming
a part of beam and slab construction is supported on
the column, and slab adequately bears on stiffening
walls. This construction will provide lateral support to
the column in the direction of both horizontal axes.
Achieving stability – general

A wall or column subjected to vertical and lateral loads
Fig 12.6: Minimum dimensions for masonry wall/
buttress providing effective lateral support
may be considered to be provided with adequate lateral support from consideration of stability, if the
construction providing the support is capable of resisting the following forces:
a) Simple static reactions at the point of lateral support to all the lateral loads; plus
b) 2.5 percent of the total vertical load that the wall or column is designed to carry at the point of
lateral support.
In case of load bearing un-reinforced buildings up to four storeys, stability requirements of may be deemed
to have been met with if:
a) Height to width ratio of building does not exceed 2;

b) Cross walls acting as stiffening walls continuous from outer wall to outer wall or outer wall to
a load bearing inner wall, and of thickness and spacing as given in Table 12.7 are provided. If
stiffening wall or walls that are in a line, are interrupted by openings, length of solid wall or walls
in the zone of the wall that is to be stiffened shall be at least one-fifth of height of the opening as
shown in Fig 12.4;
c) Floors and roof either bear on cross walls or are anchored to those walls as stated earlier, such that
all lateral loads are safely transmitted to those walls and through them to the foundation;
d) And cross walls are built jointly with the bearing walls and are jointly mortared, or the two
interconnected by toothing. Alternatively, cross walls may be anchored to walls to be supported
by ties of non-corrodible metal of minimum section 6 x 35 mm and length 60 cm with ends bent
up at least 5 cm; maximum vertical spacing of ties being 1.2 m (see Fig 12.5).
Table 12.7: General guidelines for geometry of stiffeners
Stiffening wall
Thickness (m) of Height (m) of
Maximum
load bearing wall storey not to Thickness (m) not less than
spacing (m)
to be stiffened exceed
1 to 3 storey 4 storey
0.1 3.2 0.1 - 4.5
0.2 3.2 0.1 0.2 6.0
0.3 3.4 0.1 0.2 6.0
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
217
Above 0.3 5.0 0.1 0.2 8.0
Remark
In case of halls exceeding 8.0 m in length, safety and adequacy of lateral supports shall always
be checked by structural analysis.
Trussed roofing may not provide lateral support, unless special measures are adopted to brace and anchor
the roofing. However, in case of residential and similar buildings of conventional design with trussed
roofing having cross walls, it may be assumed that stability requirements are met with by the cross walls
and structural analysis for stability may be dispensed with.
Fig. 12.7: Opening in stiffening wall Fig. 12.7: Opening in stiffening wall
Capacity of a cross wall and shear wall to take horizontal loads and consequent bending moments,
increases when parts of bearing walls act as flanges to the cross wall. Maximum overhanging length of
bearing wall which could effectively function as a flange should be taken as 12 t or H/6, whichever is less,
in case of T or I shaped walls and 6 t or H/6, whichever is less, in case of L or U shaped walls, where t is the
thickness of bearing wall and H is the total height of wall above the level being considered.
The connection of intersecting walls shall conform to one of the following requirements:
a) Providing proper masonry bonds such that 50% of masonry units at the interface shall interlock.
b) Connector or reinforcement extending in each of the intersecting wall shall have strength equal to
that of the bonded wall.
c) Requirements of section 8.2.4 of IS: 4326.
Effective overhanging width of flange = 12 t or H/6 whichever is less, H being the total height of wall
above the level being considered. Effective overhanging width of flange = 6 t or H/6 whichever is less, H
being the total height of wall above the level being considered In case of external walls of basement and
plinth stability requirements may be deemed to have been met with if:
a) bricks used in basement and plinth have a minimum crushing strength of 5 MPa and mortar used
in masonry is of Grade Ml or better;
b) clear height of ceiling in basement does not exceed 2.6 m;
c) walls are stiffened according to provisions of 4.2.2.1;
d) in the zone of action of soil pressure on basement walls, traffic load excluding any surcharge due

218
to adjoining buildings does not exceed 5 kN/m2 and terrain does not rise; and
e) Minimum thickness of basement walls is in accordance with Table 12.8. In case there is surcharge
on basement walls from adjoining buildings, thickness of basement walls shall be based on
structural analysis.
Table 12.8: Minimum thickness of basement walls
Height of the ground above basement floor level with wall Minimum thickness
loading (permanent load) (m) of basement walls
More than 50 kN/m Less than 50 kN/m
2.75 2.0 0.4
1.75 1.4 0.3
Structural design
The building as a whole shall be analyzed by accepted principles of mechanics to ensure safe and proper
functioning in service of its component parts in relation to the whole building. All component parts of the
structure shall be capable of sustaining the most adverse combinations of loads, which the building may
be reasonably expected to be subjected to during and after construction.
Some general guidance on the design concept of load bearing masonry structures is given in the following
paragraphs.
A building is basically subjected to two types of loads, namely:
1. vertical loads on account of dead loads of materials used in construction, plus live loads due to
occupancy; and
2. lateral loads due to wind and seismic forces.
While all walls in general can take vertical loads, ability of a wall to take lateral loads depends on its
disposition in relation to the direction of lateral load. The lateral loads acting on the face of a building are
transmitted through floors (which act as horizontal beams) to cross walls which act as shear walls. From
cross walls, loads are transmitted to the foundation. This action is illustrated in Fig. 12.10. Stress pattern
in cross walls due to lateral loads is illustrated in Fig. 12.6. Wind load on the facade wall is transferred via
floor slabs to the cross walls and thence to the ground. The strength and stiffness of floors as horizontal
girders is vital; hence floors/roofs of lightweight construction should be used with care.
As a result of lateral load, in the cross walls there will be an increase of compressive stress on the leeward
side, and decrease of compressive stress on the wind-ward side. These walls should be designed for ‘no
tension’ and permissible compressive stress. It will be of interest to note that a wall which is carrying
greater vertical loads will be in a better position to resist lateral loads than the one which is lightly loaded
in the vertical direction. This point should be kept in view while planning the structure so as to achieve
economy in structural design.
A structure should have adequate stability in the direction of both the principal axes. The so-called ‘cross
wall’ construction may not have much lateral resistance in the longitudinal direction. In multi-storeyed
buildings, it is desirable to adopt ‘cellular’ or ‘box type’ construction from consideration of stability and
economy.
Size, shape and location of openings in the external walls have considerable influence on stability and
magnitude of stresses due to lateral loads.
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
219
Fig 12.10:Lateral force (eg. wind force) is resisted by the facade panel owing to bending, and transferred via floor
slabs to the cross or shear wall and finally to the ground.
If openings in longitudinal walls are so located that portions of these walls act as flanges to cross walls, the
strength of the cross walls get considerably increased and structure becomes much more stable.
Ordinarily a load-bearing masonry structure is designed for permissible compressive and shear stresses
(with no tension) as a vertical cantilever by accepted principles of engineering mechanics. No moment
transfer is allowed for, at floor to wall connections and lateral forces are assumed to be resisted by
diaphragm action of floor/roof slabs, which acting as horizontal beams, transmit lateral forces to cross
walls in proportion to their relative (moment of inertia).
Design Loads
Loads to be taken into consideration for designing masonry components of a structure are:
a. dead loads of walls, columns, floors and roofs;

b. live loads of floors and roof;
c. wind loads on walls and sloping roofs and
d. seismic forces.
Note - When a building is subjected to other loads, such as vibration from railways and machinery, these
should be taken into consideration according to the best engineering judgment of the designer.
Dead loads
Dead loads shall be calculated on the basis of unit weights taken in accordance with IS:875 – part I
(1987).
Live Loads and Wind Loads

Design loads shall be in accordance with the recommendations of IS: 875- (1987) or such other loads and
forces as may reasonably be expected to be imposed on the structure either during or after construction.
Note - During construction, suitable measures shall be taken to ensure that masonry is not liable to damage
or failure due to action of wind forces, back filling behind walls or temporary construction loads.
Seismic loads

220
Seismic loads shall be determined in accordance with the IS 1893- Part 1:2002.
Load combinations
In the allowable stress design method followed for the structural design of masonry structures as
outlined in this code, adequacy of the structure and member shall be investigated for the following load
combinations:
a) DL + IL
b) DL + IL + (WL or EL)
c) DL + WL
d) 0.9 DL +EL
Note: The four load combinations given are consistent with those in other BIS codes. In case of wind and
earthquake loads, the reversal of forces needs to be considered. The structure is to be designed for the
critical stresses resulting from these load combinations.
Permissible stresses and loads

Permissible stresses and loads may be increased by one-third for load case b, c, & d when wind or earthquake
loads are considered along with normal loads.
As an alternative of using an increased permissible stress value when checking safety of structural
components, one can use a 25% reduced load for load combinations involving wind or earthquake forces
and compare with full permissible stress values. Thus, the modified load combinations b, c and d will be:
a) 0.75 [DL + IL + (WL or EL)]

b) 0.75 [DL + WL]
c) 0.75 [0.9DL +EL]
Vertical load dispersion

Generally, it is accepted, based on experiments, that dispersion of axial loads does not take place at an
angle 45° to vertical as assumed in previous codes. An angle of distribution for axial loads not exceeding
30° is more realistic and is recommended by various other masonry codes.
Arching action
Arching in masonry is a well-known phenomenon by which part of the load over an opening in the wall
gets transferred to the sides of the opening. For good arching action masonry units should have good
shear strength and these should be laid in proper masonry bond using a good quality mortar. Further,
portions of the wall on both sides of the opening should be long enough to serve as effective abutments
for the arched masonry above the opening since horizontal thrust for the arch is to be provided by the
shear resistance of the masonry at the springing level on both sides of the opening. If an opening is too
close to the end of a wall, shear stress in masonry at springing level of imaginary arch may be excessive
and thus no advantage can be taken of arching in masonry for design of lintels.
The effect of arching on design of lintels and stress in masonry can be understood with the fig. 12.7.
Because of arching action, loads of floor and masonry above the equilateral triangle get transferred to the
sides of the wall. Therefore lintel at PQ is designed for load of masonry contained in the triangle PRQ.
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
221
To work out approximate stress in masonry in various
stretches, it is assumed that:
a) load from the lintel gets uniformly distributed over the

supports,
b) masonry and floor loads above the triangle PRQ get
uniformly distributed over the stretches of masonry CD
and EF at the soffit level of the lintel, CD and EF being
limited in length to L/2 and over the stretches GH and JK at
the floor level, limited in length to L or (L-H)/2 whichever
is less, H being the height of top of the opening from the
floor level. In case some other opening occurs between
the lintel and horizontal plane 25 cm above the apex R
of the triangle, arching action gets interrupted because
of inadequate depth of masonry above the triangle to
Fig 12.11: Effect of arching action on design of
lintels
function as an effective arching ring. Also if there is some
other load between the lintel and horizontal plane 25 cm
above the apex R of the triangle, loading on the lintel
gets affected.
In case of buildings of conventional design with openings of moderate size which are reasonably concentric,
some authorities on masonry recommend a simplified approach for design. In simplified approach, stress
in masonry at plinth level is assumed to be uniformly distributed in different stretches of masonry, taking
loadings in each stretch of masonry walls without making any deduction in weight of masonry for the
openings. It is assumed that the extra stresses obtained in masonry by making no deduction for
openings, compensates more or less for concentrations of stresses due to openings. This approach
is of special significance in the design of multi-storeyed load-bearing structure where intervening floor
slabs tend to disperse the upper storey loads more or less uniformly on the inter-opening spaces below
the slabs and thus at plinth level stress in masonry, as worked out by the above approach is expected to
be reasonably accurate.
Lintels
Lintels, that support masonry construction, shall be designed to carry loads for masonry (allowing for
arching and dispersion, where applicable) and loads received from any other part of the structure. Length
of bearing of lintel at each end shall not be less than 9 cm or one-tenth of the span, whichever is more, and
area of the bearing shall be sufficient to ensure that stresses in the masonry (combination of wall stresses,
stresses due to arching action and bearing stresses from the lintel) do not exceed the stresses permitted.
Lintels over openings are designed taking into consideration arching action in masonry where feasible
as explained earlier. It is a common practice to assume that length of walls on both sides of an opening
should be at least half the effective span of the opening for transfer of load to sides by arch action. In case
it is less, lintel should be designed for full load over the opening regardless of the height of the floor slab
as shown in Fig. 12.8.
When location and size of opening is such that arching action can take place, lintel is designed for the load
of masonry included in the equilateral triangle over the lintel as shown in Fig. 12.9. In case floor or roof
slab falls within a part of the triangle in question or the triangle is within the influence of a concentrated
load or some other opening occurs within a part of the triangle, loading on the lintel will get modified as
discussed earlier.
When stretches of wall on sides are equal to or greater than L/2 and equilateral triangle above

222
the lintel is intercepted by the floor / roof slab, the lintel is designed
for load of masonry contained in the equilateral triangle plus load
from the floor falling within the triangle as shown in fig. 12.10.
When stretches of wall on the sides of the opening are equal to

or greater than L/2 with the equilateral triangle over the lintel
intercepted by floor slab and another opening comes within the
horizontal plane 25 cm above the apex of the triangle, lintel is to
be designed for loads shown in fig. 12.11.
When any other load is coming between the lintel and horizontal
plane 25 cm above the apex of the equilateral triangle over the
lintel, the latter is designed for the loads as shown in Fig. 12.12.
Fig. 12.12: Effective load when L1< L/2
It may be clarified that in fact load coming on a lintel is indeterminate
and the above suggestions for the design of lintels are based on empirical rules derived from experience
and general principles of engineering. Economy in the design
of lintels may be effected by taking advantage, of composite
action between lintel and the masonry above it. For this purpose,
shuttering of the lintel should not be removed till both masonry
(up to 250 mm above the apex of equilateral triangle above the
lintel) and RCC of the lintel have gained sufficient strength so as
to be able to bear stresses in the composite beam having masonry
in compressive zone and
RCC lintel in the tensile
zone.
Lateral load
distribution
Fig. 12.13: Effective load when L1 and L2 ≥ Lateral loads from the
L/2 and floor/roof slab does not intercept
the equilateral over the lintel.
wind or earthquakes are
generally considered to
act in the direction of the
principal axes of the building structure. The distribution of lateral
loads to various masonry wall elements depends on the rigidities of
the horizontal floor or roof diaphragm and of the wall elements.
If a diaphragm does not undergo significant in-plane deformation
Fig. 12.14: Effective load when L1 and L2
with respect to the supporting walls, it can be considered rigid ≥ L/2, and equilateral triangle over the
and lateral loads are distributed in various lateral load resisting lintel is intercepted by floor slab above
wall elements in proportion to their relative stiffness. Horizontal with no other opening to intercept arch
torsion developed due to eccentricity of the applied lateral load action
with the plan centre of the rigidity can cause forces in the wall parallel and perpendicular to load direction.
In-plane rigidities are considered in the analysis, which includes both shearing and flexural deformations.
Generally rigidities of transverse walls in direction perpendicular to the direction of lateral force, is usually
disregarded. However, stiffening effect of certain portion of such walls as permitted by the code, when
the stiffening action is significant, i.e. when the method of connection between the intersecting walls and
between walls and diaphragms is adequate for the expected load transfer. On the other hand, flexible
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
223
Fig. 12.13: Effective load when L1 and L2 ≥ L/2 and Fig. 12.14: Effective load when L1 and L2 ≥ L/2 and
equilateral triangle above the lintel is within 25 cm equilateral triangle is within the influence of another
(vertically) of another opening in the upper storey load
diaphragms change shape when subjected to lateral loads and are incapable of transmitting torsional
forces. The distribution of lateral loads to vertical wall elements takes place in proportion to the tributary
area associated with each wall element for vertical loads distribution.
Basic Compressive Strength of Masonry

The basic compressive strength of masonry fm shall be determined by the (a) unit strength method or by
the (b) prism test method. The unit strength method eliminates the expense of prism tests but is more
conservative than the prism test method.
(a) Unit strength method

The basic compressive strength of masonry shall be four times of the basic compressive stress which based
on the strength of the units and the type of mortar. Unit strength method is based on the compressive
strength of masonry units and mortar type, and is developed by using prism test data.
(b) Prism strength method

Basic compressive strength of masonry shall be determined by prism test on masonry made from masonry
units and mortar to be actually used in a particular job. This is a uniform method of testing masonry to
determine its compressive strength and is used as an alternative to the unit strength method.
Permissible stresses
Permissible compressive stress in masonry shall be based on the value of basic compressive stress (fb) which
is based on two approaches, (i) when prism is not tested and (ii) when prism is tested.
Prism not tested/Unit Strength Method:

Values of basic compressive stress given in Table 10.9 which are based on the crushing strength of masonry
unit and grades of mortar, and hold good for values of SR not exceeding 6, zero eccentricity and masonry
unit having height to width ratio (as laid) equal to 0.75 or less.
Prisms tested:
The basic compressive stress can be obtained by multiplying the specified compressive strength obtained
from prism test with a factor of 0.25.

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Permissible Compressive Stress
Permissible compressive stress in masonry shall be based on the value of basic compressive stress (fb)
as given in Table 12.9 and multiplying this value by factor known as stress reduction factor (ks), Area
reduction factor (ka) and shape modification factor (kp). Amongst these, the stress reduction factor plays
a very important role. It can be explained with the help of fig. 12.13 to 12.14. When the prism (or a short
wall) is axially loaded, it can withstand maximum load. As the wall becomes slender, the load carrying
capacity reduces and when the loads are eccentric, the load carrying capacity becomes even lesser. Thus
the slenderness ratio (SR) and the eccentricity of load (or e/t ratio) plays an important role is the estimation
of load capacity of walls. This can be noticed in fig. 12.15 and the same is presented in Table 12.10. In
the present Indian code, the stress reduction factors are unity for SR=6 and all values of e/t, this is not the
case in the other masonry codes (fig. 12.16). Also the stress reduction factors are to be taken for any type
of masonry, but current literature indicates clearly that both, the strength and elasticity of masonry play a
role in the reduction factors. There is a need for further studies in this aspect.
Area reduction factor due to ‘small area’ of a member is based on the concept that there is statistically
greater probability of failure of a small section due to sub-standard units as compared to a large element.
However some codes do not include any provision for smallness of area. In view of the fact that strength
of masonry units being manufactured at present in our country can appreciably vary, the necessity for this
provision is justified in our code. This factor is applicable when sectional area of the element is less than
0.2 m2. The factor ka=0.7 + 1.5 A, A being the area of section in m2.
Shape modification factor is based on the general principle that lesser the number of horizontal joints in
masonry, greater its strength or load carrying capacity. This is presented in table 12.11. Here also there is
a need for further studies.
Combined Permissible Axial and Flexural Compressive Stress

Members subjected to combined axial compression and flexure shall be designed to satisfy the following:
Where,
fa= Calculated compressive stresses due to axial load only
fb= Calculated Compressive stresses due to flexure only
Fa = Allowable axial compressive stress
Fb = Allowable flexural compressive stress = 1.25 Fa
The unity equation assumes a straight line interaction between axial and flexural compressive stresses for
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
225
Fig. 12.15: (a) Short and axially loaded wall (capacity Fig. 12.16: (a) Short and eccentrically loaded wall
100%) (b) Slender and axially loaded wall (capacity < (capacity < 100%) (b) Slender and eccentrically loaded
100%) wall (capacity << 100%)
Fig. 12.17: Stress reduction factors (IS 1905 – 1987) Fig. 12.18: Capacity (Stress) reduction factors
(BS 5628 – 1992)
Table 12.9: Basic Compressive strength (in MPa)

226
Table 12.10: Stress reduction factors (ks)
Table. 12.11: Shape modification factor
unreinforced masonry sections. This is simple portioning of the available allowable stresses between axial
and flexure loads, which can be extended for the biaxial bending, by using the bending stress quotients
for both axes. In this interaction formula, the secondary effect of moment magnification for flexure term
due to axial loads is not included, which is an error on the unsafe side. However, this error for practical
size of walls will be relatively small and large overall safety factor of about 4 is adequate to account for
this amplification of flexure term. The code allows 25% increase in allowable axial compressive stress, if
it is due to flexure. The permissible flexural compressive stress can be expressed as a function of masonry
prism strength as follows:
Fb = 1.25 Fa = 1.25 x 0.25 fm = 0.31 fm
Permissible Tensile Stress

As a general rule, design of masonry shall be based on the assumption that masonry is not capable of
taking any tension. However, in case of lateral loads normal to the plane of the wall, which causes flexural
tensile stress, as for example, panel, .curtain partition and freestanding walls, flexural tensile stresses as
follows may be permitted in the design for masonry:
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
227
Grade M1 or Better mortar
• 0.07 MPa for bending in the vertical direction where tension developed is normal to bed joints.
• 0.14 MPa for bending in the longitudinal direction where tension developed is parallel to bed
joints provided crushing strength of masonry units is not less than 10 MPa.
Grade M2 mortar
• 0.05 MPa for bending in the vertical direction where tension developed is normal to bed joints.
• 0.10 MPa for bending in the longitudinal direction where tension developed is parallel to bed
joints provided crushing strength of masonry units is not less than 7.5 MPa.
Important note:
No tensile stress is permitted in masonry in case of water-retaining structures in view of water in contact
with masonry. Also no tensile stress is permitted in earth-retaining structures in view of the possibility of
presence of water at the back of such walls.
12.4.12 Permissible shear stress

In-plane permissible shear stress (Fv )shall not exceed any of :
(a) 0.5 MPa
(b) 0.1+ 0.2fd
(c) 0.125 (fm)1/2
Where,
fd = compressive stress due to dead loads in MPa.
Unreinforced masonry in shear fails in one of the following mode (a) Diagonal tension cracking of
masonry generally observed when masonry is weak and mortar is strong, (b) Sliding of masonry units
along horizontal bed joint, especially when masonry is lightly loaded in vertical direction and (c) Stepped
cracks running through alternate head and bed joints, usually observed in case of strong units and weak
mortars. Permissible shear stress for unreinforced masonry is based on experimental research for various
failure modes. At low pre-compression (<2 MPa), for sliding type of failure mode, a Mohr-Coulomb type
failure theory is more appropriate and shear capacity is increased due to increase in the vertical load.
The coefficient of friction of 0.2 has been long used in the masonry codes, however, the recent research
indicate that a higher value (about 0.45) is more appropriate. At large pre-compression (> 2 MPa), tensile
cracking of masonry is more likely which are expressed in terms of square root of compressive strength of
masonry.
Wall Thickness (Cross-Section and Dimensions)

Walls and Columns Subjected to Vertical Loads: Walls and columns bearing vertical loads shall be designed
on the basis of permissible compressive stress. Design involves in determining thickness in case of walls
and the section in case of columns in relation to strength of masonry units and grade of mortar to be
used, taking into consideration various factors such as slenderness ratio, eccentricity, area of section,
workmanship, quality of supervision, etc.
Solid Walls
Thickness used for design calculation shall be the actual thickness of masonry computed as the sum of the
average dimensions of the masonry units specified in the relevant standard, together with the specified
joint thickness. In masonry with raked joints, thickness shall be reduced by the, depth of raking of joints

228
for plastering/pointing. Brick work is generally finished by either pointing or plastering and with that in
view, it is necessary to rake the joints while the mortar is green, in case of plaster work raking is intended
to provide key for bonding the plaster with the background. Strictly speaking, thickness of masonry for
purposes of design in these cases is the actual thickness less depth of raking. However in case of design
of masonry based on permissible tensile stress (as for example, design of a free standing wall), if walls
are plastered over (plaster of normal thickness i.e. 12 to 15 mm) with mortar of same grade as used in
the masonry or M2 grade whichever is stronger or if walls are flush pointed with mortar of M1 grade or
stronger, raking thickness can be ignored.
Guidelines for design of Free-standing walls and Retaining walls

Free-standing walls, subjected to wind pressure or seismic forces, shall be designed on the basis of
permissible tensile stress in masonry or stability. The self-weight of a free standing wall reduces tensile
stress in masonry caused by lateral load that is, wind pressure. Thus heavier the masonry units, lesser is the
design thickness of wall for a particular height. It is, therefore, advantageous to build compound walls in
stone masonry in place of brick masonry when stone is readily available and thickness has to be greater
than one brick. Also it should be kept in view that use of light-weight units such as hollow bricks/ blocks
in free-standing walls has obvious structural disadvantage.
As a general rule, a straight compound wall of uniform thickness is not economical except for
low heights or in areas of low wind pressure. Therefore, when height is appreciable or wind
pressure is high, economy in the cost of the wall could be achieved by staggering, zigzagging or
by providing diaphragm walls. It can be shown that for wind pressure of 750 N/m2, maximum
height of a 230 mm thick brick wall using grade M1 mortar can be 1.5 m for a straight wall,
3.2 m for a staggered wall and 4.0 m for a diaphragm wall. Thus it is always better to provide
reinforced masonry for free-standing walls. Fig. 12.xxx gives a typical detail of a reinforced free-
standing wall.
Normally masonry of retaining walls shall be designed on the basis of zero-tension, and permissible
compressive stress. However, in case of retaining walls for supporting horizontal thrust from dry materials,
retaining walls may be designed on the basis of permissible tensile stresses at the discretion of the designers.
Here also it is always better to adopt reinforced masonry.
Concepts for earthquake resistant masonry

The basic principles of design and detailing, as outlined in the codes of practice, of earthquakes resistant
structures are intentionally simple and generally easy to adopt. Essentially the principles are focused on,
(i) Achieving strength and ductile behaviour

(ii) Maintaining structural integrity
This means that the primary requirement is ‘prevention of catastrophic collapse of buildings or their
components’. It is also the intention of the codes of practice to achieve this in relatively simple and cost
effective manner.
The level of resistance aimed for in earthquake resistant design is based on the concept of ‘acceptable risk’,
with the following objectives;
• To resist minor earthquakes without damage

• To resist moderate earthquakes without significant structural damage, but with some non-
structural damage
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
229
Fig 12.21: Typical detail of a reinforced hollow concrete reinforced free-standing wall(compound wall)
(courtesy BMS-SMRC and M/s AXON Concrete Technologies Inc., Bengaluru)
• To resist major (or severe) earthquake without major failure of the structural framework of the
building or its components, to prevent loss of life and to allow safe escape passage for the inmates
of the building.
However, certain important critical structures hospitals, power generating units, communication set-ups
etc., shall be designed to remain operational during and after an earthquake event.
Un-reinforced masonry buildings are very common in rural and semi-urban area of India. A variety of
load bearing masonry units such as adobe, stone, burnt brick, concrete blocks and stabilized mud blocks
are commonly used along with a variety of mortars such as mud mortar, cement mortar, lime mortar
and composite mortar. Normally these buildings are designed for vertical loads and since masonry has
adequate compressive strength, the structure behaves well as long as the loads are vertical.
The behaviour of a masonry building during ground motion can be understood by analysing the nature of
stress distribution in the walls of the masonry building. When dominant ground motion is along one axis
of the building, the walls parallel to the direction of ground motion are known as ‘shear walls’ and those
orthogonal to it are known as ‘cross walls’.
Shear walls are predominantly subjected to in-plane shear stresses and in-plane bending stresses. The in-
plane bending stresses in shear walls are normal-to-bed joints. The in-plane shear stresses are responsible
for the typical X-type of cracking in the shear walls, while the in-plane bending stresses in the shear walls
tend to cause separation of cross walls and shear walls at the junction. Although severe cracking could be
caused, the walls may not readily collapse unless a component of ground motion is normal to it. The stress
concentration near the openings in shear walls adds to the vulnerability.
The failure pattern of such masonry structures during earthquake can be classified (shown in plates 12.1
to 12.7) as under;
a) Out-of-plane flexural and/or out-of-plane shear failure

b) In-plane shear and/or in-plane flexure failure

230
c) Separation of walls at junction
d) Failure of masonry piers between openings
e) Local failures
f) Buckling of wythes
g) Separation of roof from walls
Concept of ‘Containment Reinforcement’

The pattern of failure of masonry buildings during an earthquake makes it clear that the prevention of
sudden flexural failure of masonry wall is critical to ensure an earthquake resistant masonry structure. Since
flexural tension can occur on both the faces of the wall due to reversal of stresses during an earthquake,
there is a need to provide ductile reinforcement on both the faces. This can be accomplished by placing
vertical reinforcement either on the surface or close to the surface and surrounding the wall, which is
termed as “containment reinforcement”. For the containment reinforcement to be effective, it is essential
for it to remain hugged to the wall all times during an earthquake. In order to meet this objective and to
prevent buckling of the reinforcement on the compression side of the wall, the vertical reinforcement on
either face of the wall to be connected to each other, through horizontal ties/links passing through the
bed joint of masonry. Containment reinforcement is intended to permit large ductile deformation and
avoid total collapse. In other words, containment reinforcement will act as main energy absorbing element
of the wall which otherwise is poor energy absorbing capacity. Fig12.22 shows a schematic diagram of
containment reinforcement for a typical masonry wall with ties at bed joints. The complete scheme of
vertical and horizontal reinforcement is shown in Fig 12.23.
Specification for vertical ‘containment reinforcement’

(i) It is recommended that containment reinforcement may be provided for low-rise (up to 3 storey
load bearing) masonry buildings in earthquake zones III, IV, and V. This is in addition to horizontal
Plate 12.5: Out-of-plane flexure failure Plate 12.6: In-plane shear failure
Plate 12.7: Separation of wall at junctions Plate 12.8: Failure of masonry piers
between openings
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
231
Plate 12.9: Local failures Plate 12.10: Buckling of wythes
Plate 12.11: Separation of roof from walls
bands.
(ii) In case of buildings with heavy roofs/floors (mass of the floor more than 200kg/m2), if height
of the wall is 3.0m or less and the length of the wall is less than or equal to 3.0m containment
reinforcement need not be provided if there are no openings in the wall.
(iii) Masonry buildings with light roofs (tiled roof, asbestos or zinc sheet roofs) must have containment
reinforcement on all walls irrespective of the aspect ratio of the wall.
(iv) Walls with height greater than 3.0m must invariably have containment reinforcement.
(v) All door and window jambs must have containment reinforcement on either sides of the opening
at a distance of 150.0mm to 200.0mm from the jamb. Masonry piers between door and window
openings or between two window openings should not be less than 0.75m in width. This is
a modification of clause 8.3.1 in IS: 4326 (1993). Other provision in this clause may not be
changed.
(vi) The wires/rods of containment reinforcement must be tied to the steel in the horizontal band to
form a coarse two-dimensional cage holding the masonry in place.

232
Fig 12.22: Containment reinforcement scheme integrated with horizontal bed reinforcement
Fig 12.23: Schematic diagram of vertical and horizontal reinforcement in a masonry building
(vii) Normally, the horizontal spacing between two sets of containment reinforcement should be
between 0.75m to 1.25m.
(viii) A variety of reinforcing materials can be used as containment reinforcement. The details are
presented in Table 12.12.
Table - 12 : Different materials for ‘containment reinforcement’
Reinforcing material Remarks

Mild steel rods/flats 6mm rods available, very ductile, liable to corrosion if
exposed and hence has to be either coated with non-
corrosive paints or covered with plaster.
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
233
20-25mm wide, 3mm thick MS flats could
also be used, holes could be made at regular
intervals to insert links/bolts to tie the flats
provided on both faces of the wall.
Galvanized Iron (GI) wires/flats Any diameter wire available, easy for handling, good
ductility, liable to corrosion and hence has to be
protected.
20-25mm wide, 3mm thick GI flats could be
used as mentioned above.
Stainless steel Ideal material for containment reinforcement, 3mm
to 4mm wires at 1.0m spacing, no need of coating,
plastering etc.
Timber battens Good quality battens (teak wood, sal wood etc.) of size
50mm x 25mm at 1.0m spacing, the pair of batten on
either face of the wall to be tied together at two points at
the base and two points at the top by boring a hole and
inserting a bolt; needs regular maintenance to prevent
rotting; care to be taken to prevent it from catching fire.
Bamboo/split bamboo Pairs of bamboo or split (half) bamboos at about 1.0m to
1.5m interval; the poles to be tied at two points at the
base and two points at top by using GI wires; less life;
can catch fire, hence has to be protected
Ferro-cement strips Thin ferro-cement strips (about 150.0mm wide) with
sufficient amount of reinforcing material such as chicken
mesh, expanded metal, weld mesh etc. at 1.2m spacing;
the strips have to be bonded to the masonry wall by
using grouted hooks.
Aluminum Wires, rods and flats readily available, durable and have
good resistance to corrosion, strength and modulus is
less and hence large quantity is needed.
12.8 Check list for masonry construction:

1. Applicable code specified?
2. Applied loads shown including wind, seismic and live loads?
3. Is the masonry strength f’m specified?
4. Is the method to verify the f’m specified? (Unit strength method/Prism strength method).
5. Is type of mortar specified?
6. Is grouting specified?
7. Is special inspection required? Are prism tests required?
8. Have full allowable stresses been used in the design?
9. Is h/t less checked? If not, verify calculations.
10. Is the wall laterally supported with straps or other methods capable of resisting the specified
limiting values?

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11. Does the reinforcement scheme fit in the hollow cores of the cell?
12. Are locations of laps shown ( min. dia. )? Are they in locations where stresses are less than
13. 80% of the allowable?
14. Are dowel laps sufficient (Min. dia.)?
15. Is there continuous horizontal reinforcement at the window, and door head?
16. Is there continuous horizontal reinforcement at the floor levels?
17. Are window and door connections designed and shown on the drawings?
18. Are there expansion joints/control joints, at the corners of large buildings?
19. Are there provisions made in connections to accommodate thermal movement? (Steel roof rigidly
attached at a masonry corner)?
20. Is the masonry confined between other materials without expansion joints?
21. Is a color, pattern and workmanship panel required? Does it need an architectural drawing?
22. Is a demonstration wall required?
23. Are materials specified in accordance with the correct standards? Brick? Is the Hollow clay brick/
block of sufficient strength? Cement? Lime? Sand? Grout? Mortar? Is the mortar specified by
proportions? Reinforcement?
24. Are there requirements for handling and storage of masonry materials?
25. Is there a requirement for a pre-construction meeting?
26. Are control joint size and materials specified?
27. Are waterproofing tests required?
28. Does the specification require wetting of the brick?
29. Are the joint finished specified? If raked joints are used is this in the analysis?
30. Are weep holes and fill materials specified?
31. Is the sealing procedures and materials specified?
32. Are requirements for protecting the work included?
33. Is it required to verify dimensions prior to laying the masonry?
34. Is a written quality control procedure required?
List of References
1. IS: 1905- 1987, “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonry”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India, 3rd Edition, 1987.
2. SP 20 (S & T), 1991 “Hand book on Masonry Design and Construction” (First revision), , Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi 110002
3. IS-4326-1993 “Indian Standard Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings – Code
of Practice”, Bureau of Indian Standards, (Reaffirmed 1998), Edition 3.2 (2002-2004), New Delhi
110002
4. Dayaratnam P, “Brick and Reinforced Brick Structures”, Oxford IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, India, 1987.
MASONRY CONSTUCTION
235
5. Venkataramareddy B V, Jagadish K S and Yogananda M R, “Specification for the use of Stabilized
Mud Blocks for building construction (draft code of practice)”, Proceedings of National Seminar
on Application of SMB in Housing and Building, Bangalore, Nov.1988, Vol.2, pp 19-22
6. Venkataramareddy B V and Jagadish K S, “Properties of soil-cement block masonry”, Masonry
International, Vol.3, No.2, 1989, pp 80-84.
7. Durgesh C Rai, “Proposed Draft Provisions and Commentary on Structural Use of Masonry”, Indian
Institute of Kanpur, Document No. IITK-GSDMA-EQ12-V-3.0, IITK-GSDMA-EQ19-V1.0, Kanpur.
8. Jagadish K S, Venkataramareddy B V and NanjundaRao K S, “Alternative Building Materials and
Technologies”, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers, Bangalore, 2007.
9. Hendry A W, “Structural Masonry”, Macmillan Press, Second Edition, London, 1998.
10. ENV: 1996-1-1-1995, “Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures, Part1-1: General rules and rules
for buildings – Rules for reinforced and unreinforced masonry”, Published by European Committee
for Standardization, BSI 1996.
11. Hendry A W, Sinha B P and Davies S R, (2004), Design of Masonry Structures, Third Edition of Load
Bearing Brick Work Design, E and FN Spon publishers (an imprint of Chapman & Hall), London
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge Prof. K S Jagadish, Professor, PG studies, RV College of Engineering,
Bangalore (formerly Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 12),
for sharing his vast knowledge of Structural Masonry and being a mentor for the first author.
Many parts of this chapter, especially the section on Stabilized Mud Blocks, are drawn from the lecture
notes of Prof. K S Jagadish and Prof. B V Venkatarama Reddy, (Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 12). The authors gratefully acknowledge them. Vital inputs were
given by Dr. K S NanjundaRao (Principal Research Scientist, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore 12) during his lectures on Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry, this
is gratefully acknowledged.

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Chapter
13
Stone Masonry and
Composite Masonry
13. Stone Masonry and Composite Masonry
Load-bearing walls are one of the earliest forms of
construction.
The development of the flying buttress in Gothic architecture allowed structures to maintain an open
interior space, transferring more weight to the buttresses instead of to central bearing walls. The birth of
the skyscraper era, the concurrent rise of steel as a more suitable framing system and the limitations of
load-bearing construction in large buildings led to a decline in the use of load-bearing walls in large-scale,
commercial structures.
LOAD BEARING WALL- STONE MASONRY

Stone is an age old material used since centuries for
structures, bridges, dams, monuments, pathways, and
many other civil engineering structures.
Types of stone consist of Igneous, Metamorphic and

Sedimentary stones.
IGNEOUS STONE – GRANITE

Granite is one of the hardest stones, and requires
different technique to cut from quarry when compared with sedimentary stones. Generally, it is used
for purposes that require its strength and durability, such as load bearing walls, cladding, kerbstones,
countertops, flooring, and other works.
Igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as pumice

and scoria to some what harder rocks which is tuff and hard
such as granite and basalt.
METAMORPHIC STONE – MARBLES AND

SLATE
Marble is a fine stone easily workable, that comes in
various colours, mainly white. It has traditionally been used
for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and
Renaissance buildings. The first and most admirable marble carvers and sculptors were the Greeks, namely
Antenor (6th c. BC), Phidias and Critias (5th c. BC), Praxiteles (4th c. BC) and others who used mainly the
marble of Paros and Thassos islands, the whitest and brightest of all, although not the finest, and also
the Pendelikon marble. Their work was preceded by older sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, but
the Greeks were unmatched in plasticity and realistic (re)presentation, either of Gods (Apollo, Aphrodite,
Hermes, Zeus, etc.), or humans (Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Phryne, etc.). The famous Acropolis of Athens
is said to be constructed using the Pendelikon marble.
Slate is a popular choice of other stone for memorials and inscriptions, as its fine grain and hardness means
it leaves details very sharp. Meanwhile, its tendency to split into thin plates has made it a popular roofing

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material
SEDIMENTARY STONE –
SAND AND LIMESTONE
Many of the world’s most famous buildings have been built
of sedimentary stone, from Durham Cathedral to St Peter’s i n
Rome. There are two main types of sedimentary stone used
in masonry work, lime stones and sandstones.
These are principal stones used in stone masonry. Stone masonry buildings that are really identifiable
Vidhana soudha at bangalore Taj mahal at Agra
are Vidhana Soudha and Vikas Souda at Bangalore,HDFC House, General post office building, Bangalore
Telecom building at Bangalore, K.R.S dam at Mysore, Taj Mahal at Agra, and many more.
STONE MASONRY AND COMPOSITE MASONRY

239
Vikasa soudha at Bangalore Krishna raja sagar dam
The following are different types of stone masonry:
RUBBLE MASONRY –
Rough dressed stones are used for masonry construction.
The rubble masonry in which either undressed or hammer dressed stones are used is called random rubble
masonry. This is rough, uneven building stone set in mortar, but not laid in regular courses. It may appear
as the outer surface of a wall or may fill the core of a wall which is faced with unit masonry such as brick
or cut stone.
Rubble masonry, also called rubblework, is the use of undressed, rough stone, generally in the construction
of walls. Dry-stone random rubble walls, for which rough stones are piled up without mortar, are the most
basic form. An intermediate method is coursed rubble walling, for which stones are roughly dressed and
laid in courses. Snecked rubble features stones of varying sizes with small fillers or snecks between them.
The primary reason for the use of rubble in masonry is the relative difficulty of dressing most types of
stone. Rubblework was preferred where the surface either would be faced with ashlar (dressed stone), or
otherwise hidden, as in a foundation, or expose to the rough effect.
Rubblework bound with mortar was often used as an infilling between dressed wall faces. Used in this
way it does not contribute significantly to the wall’s strength and may even detract from it if the mortar

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is poorly prepared, leached out by moisture, or otherwise
unsuitable. Rubblework in walls was superseded even
in ancient times by brick when available and in modern
construction by reinforced concrete.
COURSED RUBBLE MASONRY

The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid in
layers of equal height is coursed random rubble masonry.
In this masonry, the stones are laid in somewhat level
courses. Headers of one course height are placed at certain
intervals. The stones are hammer dressed. This type of
masonry is used for construction of residential buildings, go downs, boundary walls etc.
UNCOURSED RUBBLE MASONRY

The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid
without forming courses is known as un coursed random
rubble masonry. This is the roughest and cheapest type of
masonry and is of varying appearance. The stones used
in this masonry are of different sizes and shapes, before
laying, all projecting corners of stones are slightly knocked
off. Vertical joints are not
plumbed, joints are filled and flushed. Large stones are used at corners and at jambs to increase their
strength. One “through stone” is used for every square meter of the face area for joining faces and backing.
This type of masonry is used for construction of walls of low height in case of ordinary buildings.
RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY-CRAZY

Random rubble masonry/Crazy pattern is the one in which un
tooled stones are set without coursing.
DRY RUBBLE MASONRY:

The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any mortar is called dry
rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as “dry stones”.
It is an ordinary masonry and is recommended for constructing walls of height not

more than 6m. In case the height is more, three adjacent courses are laid in squared
rubble masonry mortar at 3m intervals

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ASHLAR MASONRY – DRESSED STONES USED FOR MASONRY
The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is known as ashlar
masonry. In this masonry, all the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are regular, thin and have
uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it requires dressing of stones.
This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high piers and abutments of bridges.
Ashlar masonry is further sub divided into the following types:
i. Ashlar fine or coarse ashlar masonry
ii. Random coarse ashlar masonry
iii. Rough tooled ashlar masonry
iv. Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry
v. Chamfered ashlar masonry
vi. Block in coarse masonry
vii. Ashlar facing
1. Ashlar fine or coarsed ashlar masonry: In this type of stone masonry

stone blocks of same height in each course are used. Every stone is fine
tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is uniform throughout. It is an
expensive type of stone masonry as it requires heavy labour and wastage
of material while dressing. Satisfactory bond can be obtained in this type
of stone masonry.
2. Random coursed ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar

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masonry consists of fine or coursed ashlar but the courses are of
varying thicknesses, depending upon the character of the building.
3. Rough tooled ashlar masonry: In this type of ashlar masonry,

the sides of the stones are rough tooled and dressed with chisels.
Thickness of joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.
4. Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooled type
except that there is chisel-drafted margin left rough on the face which is
known as quarry faced.
5.Chamfered ashlar masonry: It is similar to quarry faced except that

the edges are bevelled or chamfered to
45 for depth of 2.5 cm or more.
6. Block-in course masonry: It is the name given to a class of ashlar

masonry which occupies an intermediate place between rubble and
ashlar. The stones are all squared and properly dressed. It resembles to
coursed rubble masonry or rough tooled ashlar masonry.
7. Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlar masonry. Since this is
type of masonry is very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the whole
thickness of the wall, except in works of great importance and strength. For
economy the facing are built in ashlar and the rest in rubble.
Stone cladding :
Stones which are thin and are cladded on to either brick or block masonry using cement mortar is termed
as wet cladding whereas thin stones with necessary MS/ SS clamps and bolts fixed to masonry/ frame work
is termed as dry cladding.

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Stone masonry with mortar of proper proportions are used for
• Load bearing walls

• Retaining walls
• Foundations (Below Plinth)
• Compound walls
• Piers
• Dams
• Monumental Structures
• Historic buildings
• Cornices, Plinths, Coping, Sill , Blocking course
• Buttress, Columns, Piers, Pilasters
Some of the important points of stone masonry are:

• Stone masonry with 1:4/1:6 cement mortar proportions is generally adopted for foundation,
superstructures, and free standing walls. The stone masonry thickness is a minimum of 45Omm
and varies in increment of 150mm.
• Bonding stones, stone chips packing are an important step in stone masonry construction. Although
stones have a high compressive strength, the stone masonry strength is determined from the
strength of mortar that is used for construction and varies from of 45 T/ m² to 170 T/m².
• Stone masonry is finished on the exterior face at joints with sunk pointing, flat pointing or
protruded pointing.
LOAD BEARING WALLS- COMPOSITE MASONRY

Composite Masonry:
Composite masonry is a type of structure built to take up as load bearing walls or as filler walls with two
or more different types of material with or without a void in-between.
Composite masonry is provided to facilitate, to provide an aesthetic finished product on the external
surface, to have a well-insulated external wall and thereby reduce the energy consumption, to have an
improved load carrying capacity of the wall or to reduce the cost of construction.

244
The various types of Composite masonry that are in use are:
01. Stone composite masonry.

02. Brick composite masonry.
03. Stone and concrete composite masonry.
04. Concrete block –concrete masonry.
05. Brick/concrete block -concrete composite masonry.
01. Stone composite Masonry.

Stone composite masonry is built with random rubble
masonry internally and with ashlars’ masonry on the
external surface to provide an aesthetic external surface.
The wall is built together with proper bond stones to
integrate the two Wythe’s. These are generally used for
external walls and can also be a load bearing wall.
02. Brick- stone masonry composite masonry:

Brick stone composite masonry is a composite masonry wall with
ashlar masonry on the external face and brick masonry on the
internal surface. The integration of the two Wythes is done by
providing bonding stones. The internal surface is plastered to give
a smooth painted finish. The brick stone masonry is built either
together or with a gap which facilitates the temperature control
over the internal area. External surfaces can also be of stone slabs,
long thin stone sections, dry stone settings of irregular shape and
sizes, which gives the surface a different finish.
03. Stone –Concrete composite masonry.

Stone slabs, architraves, cornices, arches, pilasters, capitols and
sills are provided along with concrete elements such as walls,
columns, beams, slabs and parapets to provide composite
masonry particularly in framed structures with proper grouting
and metal fixing to the concrete. Polished or saw cut granites
are also fixed on to the surface by metal framework known as
dry fixing. Dry fixing prevents the stones from falling due to
temperature movements of different materials.

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04. Concrete block –concrete composite masonry.
Hollow concrete blocks are used along with

cement grouts to increase the load carrying
capacity of the composite masonry in both
vertical and horizontal directions. Steel
reinforcing bars are provided in the voids of
the hollow concrete blocks and with cement
grout the capacity of the composite masonry is
increased and can take loadings of 7 to 8 storied
buildings, with higher strength of blocks.
05. Brick/Concrete block- concrete composite

masonry.
Brick /concrete block walls integrated and built with concrete edge
and end vertical elements having tongue and groove joints along
with horizontal RCC bands will act as composite masonry in resisting
the earth quake forces effectively .This is adopted for residences in
earthquake prone areas.
List of Indian standard codes related to masonry works

1. Stone:
Standard No Year Title
IS 1121 : Part 1 1974 Methods of test for determination of strength properties of
natural building stones: Part I Compressive strength
IS 1121 : Part 4 1974 Methods of test for determination of strength properties of
natural building stones: Part IV Shear strength
IS 1122 1974 Method of test for determination of true specific gravity of
natural building stones
IS 1123 1975 Method of identification of natural building stones
IS 1124 1974 Method of test for determination of water absorption,
apparent specific gravity and porosity of natural building
stones
IS 1125 1974 Method of test for determination of weathering of natural
building stones
IS 1126 1974 Method of test for determination of durability of natural
building stones
IS 1127 1970 Recommendations for dimensions and workmanship of
natural building stones for masonry work
IS 1128 1974 Limestone (Slab and Tiles)
IS 1129 1972 Recommendation of dressing of natural building stones

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IS 1130 1969 marble (blocks, slabs and tiles)
IS 14223: Part 1 1995 polished building stones: Part 1 Granite
IS 1706 1972 Method for determination of resistance to wear by abrasion
of natural building stones
IS 1805 1973 Glossary of terms relating to stones, quarrying and dressing
IS 3316 1974 structural granite
IS 3620 1979 laterite stone block for masonry
IS 3622 1977 sandstone (slabs and tiles)
IS 4121 1967 Method of test for determination of water transmission rate
by capillary action through natural building stones
IS 4122 1967 Method of test for surface softening of natural building
stones by exposure to acidic atmospheres
IS 4348 1973 Methods of test for determination of permeability of natural
building stones
IS 5218 1969 Method of Test for Toughness of Natural Building Stones
IS 5640 1970 Method of test for determining aggregate impact value of
soft coarse aggregates
IS 6241 1971 Method of Test for Determination of Stripping Value of Road
Aggregates
IS 6250 1981 Roofing Slate Tiles
IS 6579 1981 Coarse Aggregate for Water Bound Macadam
IS 7779 : Part 1 1975 Schedule for properties and availability of stones for
: Sec 1 construction purposes: Part I Gujarat state Section 1 Availability
of stones
: Sec 2 construction purposes: Part I Gujarat state: Section 2
Engineering properties of building stones
: Sec 3 construction purposes: Part I Gujarat state: Section 3
Engineering properties of stone aggregates
: Sec 1 construction purposes: Part II Maharashtra state Section 1
Availability of stones
IS 7779 : Part 2 1979 Schedule of properties and availability of stones for
: Sec 2 construction purposes: Part II Maharashtra state Section 2
Engineering properties of building stones
IS 8348 1977 Code of practice for stacking and packing of stone slabs for
transportation
IS 8381 1977 Recommended practice for quarrying stones for construction
purposes

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IS 8759 1977 Code of practice for maintenance and preservation of stones
in building
IS 9394 1979 stone lintels
IS 1121 : Part 2 1974 Methods of Test for Determination of Strength Properties of
Natural Building Stones - Part II : Transverse Strength
IS 1121 : Part 3 1974 Methods of Test for Determination of Strength Properties of
Natural Building Stones - Part III : Tensile Strength
IS 7779 : Part 2 1979 Schedule for Properties and Availability of Stones for
: Sec 3 Construction Purposes - Part II : Maharashtra State - Section 3
: Engineering Properties of Stone Aggregates
: Sec 2 Construction Purposes - Part III : Tamil Nadu State - Section 2
: Engineering Properties of Building Stones
: Sec 3 Construction Purposes - Part III : Tamil Nadu State - Section 3
: Engineering Properties of Stone Aggregates
IS 7779 : Part 4 : 1996 Schedule of properties and availability of stones for
Sec 1 to 3 construction purposes Part IV Karnataka states Sections (1 to
3)
IS 7779 : Part 5 : 1997 Schedule for Properties and Availability of Stones for
Sec 1 to 3 Construction Purposes - Part 5 : Andhra Pradesh State -
Sections 1 to 3
IS 3935 1966 Code of practice for composite construction
Acknowledgement:
• Bureau of Indian standards
• wiki pedia

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Chapter
14
Super Structural Systems
14. Super Structural Systems
Structural Concept:
Structural concept is the system of providing suitable horizontal and vertical elements to resist both vertical
and horizontal loads and transfer safely to the soil strata through foundations for any building, taking
into account the architects vision and the service requirements. The architects’ creative instincts are to be
matched by the structural concept and are to blend with them. In order to do so the structural concept
has to have various options which are not only creative but also constructible, safe and cost-effective.
This chapter only covers the various options of Structural Concepts. The detailed analysis and design are
beyond the scope of this chapter.
In any structure there are horizontal elements such as slabs, beams, lintels and stairs which shall span
across a given space and are supported over walls and columns, which are the vertical elements. As most
of the construction is executed with reinforced cement concrete (RCC), the structural concept of these
elements will be in RCC apart from giving an insight into other materials.
The following criteria are to be considered for the structure to be conceptualised, finalised and adopted.
Design criteria:
The design basis criteria for providing a suitable structural system are as follows:
Design Loadings:
• Dead Load
• Imposed Load
• Wind load
• Earthquake load
• Snow load
• Water and earth pressure
• Landscape
• Water Bodies
• Impact load
• Fire Tender Load
• Temperature
Dead Load:
Dead load consists of self-weight of the slabs, beams, walls, finishes, landscape, false ceiling, ducts water
proofing and any other weights which are of permanent nature.
Imposed load:
Imposed loads are loads determined based on the occupancy of the structure for which the building is
designed. These loads considered for designs are based on usage of the building and varies for
• Residential
• Commercial
• Office
• Hospital

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• Hotel
• Industrial structure
• Garage
• Go downs
• Car parking garage
• Special structures
Areas on which the equipment’s are located such as generators, electrical panels, server rooms, UPS
batteries, air-conditioned equipment’s, safety vaults and others are to be designed for the actual loads
and also for any vibrations.
Wind Load:
Wind loads generally effect tall RCC buildings where length /breadth of building to height ratio are more.
Wind forces sway the building and cause uneasy feeling for the occupants if it is beyond acceptable
limits.
Wind loads on Industrial structure play an important role and are to be considered for designs and checked
for the stability of the structure.
Chimneys, light posts, hoardings are some structures which require the study of wind effects on their
stability.
Earthquake Load:
India is divided in to 4 zones and is designated as zone 2 to zone 5 depending on their geographic location
and the past history of earthquakes in the country.
The forces that are obtained due to the EQ forces are considered along with the Importance factor and
the response reduction factors that are dependent on the importance of the building and the structural
system. The building irregularity and the variation in stiffness of the structure with the height of the
building are to be considered for the analysis of the structure.
Snow load:
A Snow load, in areas affected by snow fall has to be considered as dead load on roof, chajja projection
and canopies.
Water and Earth Pressure:

Water and earth pressure has to be considered for design of retaining wall, basement wall, water tank,
Treatment plant and other underground structures.
Impact Load:
Impact loads due to crane, helipad and vehicular movement shall be considered for design.
Fire Tender Load:

The load due to the movement of the fire tender on structural podium / plaza shall be considered analysis
and design.
Temperature:
The structural system shall be analysed and designed for temperature variations.
SUPER STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

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Serviceability Criteria:
The structure shall satisfy the serviceability limits for deflection, sway, vibration and crack width.
Other Criteria:
Apart from the above criteria the following has an impact on the design of the structure, serviceability and
durability.
• Fire Resistance
• Corrosion
• Sulphide and Chloride attacks
• Tsunami Effects
• Blast resistance
• Expansion Joint
Load Combinations:
The load combinations that the structure is subjected to will be as recommended by the BIS codes while
performing the analysis. The load combination for dead load, live load, wind load and earthquake load are
to be analysed and the stresses are to be limited to increased permissible stresses. Following are the list of
load combinations to be considered for the analysis.
• Dead Load + Imposed Load.

• Dead Load + Wind load.
• Dead Load + Earthquake Load.
• Dead Load +Temperature Load.
• Dead Load + Imposed Load + Wind Load.
• Dead Load + Imposed Load + Earth quake Load.
• Dead Load + Imposed Load +Temperature Load.
• Dead Load + Wind Load + Temperature Load.
• Dead Load + Earth quake Load + Temperature Load.
• Dead Load +Imposed Load +Wind Load + Temperature Load.
• Dead Load + Imposed Load +Earth quake Load + temperature Load.
Snow Load, Crane Load, Hydrostatic Load, Earth Pressure Load, Blast Load and Impact Load and its
combinations are to be considered as per IS:875-1987.
Load Factors:
In the limit state design of structures suitable Load factors are to be considered as a multiple for the various
types of loads as recommended in BIS code. These Load Factors are the provisions made in the eventuality
of the assumed loads exceeding in the life cycle of a structure for the safe performance of the structure.
Load factors used while considering the load combination are as follows:
• 1.5 (Dead Load + Imposed Load)

• 1.2 (Dead Load + Imposed Load ±Earth Quake Load)
• 1.5 (Dead Load ± Earth Quake load)
• 0.9 Dead Load ± 1.5 Earth Quake Load

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• 1.5 (Dead load + Imposed Load + Wind Load)
• 1.2 (Dead Load + Imposed Load + Wind Load)
• 0.9 Dead Load + 1.5 Wind Load
• 1.5 (Dead Load + Wind load)
• 1.2 (Dead load+ Imposed Load)
• 1.2 (Dead load+ Imposed Load+ Temperature load)
• 1.2 (Dead load+ Imposed Load+ Temperature load± Wind Load X)
Other suitable load factors and its combination of loads which will be determined by the importance and
usage of the structure shall be considered for analysis.
Materials:
The materials that are used for the construction and its strength, forms the core of design data for the
analysis and design of the structure.
The reinforced concrete structure depends mainly on the strength of concrete and the reinforcing steel
that is used for the construction. Concrete being heterogeneous and being a product of cement, sand,
aggregate and water in suitable proportion is an important constituent for the design.
The following are the materials that are generally considered for the building construction:
• Cement
• Sand
• Water
• Aggregate
• Admixtures
• Reinforcing bars
• Pre-stressing Tendons
With a design mix for the concrete suitable concrete strength can be adopted for the project. Concrete
strength can be of different grades depending on its effective usage at different levels of the structure.
A concrete grade starting from M20 to M70 is used in the building Industry where 20/70 is the concrete
strength at 28 days in N/mm2.
Reinforcing bars are generally ribbed steel having yield strength of 415N/mm2 or 500N/mm2. Mild steel is
rarely used now days in the construction.
Concrete admixtures are used along with the other concrete constituents to improve the workability,
strength, delay in setting times, avoid vibration, and improve final setting time and durability.
Construction Technology:
Construction Technology is another aspect which influences the design of any structure. In normal practice
a cast in situ construction with steel or plywood shuttering is adopted for most of the construction.
However with the advent of aluminium forms the typical construction has changed to a wall- slab cast in
situ construction for mega projects. This system ensures verticality, minimal dimensional deviations, vertical
and horizontal alignment, right angles, apart from fast track construction.

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Partial precast system of construction eliminates the time consuming shuttering work, assures quality,
continuity and fast construction.
Total precast construction is still not been widely used as the technology is expensive and requires a high
repetitive volume. Joints in precast are also a point of concern as joint fillers has a shelf life. It has to be
attended after a certain number of years and is expensive.
Pre-stressing technology either pre-stressed or post tensioned concrete elements are widely used in projects
for large span structure , heavily loaded concrete elements and in restricted sizes of concrete elements .
Slip forming, where in the vertical shafts of the structure are cast continuously till the top in one go and
the adjoining structure follows and is connected to the shaft walls.
The above are some of the construction technologies that require the design to be approached differently,
satisfying all the codal requirements and the construction sequences.
Designs:
Design is the process of sizing the members and providing adequate reinforcement for the worst
combinations of critical forces that the member is subjected to. Design of the member is limited to the
strength of concrete and the reinforcing steel that is considered for the element and the forces it is
subjected to in bending, shear, torsion, tension, compression and the combination of these forces.
The various horizontal structural elements that are generally in practice are as follows:
• One way slab

• Two way slab
• Hurdi slab
• Ribbed slab
• Partial precast slab
• Precast slab and beam
• Precast single ‘ T ‘ slab
• Precast double ‘ TT ‘ slab
• Flat plate
• Flat slab
• Waffle slab
• Voided slab
• Post tensioned flat plate
• Post tensioned flat slab
• Hollow core slab
• Precast pre-stressed single ‘ T ‘ slab
• Precast pre-stressed double ‘ TT ‘ slab
• Composite deck slab system with structural steel, metal deck, concrete
• Composite slab system with structural steel, partial precast slab, concrete

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• Dome
• Folded plate
• Vault
• Shell structure
• Metal roofing
• Metal roofing with space frame structure
• Tensile structure
• Wall slab system
• Lateral load resisting system
1. ONE WAY SLAB SYSTEM

The dead and live loads acting on the slab area may be considered to be entirely supported in the shorter
or transverse direction hence, the term one-way. A one way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement
only in its short-direction. Because, the moment along long axes is so small that it can be neglected. When
the ratio of the length of long direction to short direction of a slab is greater than 2 it can be considered
as a one way slab.
Features:
1. These are horizontal elements of a structure spanned across in one direction.
2. Applicable for spans varying from short spans to very large spans and where l/b ratio is >2, where
l and b are length and breadth of a slab panel respectively.
3. One way slab can be simply supported, continuous, one end fixed or cantilevered at ends.
4. Reinforcement is provided as per design moments - refer sketch
5. Deflection checks for immediate and long term effects need to be done if L/R Ratio is exceeding
the limits given in code.
6. Part of the immediate deflection can be absorbed by providing a camber.
7. Serviceability criteria has to be satisfied
8. Long spans become uneconomical if designed as a one way slab system.
SKETCH 1 SKETCH 2

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ONE WAY SLAB BEHAVIOUR
SKETCH 3
2. TWO WAY SLAB SYSTEM

A rectangular reinforced concrete slab having a span on the long side that is less than twice the span on
the short side.
Features:
1. These are horizontal elements of a structure spanned across in orthogonal direction
2. These are applicable for spans varying from short spans to very large spans.
3. Two way slabs spans across orthogonally and are supported by beams spanning across vertical
elements.
4. Two way slab boundary conditions can be simply supported, continuous, partially fixed, fixed or
cantilevered at ends.
5. Slab analysis based on end
conditions is done using the
coefficients derived from finite
element analysis
6. Design moments so obtained
are used for providing
reinforcements.
7. Deflection checks for immediate
and long term effects needs to
be done
8. Part of the immediate deflection
can be absorbed by providing
Sketch 1
camber
9. Serviceability criteria to be satisfied
10. Large spans are ideal for two way slab designs.

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3. HURDI SLAB SYSTEM:
The hurdi blocks are used to create floors and roofs. These blocks rest either on reinforced concrete T
beams, or on Ferro-cement channels on cast in bitu libs.
Features:
1. These are horizontal elements of a structure spanned across in one direction.
2. These are slabs with concrete roof block fillers. Filler blocks of normal sizes, usually of 300 / 400
mm length are placed on plain shuttering at intervals of 500 / 600 mm spacing in one direction
and one adjacent to another in orthogonal direction.
3. The ribs of 150 mm wide and depth ranging from 250 / 300 mm shall span across 5m to 6 m with
reinforcement.
4. The concrete is poured into the top slab / rib together to form slab system known as hardi slab
5. Applicable for spans varying from short spans to long spans.
6. The system can be of uniform depth including beam depth.
7. The system can accommodate sunken portions and cantilever projections.
8. Deflection checks are not essential as the span to depth ratios is higher.
9. Economy in usage of materials and can extend easily up to 6m spans.
10. Block masonry walls can be located anywhere on the slab without providing additional beams
below.

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4. RIBBED SLAB:
Ribbed slab is a reinforced concrete system consisting of slab and equidistant ribs, spacing limited to 12
times the slab thickness.
Features:
1. Ribbed slabs is a system of ribs provided at a close spacing determined by the slab thickness.
2. Rib centres are not spaced apart than 12 times the thickness of slab.
3. Spans in one direction
4. Larger spans can be provided.
5. Standard moulds made of FRP can minimise the shuttering time.
6. Drop head system, a system with the props in place and de-shutter the formwork, is ideal for fast
track construction.
7. The supporting system can be simply supported, continuous, partly fixed, fixed or cantilever as the
case may be.
8. Deflection criteria is normally accounted
9. Generally to be adopted as a system for the entire structure for repetition of usage of formwork
5. PARTIAL PRECAST SLAB:

A partial precast slab is a part of the concrete slab which is cast away from the actual site and transported
to site at the time of construction.

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Features:
1. Partial precast slabs are a component of a structural system.
2. Partial precast slabs are one way slabs with main and secondary reinforcement already provided in
precast planks.
3. Precast planks are normally 50mm/60mm thick and has either one or two lattice truss made up of
reinforcement, which are fusion welded.
4. Lattice truss acts as lifting device during erection and also acts as shear reinforcement for lateral
shear.
5. The topping structural concrete is as per requirement and is provided at the time of casting to form
a total system.
6. The precast planks avoid shuttering and total staging except a central support with a runner.
7. Analysis and design can be as simply supported, continuous, cantilevered.
8. Reinforcement provided at top in concrete topping provides continuity.
9. Planks are normally of a standard width 1.2m or of equal width in a room .

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6. PRECAST SLAB:
A Precast slab is one that is cast into the required form before being transported to site at the time of
installation.
Features:
1. These are factory products manufactured in the site or in a factory situated away from the
project.
2. Precast slabs are generally one way system spanning across the supporting system.
3. Precast slabs are generally simply supported and if required can be cantilevered at ends.
4. Precast slabs are generally of good quality and to exact dimensions, manufactured well in
advance, avoids total shuttering, staging and curing on site and there by the time required to
put up the structure is drastically reduced. In general these are expensive than normal cast in situ
construction.
5. Requires casting yard, cranes, lifting devices, storage yards and in some cases steam curing.
6. Grade of concrete is higher, requires transportation to actual site area and erection to the required
levels through tower crane.
7. Proper planning of production, transportation, and erection sequences are important.
8. With a large number of repetitive elements the cost can be brought down which can be equal to
a normal construction.
9. Precast beams spanning across vertical supporting system is generally simply supported and if
required cantilevered at the ends.
10. Precast slabs for normal spans can also be designed as two way slab system.

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7. PRECAST (PRESTRESSED) SINGLE AND DOUBLE TT SLAB:
These are precast slabs which are also pre-stressed to overcome concrete’s weakness in tension. Pre-
stressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load which
produces a compressive stress that balances the tensile stress that the concrete compression member
would otherwise experience due to bending.
Features:
1. These are standard precast elements, simply supported with a width of 1.2m /2.4m.
2. These are spanned across the supporting system.
3. Spans 6m-20m are ideal for this system.
4. Pre-stressing is adopted for span larger than 6m.
5. These are lighter in weight for the areas they span and hence easier to handle.
6. Higher grade of concrete is used to produce a good quality /strength product and helps in the
usage of formwork in quick time cycle.
7. Formwork is expensive and requires a large number of repetitions to offset this cost.
8. Require goliath cranes at manufacturing facilities, transportation and erection using tower
cranes.
9. Project time will be drastically reduced.

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8. FLAT PLATE:
The flat plate is the simplest form of two-way slab—simple for analysis, design, detailing, bar fabrication
and placing, and formwork. A flat plate is defined as a two-way slab of uniform thickness supported on
any combination of columns and walls, with or without edge beams, and without drop panels, column
capitals, and brackets.
Features:
1. Slab thickness is generally higher and economical for spans up to 6.0m.
2. Provides a clear soffit for services, eases construction time, provides higher ceiling, and reduces
floor to floor height.
3. Wall loads on slabs can be suitably designed.
4. Structural software such as ‘Etabs’, Staad, Strudal are ideal for the analysis and design of this
system.
5. Punching shear check is very important in flat plate design.
6. Lateral loads are to be dissipated by providing shear walls, core walls at suitable locations.
7. Slab depths are limited to L/30 – l/32 ‘L’ being the larger span.
8. Structural steel shear connectors are provided apart from reinforcement in the form of shear
reinforcement. Shear studs are used for providing punching shear resistance at columns.

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10. FLAT SLAB:
A concrete slab reinforced in two directions, generally with drop panels at supports, but without beams or
girders is a flat slab system. There are two types of flat slab system
• Panelled Slab
• Bracketed flat slab
Features:
1. These are similar to flat Plates and are more economical for similar spans. Due to the provision of
drop heads the punching shear capacity increases and hence more efficient than flat plate.
2. Faster construction, clear space for services, higher false ceiling heights, and larger spans are some
of the advantages of the system.
3. Punching shear is an important force to be checked and openings around the column have to be
designed.
4. Larger openings around columns shall have to be avoided.
6. Post tensioning of flat slabs for larger spans reduces slab thickness and also minimises
deflections.
7. Lateral loads due to wind, earthquake are to be dissipated by providing shear walls, core walls at
proper location in plan.
8. Slab depths are limited to L/36 to L/42. Shear connectors, shear studs, shear reinforcement may
also be provided at column slab junction, to resist shear forces.
9. Flat slabs can also be post tensioned to reduce slab thickness and minimise deflection.

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11. Hollow core slabs:
A hollow core slab, also known hollow core plank, is a precast pre-stressed concrete slab typically used
in the construction of floors in multi-story apartment buildings. Due to the precasting, higher concrete
strength these are expensive, however reduces building time, but used as one-way spanning constructions,
and must be supported by beams or fixed walls.
Features:
1. Hollow core slabs are factory manufactured and are patented.
2. They are cast with high strength concrete in steel forms and the cores are extruded either steam
cured or water cured.
3. The hollow cores are pre-stressed and can upto 15 to 16m.
4. The depths of hollow core slabs vary from 270mm to 450mm.
5. These are one way slabs and a structural screed with weld mesh steel at top are provided.
6. These slabs are supported on beams or walls as the case may be.

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7. Transportation of these slabs to the working site restricts the length of hollow core slabs to 12m.
8. These slabs can also be manufactured at site provided the volumes are large and the site has
enough space to accommodate the manufacturing process.

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12. Waffle Slabs:
A two-way floor or roof system consisting of a reinforced concrete slab poured with integral joists or ribs
in two directions beneath it. The system has a waffle-like pattern when viewed from below.
Features:
1. Waffle slabs are constructed using FRP moulds of various sizes (eg. 850 x 850 x 250, 900 x 900 x
325,. 900 x 900 x 375, etc)
2. Moulds are supported drop heads system and cuplock scaffolding system for early deshuttering
and accurate sizes which makes it fast track.
3. Robust construction to with stand site abuse with long life and less maintenance.
4. Early striking facility allows beams and moulds to be reused while the concrete remains supported
during curing. Thereby reducing the overall amount of time required for completion of
structure.
5. Good for service integration.
6. Can accommodate wall loads at any location
7. Early striking facility allows Beams and Moulds to be reused while the concrete remains supported
during curing, thereby reducing the overall amount of equipment required.
8. Vibrations due to impact is minimal.
9. Can accommodate heavy imposed loads
10. Can be used for huge spans up to 11m.
11. Similar slabs hence easy and fast construction.
12. Good for service integration.
13. Voided Slabs:

Voided biaxial slabs are reinforced concrete slabs in which voids are introduced reduce the amount of
concrete used in the building. The various types of voided slabs are listed below
• Airdeck -The Airdeck concept was patented in 2003 and comprises an inverted plastic injection
moulded element which is vibrated into the lower slab during the production process by a robotic
arm. The advantage of this system is that no retaining mesh is required to hold down the voiding
elements during on site pouring of the second layer. As the boxes can be nested there are clear
transport advantages versus other voiding systems.

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• Bubble Deck - In the 1990s, a new system was invented, eliminating the above problems. The so
called Bubble Deck® technology (Dutch: Bollenplaatvloer, German: Zweiachsigen Hohlkörperdecke,
Icelandic: Kuluplotur, Danish: Bobledæk) invented by Jørgen Breuning, locks ellipsoids between
the top and bottom reinforcement meshes, thereby creating a natural cell structure, acting like a
solid slab. For the first time a voided biaxial slab is created with the same capabilities as a solid slab,
but with considerably less weight due to the elimination of superfluous concrete.
• Cobiax - The Cobiax system makes use of the same voided slab principles of creating voids
within the concrete slabs to lighten the building structures. Elliptical & torus shaped hollow plastic
members, termed as void formers, are held in place by a light metal mesh for easy installation
between the top and bottom reinforcement layers of a concrete slab.
• U-boot - The name of the product is U-boot, and its biggest advantage is that it is stackable.
A truck of U-boot means approximately 5000 m2 of slab, once void formers are laid down at
building site. The second innovation is the shape: U-boot creates a grid of orthogonal “I” beams,
so the calculation of the reinforcement can be effected by any static engineer according to Euro
code, British Standards or any local standard.
• Polystyrene Voiding Blocks - A classic methodology for reducing weight of structural floors is
the use of polystyrene blocks to reduce the amount of on-site concrete poured. This is a labour
intensive and man dependant approach.
Features:
Shear:
The main difference between a solid slab and a voided biaxial slab refers to shear resistance. Due to the
reduced concrete volume, the shear resistance will also be reduced. For a Bubble Deck slab the shear
resistance is proportional to the amount of concrete, as the special geometry shaped by the ellipsoidal
voids acts like the famous Roman arch, hence enabling all concrete to be effective.

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14. Composite Slabs:
Composite slab is the combination of a composite steel deck and an insite concrete slab bonded structurally
to act together as one element.
Features:
1. Composite slabs consists structural steel frame work, metal decking, concrete and shear
connectors.
2. The framing with the concrete and shear connectors acts as composite slab and enables the
economical design of the steel members.
3. Reinforcement is provided in the concrete for shrinkage and continuity.
4. The structural system needs to be fire proofed as per the fire norms.
5. This is a very standard practice for high rise buildings and for fast track construction.
6. Composite slabs are also constructed with partial precast slabs, replacing the metal deck and
providing the concrete topping with reinforcement suitably and shear connectors.

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15. Folded Plate:
Folded plates are assemblies of flat plates rigidly connected together along their edges in such a way so
as to make the structural system capable of carrying loads without the need for additional supporting
beams along mutual edges.Structures composed of rectangular plates are said to be prismatic. In modern
construction practice the most widely used folded plate structures are made of cast-in-situ or precast
reinforced concrete (including pre-stressed and reinforced-cement structures). The structures are used as
roofs for industrial and public buildings.

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Features:
The distinguishing feature of the folded plate is the
ease in forming plane surfaces. Therefore, they are
more adaptable to smaller areas than curved surfaces
which require multiple use of forms for maximum
economy A folded plate may be formed for about
the same cost as a horizontal slab and has much less
steel and concrete for the same spans.
16. Shell Structures:

Structures, which keep their shape and support loads, even without a frame, or solid mass material inside,
are called shell structures. These structures use a thin, carefully shaped, outer layer of material, to provide
their strength and rigidity. The shape of a shell structure spreads forces throughout the whole structure,
which means every part of the structure supports only a small part of the load giving its strength. Shell
structures predominantly resist loads on them by direct compression.
Features:
1. Light weight construction
2. They are typically curved and are assembled to large structures
3. Shell structures in the unstressed state, has the curvature as opposed to plates structures which is
flat.
4. Membrane action in a shell is primarily caused by in-plane forces (plane stress), though there may
be secondary forces resulting from flexural deformations. Where a flat plate acts similar to a beam
with bending and shear stresses, shells are analogous to a cable which resists loads through tensile
stresses.

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17. Domes:
A dome is an element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Dome structures
made of various materials have a long architectural lineage extending into prehistory. The modern insulated,
reinforced concrete dome offers wide design flexibility and benefits for both industrial and architectural
applications. With the combination of the shape, materials and the process, our domes have outstanding
features including the following:
Features:
1. Domes are often more economical when compared to large conventional free span structures.
2. With a totally seamless layer of polyurethane insulation sandwiched outside of the concrete and
under the roof membrane, the dome easily regulates its internal temperature. A 50% savings of
energy can easily be attained over a conventional building.
3. The dome is constructed inside the enclosed airform, enabling construction to progress rapidly
regardless of weather.
4. Bearing walls and columns are not required internally even in extremely large domes.
5. With the exterior protection of polyurethane insulation and the waterproof roof membrane, the
steel reinforced concrete dome will not weather or decay. The life span of these buildings will be
measured in centuries.
6. The monolithic concrete dome is probably the strongest building that can be built with a specific
amount of time and materials. This means it has very high resistance to the natural forces of
earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods.
7. Shuttering, staging and concreting is the most difficult part of construction.

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18. Vaults:
A Vault (French. voûte, Italian. volta,) is an architectural term for an arched form used to provide a space
with a ceiling or roof. The parts of a vault exert lateral thrust that requires a counter resistance. When
vaults are built underground, the ground gives all the resistance required. However, when the vault is built
above ground, various replacements are employed to supply the needed resistance. An example is the
thicker walls used in the case of barrel or continuous vaults. Buttresses are used to supply resistance when
intersecting vaults are employed.

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19. Metal Roofing with Space frame structures:
A space frame or space and three dimensional structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed
from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames can be used to span large areas with few
interior supports. Like the truss, a space frame is strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle;
flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of
each strut.
Features:
1. Enormous spanning capability.
2. Light weight structures/sheds.
3. High aesthetics.
4. Higher factor of safety
5. Extension is easy with additional unit

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20. Tensile Structures:
A tensile structure is a construction of elements carrying only tension and no compression or bending.
Most tensile structures are supported by some form of compression or bending elements, such as masts
(as in The O2, formerly the Millennium Dome), compression rings or beams. Tensile membrane structures
are most often used as roofs as they can economically and attractively span large distances.

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Types of structure with significant tension members:
Linear structures
• Suspension bridges
• Draped cables
• Cable-stayed beams or trusses
• Cable trusses
• Straight tensioned cables
Three-dimensional structures
• Bicycle wheel (can be used as a roof in a horizontal orientation)
• 3D cable trusses
• Tensegrity structures
• Tensairity structures
Surface-stressed structures
• Pre-stressed membranes
• Pneumatically stressed membranes

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Chapter
15
Precast Concrete Elements
in Buildings
15. Precast Concrete Elements in Buildings
introduction
Complete buildings can be constructed in Precast Concrete but it needs the design to consider the
manufacture, transportation, hoisting, temporary stability of the elements and structure during
construction. However, the Precast Concrete Structural Elements can be used in conventional buildings
for many functional uses with much easy and economy.
Precast construction consists of fabrication of various elements of a structure in a factory. Such a construction
is commonly used in buildings and bridges. It results in an economy of formwork and scaffolding, economy
in concrete, economy resulting from standardization and mass production of various elements and speedier
construction.
FEASIBILITY
The use of precast structural elements involves the method of fabrication considering implicit constraints
as well as various aspects of the erection and assembly of these elements. In addition to design and
detailing of the precast elements, it is important to carry out the design checks on the overall building
stability and robustness of the complete structure. Some of the structural elements to be considered for
Precast can be
• Columns
• Beams
• Roof Elements
• Wall Elements
• Lift Cores
• Staircase
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

COLUMNS
BEAMS

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STAIRCASE WALL ELEMENTS
LIFT CORES ROOF ELEMENTS
PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

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However, following aspects need active consideration in the feasibility.
• Dimension and shape of the Precast Elements.

• Concrete constituents.
• Reinforcement.
• Moulds.
• Joints and connections.
• Lifting and handling devices.
The optimal dimension of the precast elements depends on capacity of the lifting cranes at the fabrication
yard as well as at site and transport limitations.
The concrete constituents depend on the design requirement and a variety of concrete strengths and
characteristics which can be used to achieve optimum performance.
The elements are reinforced with welded wire meshes, bars or pre stressing tendons.
Moulds can be made of any suitable materials like steel, timber, plywood or GRC depending on usage and
surface quality.
Joints and connections have to meet the design and performance criteria such as strength, ductility, fire
resistance, durability and stability.
Proprietary lifting devices with specified design capacity have to be adopted for safe and efficient handling
of the elements during the fabrication and erection at site.
FABRICATION
Before fabrication, shop drawings of the precast elements are prepared and detailed with the following
information.
• Project location, reference and number of elements and their location with respect to the building
layout and elevation.
• Dimension of elements, centre of gravity, weight and concrete volume.
• Locations of all reinforcement steel, cast in item for connection, lifting and bracing.
• Locations of embedded item such as conduits block outs and recesses as well as openings.
• Jointing and interfacing details between elements.
• Water tightness details at Joints.
• Architectural details.
Precast elements can be generally classified into
• Precast Reinforced Concrete Elements

• Precast Prestressed Concrete Elements
Precast Reinforced Concrete Elements consists of Reinforcement Bars/or Welded Wire Meshes wihin to
provide the tensile strength and resistance against cracks. Beams, Columns, Slabs, Staircases are main
examples of this type of elements.

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Precast Prestressed Concrete Elements consists of Prestressing Tendons within the elements to provide a
predetermined force needed to resist external loadings and cracks. Hollow core Roof Slabs and Beams are
examples of this type of elements.
Most of the concrete elements are produced in using normal wetcasting method. However, hollow core
slabs and wall elements are produced in dry casting or extrusion method.
WETCASTING: MOULDS
Assembly of Moulds
Cleaning & application of mould release agent
Bracing & bolting

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WETCASTING: REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement cage is lowered into the moulds & cover blocks are tied
Recession formers are inserted along with electrical conduits & corrugated sheath
Lifting Inserts
WETCASTING: CONCRETING
Recession formers are inserted along with electrical conduits & corrugated sheath

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CHECK
• Verify all the details match with drawing

• Mould fixing conditions
• Level of the base mould level
Concreting over the moulds, spreading and ensuring the concrete flow uniformly into reinforcement
Levelling the concrete, curing and demoulding
WETCASTING: INSPECTION
Finishing work before delivery to site
Critical Dimensions are checked & elements tagged for identification

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DRYCASTING: EXTRUSION METHOD
Dry casting is generally used to produce Solid/Hollow Core Roof Slabs.
Mould realease agent is applied and strand is insered
Stressing of strands and extrusion for hollow core
Curing, cutting of strands & final dimension checking
JOINTS & CONNECTIONS

Composite construction consists of a combination of prefabricated unit and cast-in-situ concrete in
a structure. The prefabricated unit may be in reinforced concrete or pre stressed concrete. To obtain
composite action, shear connectors are placed in the form of studs, channels, spirals, etc.,
projecting from precast units. Their function is to transfer horizontal shear entirely from one element to
another. The shear connectors are welded on to steel beams and concrete is cast in situ around them.
In the case of precast concrete elements, such as beams and cast-in-situ slabs, a full horizontal shear is
effected at the interface between these two elements when the deformation at the upper surface of the

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beam and the lower surface of the slab are the same.
Typical Column and beam connection
Typical Column, Beam & Slab Connection
Typical Footing to Wall Element Connection

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Typical Footing, Wall Element & Cast in situ Slab Connection
Typical Wall Element & Cast in situ Slab Connection

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Chapter
16
REIFORCEMENT DETAILING
16. REIFORCEMENT DETAILING
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete is a composite material wherein the compression is resisted by concrete and tension
by reinforcement. The inability of concrete to with stand the tensile stresses is offset by the reinforcement,
so that together they form a composite section to bear the various stresses developed in r.c. members.
Detailing of reinforcement has to satisfy three main objectives as follows:
1. The bars should be positioned at locationsas required by the design, so that the bars should be
available to withstand the forces. In the absence of bars, these forces have to be borne by concrete
and since concrete is weak in tension,it could result in cracking and structural distress.
2. The bars should be placed in such a way that concrete can be poured and compacted without
difficulty and concrete should be able to fill the mould properly without any honey combs or
voids.
3. The bars should be placed adequately so that they have enough concrete cover around, as
prescribed in standards for a given exposure environment, to protect them against corrosion.
The reinforcement details as required by the designer are furnished to the site through drawings. The site
engineer should be able to read and understand the drawing properly so that the details can be translated
to site properly. Some of the important factors site engineer should know are:
a. Notations in the drawing and bar identification.
b. Standard methods of positioning of bars.
c. Cutting and bending requirements.
d. Anchorage and Lapping requirements.
e. Requirements of future extension of members.
f. Cover requirements.
g. Concrete details such as maximum size of aggregates, slump of concrete, diameter of vibrator to
be used at site etc…
h. Special Considerations as required by the designer, indicated in the drawings.
Before site execution, it is necessary to study the drawings thoroughly in light of the above factors and plan
the rebar fabrication accordingly. Necessary instructions shall be given to the reinforcement fabricator so
that he can execute the same as per the requirement of designer.
A few aspects of standard detailing and good construction practices are furnished here. While these
details are not very elaborate covering all the aspects, they serve as guide lines covering most of the details
required in common constructions.
Based on the experience gained through site inspections, certain common mistakes are observed in sites
with regards to reinforcement detailing. These mistakes and the recommended way of detailing are also
brought out through Do’s and Don’t’s in this chapter.
It is desired that the details provided will help the site engineers in achieving proper reinforcing detailing
in their works.
REFERENCE MANUAL FOR FIELD ENGINEER ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTIONS

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289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
RECOMMENDED CONCRETE COVER TO
REIFORCEMENT
-COVER TO BE CALCULATED TO THE OUTER FACE
OF PERIPHERAL BARS INCLUDING STIRRUPS AND
TIES.

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299
300
301
302
303
DO’S AND DONT’S IN REINFORCEMENT DETAILING

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305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
Chapter
17
Fabrication of
Reinforcement Steel
17. Fabrication of Reinforcement Steel
17.1 Reinforcing Bars: Embedded “Strength” of Reinforced Concrete
Steel Reinforcing bars are produced by pouring molten steel into casters and then running it through
a series of stands in the mill, which shape the steel into reinforcing bars. The cross hatchings, called
“deformations,” help secure the steel and transfer the load between it and the concrete.
Reinforced concrete is composite material. The concrete provides the material’s compressive strength,
while the steel — in the form of embedded reinforcing bars — provides tensile strength.
Table 17.1 Codes, Standards and References ( Indian Codes)
Code Title of the code Edition

IS 456 Plain and Reinforced Concrete – Code of Practice 2000
IS 1566 Specifications for Hard Drawn Steel Wire for Concrete 1982
Reinforcement
IS 432, Part II Specifications for mild steel and medium tensile steel bars 1982
and hard drawn steel wires for concrete reinforcement
IS 4948 Welded steel wire fabric for general Use – Specification 2002
SP 34 Handbook on Concrete Reinforcement and detailing 1987
IS 7887 Mild steel wire rod for general engineering purpose – 1992
Specification
IS 1599 Method for bend test 1985
IS 1786 Specification for High strength deformed steel bars and 2008
wires for concrete reinforcement
IS 13920 Ductile detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures 2002
subjected to Seismic Forces – Code of Practice
IS 1716 Method for Reverse bend Test for Metallic Wire (Second 1985
Revision)
IS 1608 Metallic metals - Tensile Testing in ambient temperature 2005
Table 17.1.1 Codes, Standards and References ( International Codes)
Code Title of the code Edition

ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural 2008
Concrete (ACI 318-08) and Commentary
BS 8110, Part 1 Code of Practice for Design and Construction 1997
BS 4482 Specification for Cold Reduced Mild Steel Wire 2005
for the Reinforcement of Concrete
BS 4483 Specification for Welded Steel Fabric for the 2005
Reinforcement in Concrete
MS 145 Welded Steel Fabric for The Reinforcement of 2006
Concrete Specification
NZ-3109 Concrete Construction. 1997

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17.1 Chemical Composition:
The ladle analysis of steel for various grades, when made as per relevant parts of IS 228 shall have maximum
permissible percentage of constituents as follows:
Table 17.2 Chemical Composition

(As per the latest code IS 1786:2008)
The following table explains the properties of various chemical ingredients of the raw material which in
turn affect the mechanical properties.
FABRICATION OF REINFORCEMENT STEEL

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17.2 Nominal Sizes
• The Nominal Size of bar/wire shall be 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 16mm, 20mm, 25mm, 32mm,
36mm, 40mm
• Effective Cross sectional area and mass of bar: For bars/wires whose pattern of deformations
is such that by visual inspection, the cross-sectional is substantially uniform length of the bar/wire,
the effective cross-sectional shall be the gross sectional area determined as follows, using bar/wire
not less than 0.5mm in length.
Gross Cross-Sectional area, in mm2 = W / (0.00785 L)
Where,
W - Mass weighed to a precision of ± 0.5 percent in kg; and
L - Length measured to a precision of ± 0.5 percent in mm
Source: IS 1786:2008
17.3 Development Length and Lap Splices

The development length is defined as the length required to develop the required stress at a critical section
and is controlled by either pullout or splitting. The bond between concrete and reinforcement bars is very
important to develop the composite behavior of reinforced concrete. Bond strength is influenced by several
factors such as bar diameter, cover to concrete over the bar, spacing of bars, transverse reinforcement,
type of bar, and coating applied on the bar if any, for corrosion prevention.

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Development of stress in Reinforcement:
The calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be developed on each side of the
section by an appropriate development length or end anchorage or by a combination thereof.
The Development Length of bar (Ld) is given by
Ld = Ф σs / 4 τbd
Where, Ф - Nominal Diameter of the bar

σs - Stress in the bar considered at design load
τbd - Design Bond stress
Fabrication of Reinforcing Bars is one of the most important operations in the construction of a reinforced
concrete product. It involves cutting and bending the reinforcement bar into the correct size and shape as
specified in structural drawings so as to allow trouble-free placement of the steel in the structural member
at the construction site.
Cutting and bending can be done on the construction site itself or at a cut-and-bend shop. The former often
results in inappropriate dimensioning and inaccurate bending. The latter provides a controlled and organized
environment where skilled operators produce consistently good quality products. With prefabricated cut-
and-bend rebar, construction sites reduce material wastage and fixing time significantly.
TRADITIONAL SYSTEM OF FABRICATION OF REINFORCING BARS

Traditionally in Construction activity, the process of cutting and bending of steel in the construction site is
done through manual process resulting in higher wastage of materials, increased requirements of Labour
and space at the construction site.
Fig 17.4.1 Fabrication of Reinforcing Bars
Cutting & Bending of Reinforcement steel by manual process is….

• Very Slow
• Time Consuming
• High Wastage
• Inaccurate with scope of plenty of errors
• Unproductive and less efficient
So the most crucial work of Cutting & Bending Reinforcement steel remains most time consuming and
Labour oriented…….

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Other problems at the Construction site
In large cities, the building site area is heavily congested. The plot of land may be surrounded by other
structures, roads and heavy movement of traffic. Entry of heavy vehicles is often restricted in peak hours
in some areas. Almost the entire plot of land is excavated and very little working area is available. In this
situation, the rebar processing operations at sites creates major hurdles. The re bars are supplied in 12 Mtrs
long length or in U shaped and then straightened at site.
Usually a truck load of steel would weigh around 10 MT and then the site would need to stock all the
diameters which requires large area of space and also 15 to 20 workers for this job. These workers along
with other workers have to be provided facilities on site for housing, water supply, electricity, canteen,
security, sanitation etc. Then space is required for the cut and bent bars to be stocked before they are lifted
to the slab. The production and fitment never matches and there is delay in the progress. The bars are kept
anywhere and everywhere and people walk over it leading to injuries.
The accepted wastage of rebars on site is about 5%. Some bars are pilfered and some are used for other
applications. An Engineer is required permanently to supervise the rebar work, account for the issue and
use of the bars, make statements and reconcile the quantities. A team of 20 to 30 rebar workers will
produce about 2 to 3 MT per day.
It is an established fact that by mechanization or industrialization any and every productive activity
invariably benefits in all respects of quality, efficiency of time and energy and elegance of human effort.
The application of technology to any process helps achieve accurate control on all the required parameters.
Reinforced Concrete Construction which is the backbone to any infrastructural project depends for its
performance on its prime elements namely Concrete and Reinforcement. Just as mechanization of concrete
production namely Mix design, Auto batching plants , Ready Mix technology and automated casting
techniques have raised the standards and strengths of concrete to remarkable levels, the same is essential
for reinforcement.
A need has been felt to mechanise the use of reinforcement steel used in site to overcome shortcomings
in manual method such as space and huge Labour force and also to speed up the construction activity.
As part of the mechanisation happening in the field of reinforcements, Rebar Processing plants are being
set up which processes the steel through the use of automated machines and delivers ready to use cut
and bend steel rods. This process is faster and the output is uniform and easy to handle. This concept is
commonly known as Readymade Steel or Cut & Bend steel.
However, reinforcement steel cutting, bending and fixing is still done manually. India consumes
approximately 21 million tonne of TMT Steel (reinforcement) per year of which only 0.30% steel is
processed in automatic rebar plants presently – the rest is still processed using the handicraft mode
of bending and cutting.
The use of Readymade Steel (RMS) shall improve the construction quality and cycle time. The major benefits
of RMS are as under:
• Fast track construction

• Low labor concentration on site
• Better site co-ordination and control
• Reduction in construction cycle time
• Better control on material wastage
• Hence it is safe to say that RMS will be to steel as RMC is to concrete in the coming years.

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A typical construction company handling major commercial, housing, infrastructure or other large scale
projects is plagued with operational issues such as unavailability of skilled labor, stringent timelines,
low level of quality in manual processes, budget pressures and loss of material due to improper site
management. RMS will bring in a paradigm shift from the present rebar processing done at site locations
which may be disorganized, inefficient, and incur huge wastages to a more organized, clean and factory
controlled environment.
TYPICAL REBAR PROCESSING PLANT
TYPICAL REBAR PROCESSING PLANT
MACHINES AND THEIR WORKING

SHAPING PROCESS
TYPE: AUTOMATIC STIRRUP BENDER (Diameters in mm: 6, 8, 10, 12mm)
Stirrup Bender
Steel in Coil -INPUT Stirrup/Rings- OUTPUT

(FINISHED) (PRODUCT)

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Stirrup Bender machinery is used for Cutting and Bending of Coils or TMT Bar for making rings, stirrups
and small shapes used in construction…
The raw material (steel either in coil or straight bar) will be fed to the machine, which will be pulled and
straightened using specific rollers and motor arrangement. The straightened bars are bend/ cut using
mandrel and cutter arrangement provided in the machine. Various shapes and straight lengths can be made
out of the raw steel by entering the required dimension through PLC device connected to machinery.
Raw material steel in form of coils is feed to Machine at a time 2 coils of 6mm, 8mm and 10mm and 1coil
of 12mm.
17.7 SHEAR PROCESS

TYPE: REBAR SHEARING/ CUTTING, STORAGE & TRANSFER SYSTEM (diameter in mm 12, 16, 20, 25, 32,
40 Bulk Production)
Steel Cut to Exact Length (Bulk Prdn)- OUTPUT

Steel in Straight Rod (12M)-INPUT
Raw Material in Straight Bar is fed to Shear Line for cutting the steel to exact length (Bulk Production) and
then feeding to automatic bending unit or semi automatic bending unit as per schedule. Diameter Range
8- 50 mm. Machinery helps in Organized Cutting, Storage, and transfer system for straight bars
17.7.1 Bending/Shaping Process

TYPE: AUTOMATIC REBAR BENDING SYSTEM
AUTOMATIC REBAR BENDING SYSTEM

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Steel Cut to Exact Length (Bulk Prdn)-INPUT Bend/Shaped Steel-OUTPUT
Automatic Bulk bending unit used for bending bars received from Shear line 300 by roller conveyors,
for repetitive quantity and shapes. Diameter Range 8- 40 mm. Useful for Organized bending system for
rebars
Benefits of using Readymade Steel (RMS) Remarkable Outcome for the users
Reduces the Construction Cycle Time Faster completion of project leading to early income
generation
Controls Cost Escalations.

Site Related Cost gets reduced.
Cuts down the wastage in Steel to a great extent Saves good amount of money.
User contributes to a Clean & Green Environment

Processed under Factory Conditions using fully Ensures consistent and precise dimensional
Integrated Rebar Processing Software. accuracy.
Raw material stored indoors.

Minimises rework & supervision at site.
Prevents ageing of steel which normally happens due
to continuous exposure to the open environment.
Reduces the dependence on Manpower Saves money.
considerably
Reduces work related injuries at site
Health & Safety gets improved

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Overall Site Conditions and House Keeping gets
improved
Better Inventory Management
Just in Time Delivery Saves huge Inventory Cost.
Greater Accountability for the Material being high
value product.
Better Planning can be achieved. Purchase Function
becomes more organised and effective.
Prevents Pilferage of Steel
Eliminates the requirement for Steel Yard at Project More space available at site leading to easy flow of
site man, machines and materials.
Avoids Work Related injuries at site.
Cleaner and organised site- well appreciated by
all.
Any Choice of Steel Brand can be processed in our Free to select any brand of steel.
factory within the range -6mm to 50mm to any
shape and size based on practical considerations.
Architects /Structural Designers gets more flexibility
in design.
C. Welded Wire Mesh

Welded Wire Mesh (WWM) is a prefabricated reinforcement consisting of a series of parallel longitudinal
wires with accurate spacing welded to cross wires at the required spacing. The welding of the wires is
achieved by electric resistance welding with solid-state electronic control and all the spacing are controlled
by an automatic mechanism of high reliability. There is no foreign metal added at the joint and the
intersecting wires are actually fused into a homogeneous section thereby ensuring permanency of spacing
and alignment in either direction.
The wires used in the Mesh are cold drawn from controlled quality mild steel wire rods with carbon
content generally less than 0.15%. The cold drawing through a series of tungsten carbide dies results in
a high tensile strength and increased yield strength material of accurate dimensions. Further, each section
of the wire gets inherently tested by the process itself for its characteristic physical properties thereby
offering a systematic reliability of material. The cold drawing operation unlike the cold twisting used in
HYSD bars also doesn’t sacrifice the ductility of the material in any major way. The wires conform to IS:

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432-Pt II/1982 which specifies an ultimate tensile strength of 570 N/mm2 and a characteristic strength of
480 N/mm2. Wires used for manufacture of Mesh are generally manufactured in the range of 2 mm to
12mm diameter.
WWM is manufactured conforming to IS: 1566-1982 with long and cross wire spacing varying at levels of
10 to 15mm. Each of the rigidly welded intersection is capable of withstanding shear stresses up to 210
N/mm2 (IS:4948/1974) on the reference area of the longitudinal wire. The Mesh can be manufactured
in widths up to 3000mm with lengths limited by transportation considerations. When supplied in ready
to lay flat sheet form the standard length is 5500mm. otherwise the Mesh can be supplied in roll form in
standard lengths of 15m, 30m or 45m.
NOTE: Mesh is produced from low carbon steel called wire rods
17.8 Why Low Carbon Steel for PRM

As per IS 1786-2008, Weld ability is greatly influenced by the Carbon Equivalent (CE) and hence the raw
material is chosen based on the chemical constituents, which attributes the CE value in permissible limits.
The CE value can be calculated as follows:
Shall not be more that 0.53 percent, when micro alloys/low alloys are used.
When micro alloys, low alloys are not used, carbon equivalent using the formula
Shall not be more than 0.42 percent.
The raw material used for PRM is wire rod which is low carbon steel from various Primary Grade Steel
Manufacturers. The raw material grades used are SAE 1008, 1010, and 1012 which has a percentage of
carbon in the range of 0.08, 0.10 and 0.12 respectively.
The Standard size of PRM

The maximum dimension of the mesh is 6000mm X 2400 mm considering the limitation in transportation
and ease of handling at site. A typical standard mesh is shown here with the relevant notations.

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17.4. Production Process and Flow Chart
17.4.1 Cold Rolling

Cold rolling is a metal working process in which metal is deformed by passing it through rollers at a
temperature below its Recrystallisation temperature. Cold rolling increases the yield strength and hardness
of a metal by introducing defects into the metal’s crystal structure. Each section of the wire gets inherently
tested by the process itself for its characteristic physical properties there by offering a systematic reliability
of material. Also the rolling process give rise to uniform plastic flow in the material which results in more
consistent properties and better ductility.

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Wire Rod Cold Rolled Coils
The raw material (wire rods) with different diameter available in coil form will be rolled by passing through
rollers, to improve its characteristic strength through descaling and imparting ribbing on its outer surface.
This will help the wire rods to attain higher tensile strength and better ductility. The cold rolled wire rods
will be coiled again in spools.
17.4.2 Straightening & Cutting
Fire Rods
The cold rolled wire rods in the coil form is passed through pre set die and cartridge units (special sets for
different diameter wire rods) present in the straightening and cutting machine, where the wire rods are
first straightened and then cut to set length (precision upto ± 2mm) automatically .
4.3 Electric Fusion Welding
Longitudinal and cross wires are first preloaded into designated feeders on the Welding machine. The
longitudinal wires are then arranged into the machine in the required spacing, with cross wires automatically
being dropped and positioned accurately Welding then takes place with the wires in the required position

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and the welds controlled by machine Resistance Welding – Pressure and heat fuse the intersecting wires
into a homogeneous section and fix all wires in their proper position. With parameters like pressure setting,
magnitude of fusion Current and the duration of pressure impact as controllable, high level of precision
and quality is achievable. The finished mesh is then fed into cutting bending operation (if required) or
extracted for stacking.
17.5. Terminology
Area of Steel – The cross-sectional area of steel, measured in square millimeters (mm2).
Cross Wire – The cross wire is at right angles to the line wires and welded together at points of intersection.
Typically the cross wire is also known as the transverse wire. The maximum, limit on the length of the cross
wire is 2.4 meters based on the transportation.
Main Wire - The main wire is at right angles to the cross wires and welded together at points of intersection.
Typically the main wire is also known as the longitudinal wire.
Deformed Wire – The wire surface will have raised or indented deformation similar to those on
conventional rebar.
Development Length – The length of reinforcement including anchorage to transfer stresses from the
steel wire (or steel bar) into the surrounding concrete.
End Overhangs - Extension of main wires beyond centerline of beyond outermost cross wire. ( end
overhangs are included in the sheet length dimension).
Side Overhang - Extension of cross wires beyond centerline of outermost main wires (side overhangs are
not included in the sheet width dimension).
Grade of Steel – The characteristic tensile strength of the steel. The grade of steel is Fe500 (0.2% proof
stress is 500 N/mm2)
Lap Length – The lap length is a function of the development length times a 1.3 (deformed wire) or 1.5
(smooth wire) factor. ACI 318 establishes minimum lap lengths depending on the type of lap and whether
the wire is smooth or deformed.
Sheet Width - Tip to tip dimension of transverse wires (this dimension is the sheet width plus both side
overhangs).
Sheet Length - Tip to tip dimension of longitudinal wires (the length dimension always includes end
overhangs).
Overlap – The overlapping of two sheets by lapping them one over top of the other.
Plain Wire - The wire surface will have no raised or indented deformation.
Strain – The ratio of the change in elongation or stretch over the original length due to an applied load.
Stress – Force per unit area.
Temperature Reinforcement – Reinforcement designed to carry stresses resulting from temperature

changes; also the minimum reinforcement for concrete areas which are not subjected to primary
stresses.
Welded Wire Reinforcement - Welded Wire Reinforcement (WWR) designates a material composed of

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cold-rolled steel wire, MESHated into sheets by the process of electric resistance FUSION welding.
Wire MESH – This is the previous name given to Welded Wire Reinforcement. Welded Wire Reinforcement
historically has been referred to as MESH or mesh implying a light gauge material.
Wire Spacing - The centerline-to-centerline distance between parallel wires and is also known as pitch.
17.6. Technical Advantages

With its greater strength, generally higher ductility and significantly lower placing and overall cost, welded
wire mesh offers a highly practical and cost efficient alternative to traditional rebar concrete reinforcement.
In addition to the intangible benefits following needs to be noted.
• Wider availability of wire sizes and spacing (odd & fractional diameter)
• High Allowable stress
• Higher shear strength at joints-
Section showing a typical fusion weld intersecting wires
Machine Resistance Welding – Pressure and heat fuse the intersecting wires into a homogeneous section
and fix all wires in their proper position.
• Confinement of High Strength Concrete with the Welded wire Reinforcement:

• Strong Mechanical Anchorage of the weld & Better Crack Width control:
• Better bonding Behaviour:
• Factory made product:
• Complete Elimination of errors in laying:
• Avoidance of binding wire:
• Helps meet Lacing Tolerances:

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17.7. Cost Advantages
The premise is that the marginally higher cost of PRM is more than outweighed by the enormous savings
in time and labor.
• Time saved is money:

• Considerable Savings in Labour:
• Elimination of Wastage:
• Just in time Delivery:
17.8. Mesh Laying at Site

The Meshes are placed at site without any difficulty and quickens the construction activity with less
manpower. The Structural drawings, the schedule given in the drawing and the attached tag to the mesh,
make the site personal easy identify the right placement area at site.
It is recommended to mark the slab panel markings on the form work before laying the mesh with the use
of the structural drawing for even faster laying.
The bottom Mesh exactly went up to the centre of the beam and the overhangs and spacing of the mesh
are designed based on the beam details.
Half Yield Laps are provided according to the codal provisions (Two Overhang + 50 mm)

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17.9. Various Applications of PRM
Welded Wire Mesh is especially suited for the reinforcement of concrete floors (including Flat slabs, Grade
slabs, Waffle slabs, Post tensioned slab...etc) walls, footings, retaining walls, shear walls, Reinforced
concrete walls, culverts, canal linings, tunnels, Precast concrete components, manhole chambers, and
encasing and fire proofing of structural steel works and many more.
The following are wide explanation on some applications:
1. Slabs
2. Pre Cast Concrete Units
3. Concrete Retaining Walls
4. Cast-in-Place Retaining Walls
5. Airport Concrete Jointed Slabs
6. Concrete Pavements
7. Highway Paving Concrete Jointed Slabs
8. Canal Lining
9. Concrete Parking Lots:
Threading and Couplers

Traditionally accepted form of splicing reinforcing steel bars has been to lap them. The method involves
placing two bars together next to each other, over defined minimum lengths and then holding them in
position using wire ties. With technology advancements, new system involves the use of couplers that is
cost effective, quick and easy to install in a superior splice. The process involves
a. edge cutting
b. upsetting (enlarge the end of bar using cold process)
c. threading (using rotating chasers)
d. splicing (connecting rebar by coupler)
Why the need of couplers?
• Increased complexities in design and construction

• Advance with hybrid concrete/steel design and standards
• Modern construction techniques
• Demand for increased speed in construction
• Increased labour costs
• Safety performance criteria
• Increased material cost

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A typical Threaded Bar Coupler
A typical Coupler system
General Aspects
Difference between actual weight and theoretical weight of steel
The actual weight of steel can be calculated by subtracting the empty weight of truck from the weight of
loaded truck, bothweights to be taken from the same weigh balance. Theoretical weight can be calculated
by measuring the mean length of the bars ,multiplied by weight per meterfor the specified diameter. This
gives the approximate weight of steel as the length of every bar differs. This calculated weight can be
used for comparison with actual weight and for finding diameter wise weight of the steel . Approximate
theoretical weight of the steel bar in kg/m should be calculated as (d2 /162),where d is the diameter of
bar in mm.
Implication of RUST on Reinforcing bars

BS 8110 Clause 7.4 Surface Condition states:
“Reinforcement should not be surrounded by concrete unless it is free from mud, oil, paint, retarders, loose
rust, loose mill scale, snow, ice, grease or any other substance which can be shown to affect adversely the
steel or concrete chemically, or reduce the bond. Normal handling prior to embedment in the concrete is
usually sufficient for the removal of loose rust and scale from reinforcement.”
Loose rust is removed during handling and shaking of reinforcement. It is not advisable to strike the
reinforcement.

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Any surface rust which remains on the fabric is not harmful and will increase the bond and anchorage
properties of fabric. Wire brushing is unnecessary and may reduce the bond on plain steel wire.
NZS 3109: 1997 clause C3.4 in - Concrete Construction.
“Surface contaminants such as loose, flaky rust, loose mill scale, concrete laitance mud, oil or other
coatings and windblown chloride or other salts may all have a detrimental effect. Tightly adhering mill
scale or surface rust do not have a detrimental effect.”
No Rust Slightly Rusty

Suitable for use as concrete reinforcing Suitable for use as concrete reinforcing
Consistent Rust Rusty Mesh 1

Suitable for use as concrete reinforcing Suitable for use as concrete reinforcing
Rusty Mesh 2 Pitted Rust

Suitable for use as concrete reinforcing Not suitable for use as concrete reinforcing

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Chapter
18
Testing of Steels for
Civil Engineering Applications
18. Testing of Steels for
Civil Engineering Applications
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Steel is produced in many forms, including rods, flat-rolled and long products, carbon pipe and tube
products, wire and other fabricated products. Carbon and alloy steel is used in all major end-use markets,
including construction, automotive, machinery, appliance and containers. Specialty steels are high
technology, high value materials, produced by small and medium-sized companies. These specialty metals
are used in extreme environments that demand exceptional hardness, toughness, strength and resistance
to heat, corrosion and abrasion, such as in the aerospace and chemical processing industries.
Steels used in Civil Engineering Constructions include Reinforcing steel(TMT/Thermax), pre-stressing steel
(seven wire strand) and structural steel.
Reinforcing steel(TMT/Thermax), the most important ferrous metal in building construction, is an alloy
with principal constituents iron and carbon. Iron is relatively abundant in the earth’s crust; second only
to aluminium. The rolled rods are subjected to cold treatment by quenching or twisting to modify the
properties to suit civil engineering applications. The surface characteristics are improved through ribs and
lugs to create better bond with concrete.
Seven Wire Strand is any length of finished material which comprises six wires formed together in helical
form around a central line. The strength of steel is taken to a level of 6 to 7 times through cold drawing
with reduced ductility.
Structural steel consists of plates, strips, shapes and sections (angles, tees, beams, channels, etc), flats,
bars, etc for use in structural work. The various shapes of sections are obtained through hot rolling.
The properties and requirements of these steels are specified in relevant standards. The properties of the
steels are adopted in the design of structures. It is necessary to check the properties and requirements of
the steels used in construction through various tests. Thus testing of steels is very important to ensure the
characteristics so that the structures are safe.
18.2 CLASSIFICATION OF REINFORCEMENT STEELS:

Indian standard Specification for High Strength Deformed Steel Bars and wires for Concrete Reinforcement
–IS 1786-2008 (4th Revision) recognizes four strength grades, Fe 415, Fe 500, Fe 550 and Fe 600. The
figures following the symbol Fe indicates the specified minimum 0.2% proof stress or yield stress in N/
sq.mm. In order to meet the requirements of high ductility for earth quake resistant constructions, ‘D’
grade in the reinforcement has been introduced in the latest revision of this standard. The ‘D’ grade is
applicable to Fe 415, Fe 500 & Fe 550 steels.
The reinforcements in concrete shall be any of the following:
a) Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars conforming to IS 432 (Part 1)-1982 (Reaffirmed 2000).
b) High strength deformed bars conforming to IS 1786-1985 (Reaffirmed 2000).
c) Hard-drawn steel wire fabric conforming to IS 1566-1982 (Reaffirmed 2000).
d) Structural steel conforming to Grade A of IS 2062-1999.

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18.3 TESTING OF REINFORCING STEEL (TMT/THERMAX):
Testing of steel is done to determine its chemical composition and physical properties. It is important to
analyse steel for its chemical composition so that the harmful elements are within permissible limits. The
strength properties should also be checked for their conformity.
18.3.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:

The chemical composition of steel determines the raw material’s potential to achieve the physical properties
targeted for the end product and indirectly the durability of the material. The influence of the various
constituents on the properties of steel is summarized in Table 18.1.
Table 18.1 Influence of various elements on steel properties
Element Beneficial effects Harmful effects

Carbon Increases strength and hardness Decreases ductility, notch toughness and
weldability
Sulphur Increases machinability ‘Hot shortness’(steel cracks when hot
rolled)
Phosphorus Increases strength and corrosion Decreases ductility and notch toughness
resistance
Manganese Increases strength and notch Decreases weldability
toughness
Silicon Increases strength and corrosion -
resistance
Niobium Increases strength Decreases notch toughness
Titanium Increases strength Steel must be fully killed
Vanadium Increases corrosion resistance Decreases ductility, notch toughness and
weldability
Chromium Increases hardness and corrosion Decreases ductility
resistance
Nickel Increases strength, notch toughness -
and corrosion resistance
Nitrogen Increases strength Decreases ductility and notch toughness
Chemical composition of Reinforcing steel (TMT/Thermax) is determined by ladle analysis as per IS 228
(Parts 1 to 19):1998. Wet analysis is carried out to determine percentages of various elements present in
steel. Table 18.2 shows acceptable chemical composition of High Yield Strength Deformed Reinforcing
steel (TMT/Thermax) and Table 18.2 shows the permissible variations in the constituents.
TABLE 18.2: Requirements of chemical composition as per IS: 1786-2008 (% Max) with tolerance
Grade Fe-415 Fe-415D Fe-500 Fe-500D Fe-550 Fe-550D Fe-600

Carbon (C) 0.30 0.250 0.30 0.250 0.30 0.250 0.30
Phosphorus (P) 0.060 0.045 0.055 0.040 0.055 0.040 0.040
Sulphur (S) 0.060 0.045 0.055 0.040 0.050 0.040 0.040
S&P 0.110 0.085 0.105 0.075 0.100 0.075 0.075
TESTING OF STEEL FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATION

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Table 18.3 Permissible Variations in chemical constituents as per IS 1786-2008
CONSTITUENT VARIATION, OVER SPECIFIED MAX

LIMIT, % MAX
Carbon 0.020
Sulphur 0.005
Phosphorus 0.005
Sulphur and Phosphorus 0.010
18.3.2 NOMINAL MASS:

As the reinforcing bar is formed with longitudinal and transverse ribs on the surface, it is difficult to
measure the diameter of bar. The cross section or the area of bar is obtained by determining the mass of
1 meter length of bar and then dividing by the mass density to obtain the volume and then the sectional
area. The nominal mass density of steel is taken as 0.00785 kg/sq.mm of the cross sectional area per
metre. The tolerances on nominal mass is prescribed in Table 18.4.
Table 18.4 Tolerances on nominal mass as per is 1786- 2008
Nominal Size Tolerance on the

Nominal mass (% )
(mm) batch
Up to and including 10 +7
Over 10 and up to and including 16 +5
Over 16 +3
18.3.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

The important Mechanical properties of Reinforcing steel (TMT/Thermax) are determined by conducting
the following tests :
I Tension test
II Bend and rebend test
III Bond test, and
IV Fatigue test
Out of the above tests, Fatigue test is carried out only for special applications where repetitive loading is
involved and is not common. Hence other three tests are dealt here:
TENSION TEST:
Tension tests determine the strength and ductility of materials under uniaxial tensile stress. This information
is useful for carrying out quality control at site to ensure structural design requirements. Tension test
is done in accordance with Indian Standard for Mechanical Testing Metals – Tensile Testing IS 1608-
1995. By conducting tension test following mechanical properties of Reinforcing steel (TMT/Thermax) are
determined.
i) 0.2 percent proof stress/yield stress,

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ii) Percentage Elongation at fracture on a gauge length of 5.65 √A, where A is the cross-sectional
area of the test piece.
iii) Ultimate Tensile Strength or simply Tensile strength.
The test consists of straining a test piece by tensile force until failure. The following procedure is adopted
in tension test:
1. Original cross-sectional area of the test piece is determined. Original gauge length is determined
using the equation Lo=5.65 √A, where Lo is the original gauge length and A is the original cross-
sectional area. Each end of the original gauge length is marked on the test piece by means of fine
marks or scribed lines.
2. Test piece is held in grips of Universal Testing Machine in such a way that force is applied as axially
as possible.
3. Extensometer (either mechanical or electronic) is fixed to the test specimen to measure the
elongation over a fixed gauge length at regular intervals during loading.
4. Loading of the test specimen is done as per IS 1608 – 1995. The rate of straining during yielding
shall be between 0.00025 per second and 0.0025 per second. The rate of stressing shall be
between 6 N/sq.mm/s and 30 N/sq.mm/s
5. Extension of the test specimen at regular intervals of load is noted. Extensometer is removed after
taking sufficient readings. Loading of the specimen is continued until failure. Ultimate (maximum)
tensile force is noted. Ultimate tensile stress is calculated using original cross sectional area of the
specimen. Final gauge length is measured using a Vernier calipers by joining the failed specimen.
Percentage elongation is calculated over original gauge length.
6. If mechanical extensometer is used in determining the elongation, a graph of stress v/s strain is
plotted. Using this graph 0.2% proof stress is determined by drawing a line parallel to the straight
portion of the curve from the point of 0.2% strain. The point at which this line intersects the curve
gives 0.2% proof stress. This is simplified by using an electronic extensometer.
Mechanical properties such as Proof stress, Percentage elongation and Tensile strength of
Reinforcing steel (TMT/Thermax) are determined on effective cross-sectional area derived based on
weight per meter of the sample. Table 18.3 shows acceptance criteria of High Strength Deformed
Reinforcing steel (TMT/Thermax).
Fig 18.1 COMPUTERISED UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Fig 18.2 ELECTRONIC EXTENSOMETER

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Table 18.5 acceptance criteria for Mechanical Properties of High Strength Deformed bars and
Wires as per is 1786 -2008 (4th revision)
S l . Property Fe 415 Fe 415D Fe 500 Fe 500D Fe 550 Fe 550D Fe 600
No
1 0.2 percent 415.0 415.0 500.0 500.0 550.0 550.0 600.0
proof stress /
yield stress, min,
N/mm2
2 E l o n g a t i o n , 14.5 18.0 12.0 16.0 10.0 14.5 10.0
percent, Min.
on gauge length
5.65 √A where
A is the cross
sectional area of
the test piece
3 Tensile strength, 10 Percent 12 Percent 8 Percent 10 Percent 8 Percent 8 Percent 8 Percent
min. more than more than m o r e more than more than m o r e more than
actual 0.2 actual 0.2 t h a n actual 0.2 actual 0.2 t h a n actual 0.2
percent percent actual 0.2 percent percent proof actual 0.2 percent
proof stress proof stress percent p r o o f stress but percent p r o o f
but not less but not less p r o o f s t r e s s not less than p r o o f stress but
than 485.0 than 485.0 stress but not 585.0 N/mm2 stress not less
N/mm2 N/mm2 but not less than but not than 66.0
less than 565.0 N/ less than N/mm2
545.0 N/ mm2 600.0 N/
mm2 mm2
4 Uniform -- 5% -- 5% -- 5% --
elongation
percent, min. on
gauge length
5.65 √A where
A is the cross
sectional area of
the test piece
• The letter D following the grades indicates the category with enhanced ductility.
• Uniform elongation: The elongation corresponding to the maximum load reached in a tensile test

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BEND AND REBEND TEST:
a. Bend Test:
The bend test consists of submitting a test piece to plastic deformation by bending, without changing the
direction of loading, until a specified angle of bend is reached. The bend test is performed in accordance
with the requirements of IS:1599-1985(Reaffirmed 1996) and the mandrel diameter shall be as specified
in Table 18.5. The test piece, when cold shall be doubled over the mandrel by continuous pressure until
the sides are parallel.
TABLE 18.6 Mandrel Diameter for Bend Test
Nominal Fe 415 Fe 415D Fe 500 Fe 500D Fe 550 Fe 550D Fe 600

size (mm)
Upto & 3j 2j 4j 3j 5j 4j 5j
including
20mm
Over 4j 3j 5j 4j 6j 5j 6j
20mm
j is the nominal size in mm of the test piece.
The bend test shall be carried out in testing machines using bending device with two supports and a
mandrel as shown in Figure 18.3.
Fig 18.3 Use of Mandrel for bend test
Acceptance criteria: The specimen is examined for development of cracks or fracture in the bent portion.
The test shall be considered to have passed, if there is no transverse crack or fracture in the bent portion.
b. Rebend Test:
The test piece is bent to an included angle of 135° using a mandrel of appropriate diameter. The bend
piece is aged by keeping in boiling water (100°C) for 30 minutes and then allowed to cool. The piece is
then bent back to have an included angle of 157.5°. The specimen shall be considered to have passed the
test if there is no fracture in the bent portion.
The diameter of the mandrel shall be as specified in Table 18.7.

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TABLE 18.7 Mandrel Diameter for Rebend test
Fe 415D & Fe
Nominal size (mm) Fe 415 & Fe 500 Fe 550 & Fe 600 Fe 550D
500D
Upto & including 5j 4j 7j 6j
10 mm
Over 10 mm 7j 6j 8j 7j
Acceptance criteria: The specimen shall be considered to have passed the test if there is no fracture in
the bent portion
BOND TEST:
High strength deformed bars shall satisfy the requirements of deformations and surface characteristics or
pull out test requirements given in IS 1786-2008.The requirement of bond is verified from the extent of rib
areas provided on the surface and also from the actual bond stress developed with concrete of specified
strength through pullout test.
a. Pull out test

Bond strength is determined by conducting the pull out test. The bond strength, or the measure of the
effectiveness of the grip between concrete and steel, has no standard quantitative definition. In pull-out
test on plain bars, the maximum load generally represents the bond strength that can be developed
between the concrete and the steel. With plain bars the maximum load is not very different from the load
at the first visible slip, but in case of the deformed bar, the maximum load may correspond to a large slip
which may not in fact be obtained in practice before other types of failure occur. It is preferable, therefore,
when comparing plain and deformed bars to determine not only the maximum load but also the load at
arbitrary amounts of slip and also plot the complete load-slip curves for the plain and deformed bars under
comparison. The sketches of the Pull-out test set up are shown in Figures 18.4.
Acceptance criteria: When subjected to pull out test in accordance with Appendix A of IS 1786-2008,
the bond strength calculated from the load at a measured slip of 0.025mm and 0.25mm for deformed
bars shall exceed that of a plain round bar of the same nominal size by 40% and 80% respectively.
Fig4 Pull out Test set up

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18.3.4 RETEST
Should any one of the test pieces first selected fail to pass any of the tests specified in IS:1786-2008, two
further samples shall be selected for testing in respect of each failure. Should the test pieces from both
these additional samples pass, the materials represented by the test samples shall be deemed to comply
with the requirements of that particular test. Should the test piece from either of these additional samples
fail, the material presented by the samples shall be considered as not having complied with IS 1786-
2008.
18.3.5 SELECTION OF SAMPLES

For checking nominal mass, tensile strength, bend test and rebend test, test specimen of sufficient length
shall be cut from each size of the finished bar at random at a frequency not less than that specified in
Table 18.8
TABLE 18.8 Frequency for Nominal mass, Tensile, Bend and Rebend tests as per is 1786-2008
Nominal size Quantity

For casts/ heats below 100t For casts/heats over 100t
For all sizes 2 per cast 3 per cast
18.4 TESTING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

It is essential to verify the properties of structural steel sections for satisfactory performance, as the
designer relies on many properties such as yield strength, tensile strength, ductility and weldability. In
order to ensure the consistent quality of steel and dimensional accuracy, the testing of steel according to
standardised procedure becomes a necessity.
18.4.1 GRADES OF STEEL:

According to IS 2062-2011 “Steel for General Structural Purposes- Specification”, Grade A, Grade B and
Grade C are three grades of structural steel manufactured for use in different applications. Grade A steel
is of relevance to Civil Engineers.
Table 18.9 Mechanical properties of Structural Steel
Grade Tensile Yield Stress (Min.) (MPa) for thickness in Percentage Elongation
Designation Strength (Min.) mm at Gauge Length, 5.65
(MPa) <20 20-40 >40 √S0 Min.
E 250 410 250 240 230 23
E 300 440 300 290 280 22
E 350 490 350 330 320 22
E 410 540 410 390 380 20
E 450 570 450 430 420 20

18.4.2 TESTING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

TENSION TEST
Tensile testing of metals including structural steel is done as per the procedures laid down in IS 1608-1995.

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Indian Standard Angle sections, channel sections, I- sections cannot be tested as it is. Standard specimens
are required to be made as per the following details:
a. Dimensions of the Test piece:

Parallel Length of Machined Test Piece: The parallel length (Lc) shall be at least equal to:
Lo + d/2 in the case of test pieces with circular cross-section
Lo + 1.5/So in the case of prismatic test pieces.
Where Lo is the original gauge length and ‘So’ is original cross sectional area.
Lo is determined by
Lo = k √So ,
Where, k is equal to 5.65 which gives Lo = 5d in case of test pieces of circular cross-section.
Fig 18.5. Shape and size of sample to be prepared from structural steel element for test
Reference Designation
1 Thickness of a flat piece or wall thickness of a tube
2 Width of the parallel length of a flat piece or average width of a longitudinal strip from a
tube or width of flat wire
3 Diameter of the parallel length of a circular test piece, or diameter of round wire or internal
diameter of a tube
4 External diameter of a tube
5 Original gauge length
6 Parallel length
7 Total length of test piece
8 Final gauge length
9 Original cross-sectional area of the parallel length

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10 Minimum cross-sectional area after fracture
12 Gripped ends
The specimen prepared is subjected to tension test in UTM. The yield load and breaking load is noted. The
% elongation over the gauge length is calculated. The yield stress and ultimate strength results shall not
be less than the values given in table 18.9 for the given grade of steel.
BEND TEST
The test pieces shall be cut crosswise from plates and strips and lengthwise from sections, flats and
bars. When section permits, these shall not be less than 40 mm wide. Bend test shall be conducted in
accordance with IS 1599-1985.
18.4.3 TESTING OF PRESSTRESSING STRANDS (IS 14268-1995)

The prestressing strands which are commonly used are 7 Ply and the testing of these strands is detailed in
IS 14268-1995.
Dimensions and Mass

The 7 strand ply should comply to the requirements of nominal area and nominal mass as shown in Table
18.10. Further, the length of lay or pitch shall not be more than 12-16 times the nominal diameter. The
individual wires may be butt welded. Such joints should not be more than one in 45 m length of strand.
Table 18.10 Dimensions, Tolerances and Mass of Wire Strands(7 ply)
CLASS NOM. DIA TOLERANCE NOMINAL AREA NOMINAL MASS

mm mm sqmm kg/km
I 9.5 ±0.40 51.6 405
11.1 ±0.40 69.7 548
12.7 ±0.40 92.9 730
15.2 ±0.40 139.4 1094
II +0.66
9.5 54.8 432
-0.15
+0.66
11.1 74.2 582
- 0.15
+0.66
12.7 98.7 775
-0.15
+0.66
15.2 140.0 1102
-0.15
Tension Test
The tension test of prestressing strands is carried out in Universal Testing Machine of adequate capacity. The
Machine should be replaced with special grips for conducting test on strands. The length of strand should
be about 1m so that the standard gauge length of 600mm is ensured for fixing the special extensometer
to record the extension during testing. Before test, 10% of breaking load is applied and then extensometer
is fixed over a gauge length of 600mm (min). The load corresponding to 1% extension is noted as proof
load. The extensometer is removed and test is further continued till failure of strand. The load at failure is

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recorded as Failure Load. The % elongation over gauge length is measured after failure. The Proof load
and Failure Load should not be less than the values given in Table 18.11 for the given class of strand. The
percentage elongation should not be less than 3.5%.
Fig 18.6 Testing arrangement of Prestressing strand.
Table 18.11 Physical Properties of Strands

CLASS NOMINAL DIA mm BRAKING 0.2% PROOF LOAD
STRENGTH (90% OF BREAKING
kN STRENGTH) kN
I 9.5 89.0 80.1
11.1 120.1
108.1
12.7 160.1 144.1
15.2 240.2 216.2
II 9.5 102.3 92.1
11.1 137.9 124.1
12.7 183.7 165.3
15.2 260.7 234.6
Relaxation Test
The prestressing strand sample is intially loaded in the Universal Testing Machine to 70% of minimum
Breaking Load in 3-5 min. The reduction in load with time indicates the relaxation. The loss of load which
is the relaxation loss should not be more than 1.8% in 100 hours of loading and 2.5% after 1000 hours
of loading.
18.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS

it is important to know the properties of steels to be used and this can be obtained through appropriate
laboratory tests and comparing with the relevant Indian Standard requirements. The latest version of
the IS Code shall be refereed for compliance requirements. The testing instruments and equipment shall

350
be calibrated periodically and the tests have to be conducted by experienced personnel for reliable
results.
References:
1. IS 1786:2008 - Indian Standard Specification for High Strength Deformed Steel Bars and Wires for
Concrete Reinforcement.
2. IS 432:1982 (Reaffirmed 2009) - Specification for mild steel and medium tensile steel bars and
hard-drawn steel wire for concrete reinforcement: Part I Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars.
3. IS 2062:2011 – Hot Rolled Medium and High Tensile Structural Steel- Specification.
4. IS 1608:1995(Reaffirmed 2011) Mechanical testing of metals - Tensile Testing.
5. IS 1599:1985 (Reaffirmed 2011) Method for Bend Test.
6. BS 4449:2009- Specifications for Carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete.
7. IS 14268:1995 (Reaffirmed 2008) Uncoated Stress Relieved Low Relaxation Seven- Ply Strand for
Prestressed Concrete- Specification.
8. ASTM A 615M-12 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement (Metric)

351
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Chapter
19
Water Proofing Works

GENERAL GUIDELINES AND CRITICAL FACTORS
19. Water Proofing Works
INTRODUCTION :
Waterproofing is defined as a treatment of a surface or structure to prevent the passage of
water under hydrostatic pressure.
The success of building enclosure systems is largely dependent on the ability to control moisture. The
control of moisture can only be achieved with proper investigation, design and construction practices. Also
of importance is to understand where problems are likely to occur
Recognizing that the performance of building systems relies so heavily on design to construction aspects,
it is critical to discuss the overall design and construction process.
The performance of the enclosure systems is influenced by the design and construction process. Through
rigorous application of the criteria and design features presented the overall performance of the system for
characteristics including moisture, thermal, air quality, fire safety, and acoustics can be achieved.
“The 90%/1% Principle:As much as 90 per cent of all water intrusion problems occur within 1 per cent
of the total building or structure surface area.“
Therefore, attention to detail, particularly at penetrations is critical to the performance of enclosure

systems.
“The 99% Principle: Approximately 99 percent of waterproofing leaks are attributable to causes other
than material or system failures.“
Failures typically occur from improper design to construction practices not material failure itself.
Delivering a successful water proofed building involves various Challenging phases like
I. Design phase,
II. Specification and drawings phase
III. Contract administration,
IV. Construction / execution phase,
V. Testing, commissioning and Performance phase.

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I. Design phase
In design phase, the Engineer needs to have a basic understanding of building assembly materials and
system options, and an understanding of building design considerations. After identifying the project’s
requirements, a water proof system should be selected that optimally responds to an integration of the
project’s requirements and the system selection criteria. After the water proofing system is selected, the
specifics of the system (such as type,layers,materials,protection,execution, slope, water management,
insulation type(s) and thickness, fastener patterns, and warranty requirements) are developed and details
are designed
• The design of the waterproofing system must follow the selected structural design system. Until
the structural system is selected and certain features of the design established, it is not practical
to develop an effective waterproofing system or water management system other than at a
conceptual level.
• This phase captures the concepts, principals and standards to specific detailing for each condition,
Common details for features of water management, waterproofing protection and the basics
of system installation. Sound engineering judgment and expertise is needed to apply general
guidelines and procedures available to a particular project.
• Clear definition of the openings / penetrations required in the structural wall or floor system must
be established.
• Detailing of these openings / penetrations to make them water tight under all conditions of use
are paramount to the success of water proofing systems.
• Diagnostic investigation and problem solving
• Report writing, Checklist Preparation, method statements to be generated.
• Understand code provisions and other relevant industry standards
• Building construction and waterproofing techniques, sequence of operation to be framed.
• Knowledge of the products and techniques commonly used in waterproofing.
Critical Design Factors

• Waterproofing need and intent
• Substrate type, condition, material properties and location
• Product selection and specification,
• Structural and site drainage considerations, dependany on other works
• Thermal stresses, exposure conditions
• Differential material properties
WATER PROOFING WORKS

355
Key Performance Characteristics
• Fully adhered with uniform thickness or Loosely laid with proper anchoring system
• Ability to bridge substrate cracks
• Resistant to hydrostatic pressure
• Resistant to puncture, resistence to physical damages during construction
• Excellent lap integrity
• Broad application temperature range
• Reliable detailing, termination details, penetration details, junction details
II. Specification and Drawing Phase

• The next phase is culminated with the preparation of specifications and drawings that communicate
the architect’s design concept, structural engineers proposed system and requirements of
professional water proofing contractor for execution of the work.
• Proper specifications to address the various issues associated with water management should be
done. Where special requirements occur to amplify or highlight certain needs for the structure
in question, special notations or supplemental specifications should be drafted that address the
waterproofing system characteristics and particulars. Such specifications are typically accompanied
by detailing of the various aspects of the waterproofing installation. This detailing once established
in concept and for intent for specification requirements (prescription vs. performance) can be
supplemented by manufacturer details addressing the particulars of a given waterproofing system.
These details commonly deal with such things as penetrations, joints, overlaps, dosage,application
requirements, drains, slopes, insulations and moisture collection systems.
TYPICAL DETAILING OF WATER PROOFING SYSTEMS

356
III. Contract Administration Phase
• Adequate contract administration involving the review of material submittals and installation
sequences are important to performance, as is on site observation by the design professional
to verify that the contract document is being completed in general accordance with the design
document drawings and specifications.
• The conditions under which waterproofing must be installed at site in order to be effective and
meet the manufacturer specification for warranty must be clearly spelled out.
• Features and characteristics of each installation and system should be examined closely and
captured in the contract. Various tests on materials as well as workmanship to be explicitly spelt
in the contract.
• Number of layers,overlap requirements,protection requirements, and usage pattern of the finished
surface,wear and tear conditions,codal requirements, and local practices must be examined and
clearly spelled out in contract.
IV. Construction/ execution Phase

• Adequate construction administration involving the review of material submittals and installation
sequences are important to performance, as is on site observation by the design professional to
verify that the construction is being completed in general accordance with the design document
drawings and specifications. A well planned design improperly implemented will not provide
adequate performance.
• With the construction process underway, steps must be taken to properly coordinate the
waterproofing applications or waterproofing requirements with the general contractors
scheduling.
• A detailed checklist must be prepared indicating DO’s and Don’ts s and must be thoroughly
checked by all concerned engineers.
• Compliance for all codal and contract documents must be ensured at this stage and a sample
stretch to be done prior to proceed further with entire area.
V. Testing Phase
• Finding test methods to give that assurance has evolved over the decades, with each new
advancement in testing providing either more accurate results, results in less time, or both. Some
information about the historical as well as state of the art testing methods available is listed
below.
• Historically there have been five widely used testing methods for testing of horizontal membranes:
spray testing, flood testing, capacitance (impedance) testing, nuclear metering, and infrared (IR)
thermal imaging.
• Within the last two decades, two new methods of testing have revolutionized the leak detection
and integrity testing industry. These methods utilize electricity and a simple electric circuit to detect
and identify problem conditions in roofing and waterproofing systems.
• These are generically referred to as ‘Low Voltage Electrical Conductance Testing’ and ‘High Voltage
Spark Testing’. To explain or address all the principles and subtleties of how each testing method
should be done to provide accurate results would require more time and space than allowed. This
presentation will focus on highlighting the testing methodologies, scientific principles, and their
advantages and limitations. Special attention will be given to limitations.
• As with most investigative tools, the test method selected is only as good as the experience of
the person used to perform the test. Knowledge of all the test method options is only the first

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step. Knowing the benefits and more importantly the limitations of each system will assist a
knowledgeable individual to quickly and cost effectively locate and repair all breaches.
The several methods of integrity testing and moisture detection are as follows:
System Integrity Testing:

• Low Voltage Testing
• High Voltage Testing
• Flood Testing
• Spray Testing
Moisture Detection:
• Capacitance Testing
• Infrared Thermography
• Nuclear Meter

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FACTORS INFLUENCE / AFFECTS THE SELECTION OF WATER PROOFING SYSTEMS.
1) STRUCTURAL SYSTEM, ITS BEHAVIOUR
2) CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE, JOINTS
3) TYPE OF ROOFING / PROFILE OF BUILDING
4) THERMAL MOVEMENTS
5) WATER MANAGEMENT-SLOPE,DRAINAGE SYSTEM, WATER PRESSURE ETC
6) RAIN / PERCHED WATER CHEMISTRY, INTENSITY
7) LEAKAGE DETECTION SYSTEM
8) SPEED OF EXECUTION
9) USAGE OF TERRACE ,WET AREAS, BASEMENTS
10) BUILDING ENVELOP
11) SIZE OF THE ELEMENTS
12) INSULATION REQUIREMENTS
13) COST AND RISK FACTOR
14) ACCESSIBILITY, MAINTAINANCE FACTORS
General Classification
The entire water proofing technology can be broadly classified into three categories namely.
• The Barrier System,
• The Integral water proofing system and
• The penetrative system.
The Barrier System

In case of Barrier system, an impermeable layer is created between the surface to be protected and the
water ingress path. Brick coba method and stone methods like cudappah or tandoor are one of the oldest
methods of barrier systems. There are several suitable and effective barrier systems and among which,
different types of coatings and membranes are in common use. However for a general understanding,

359
these can be further sub classified as below;
1. Coatings -a. Polymer based coatings

-b. Polyurethane based coatings
2. Pre formed membranes -a. Tar felt or Bitumen felt system
-b. APP Membrane system
-c. SBS Membrane system
-d. PVC Membrane system
-e. EPDM Membrane system
-f. Bentonite Membrane system
-g. HDPE Membrane system
-h. TPO Membrane system
3. Built up membranes-Liquid spray applied
a. Spray applied advanced polyurethane membrane system
b. Spray applied Polyurea membrane system
c. Spray applied neoprene rubber modified water based membrane system
I. Coatings
In case of Modified polymeric System, pure polymeric system is modified using fillers. Cementitious
modified polymeric coating comprises of cement as filler or modifier. Blend of fine aggregate such as
silica, quarry dust and cement can also be used as modifier. This leads to more economic system. MPS can
be brush or spray applied.
a. Polymer based coatings

These coatings are generally applied to both internal and external surfaces where the final coated surface
is not exposed to atmosphere as these coatings are not UV resistant and requires a protective screed /
layer. The Overall thickness of these coatings formed generally is less than 2 mm
1. Pure Polymeric coatings
2. Modified Polymeric
3. Acrylic co-polymer system
4. Rubber/Bitumen modified emulsions
b. Polyurethane based coatings

With advanced technologies available, PU coating can also be
applied to external or exposed surfaces. When PU coating is
modified with bitumen modifier, it extensively enhances the
elastic property of the system. PU modified system is normally
used with a protective screed / layer.

360
Typical comparison of various properties of some of the materials are listed below for
reference
PROPERTIES EPOXY POLYURETHANE POLYUREA Rubberised

membranes
Adhesion Excellent Very Good Excellent Good
Abrasion Resistance Good Excellent Excellent moderate
Chemical Resistance Excellent Good Good moderate
Component Stress Poor Good Good Poor
Cost Moderate High High moderate
Coefficient Of Thermal Low Medium Medium Low
Expansion
Elongation Low High Medium Medium
Exothermic Higher Medium Low High
Handling Straight Fwd Straight Fwd Req’s Skilled Easy
High Temp Operation Good Poor Very Good Poor
Impact Resistance Good Excellent Excellent Good
Low Temp Operation Average Good Good Average
Moisture Sensitivity Low High Excellent moderate
Thin Film Cure Slow Variable Very Fast Fast
Tensile Strength High Medium Very High Medium
Tear Strength N/A Excellent Excellent Medium
Thermal Cycling Ability Excellent Very Good Very Good Low
II. Preformed Membranes

a. Tar Felt or Bitumen Felt System
Tar felt water proofing Very old system and not a permanent solution. The system is probably the oldest in
practice and uses layers of tar interspersed with various forms of reinforcements to hold the layer together
and prevent cracking to provide impermeable layer between the water and the surface to be protected.
Depending on the number of layers used it is variously categorized as three later, five layer or seven
layer tar felting treatment. Traditionally hessian based roofing felts impregnated with low grade bitumen
are used as Bitumen Felts. These hessian fibers act as restraints in the flow of bitumen in hot weather,
resist contraction during cold weather and essentially reinforce the membrane. During the manufacturing
process, hessian fibers get saturated in the bitumen and subsequently as the matrices age, degradation
sets in due to oxidation making the felts brittle. This characteristic of brittleness lead to ingress of water
and the system fail.
Service life of Bitumen felts is about 5 years and effective water proofing not guaranteed. Due to this
reason though Tar felting once universally used is found to be inadequate even for the primary function
for which it is designed.
b. APP (Atactic Polypropylene Polymer) membrane

One type of pre-formed membranes is the polymer-modified bitumen membranes and they are applied
by heat or attached with an adhesive. These blended or ‘modified’ asphaltic products are bonded to a
high strength fabric of polyester or fiberglass and produced into rolls. They have elongation and recovery
properties which make them suitable to protect against stresses created by wind, temperature fluctuation

361
and normal structural expansion and contraction of the building. Some of these products are also modified
to increase their resistance to fire, thus increasing their fire-rating.
Atactic Polypropylene Polymer (APP) rolls are modified with ‘plasticizers’ and not compatible with all
petroleum-based products, grease and oils.
c. SBS membrane - Torch on or self adhesive membranes

Styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) rolls are modified with ‘rubbers’ and compatible with petroleum products.
These types of pre-formed membranes are the polymer-modified bitumen membranes and they are applied
by heat or attached with an adhesive.
d. PVC membrane -Loosely laid and mechanically anchored / Fully adhered

system
Another type of pre-formed membrane is made of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). Although PVC is a hard
resin, it is modified with the addition of plasticizers to make it more supple and pliable for use as roofing
membranes. PVC membranes are mainly produced by either the calendaring or extrusion process. In the
calendaring process, a reinforcement layer of glass fibre or polyester scrim is normally incorporated into
the membrane to provide greater strength and dimensional stability. Like all thermoplastic membranes,
they turn soft when subjected to heat. Some proprietary membranes are formulated with heat reflective
compounds capable of lowering the surface temperature of the roof membrane by as much as 15%.

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e. EPDM Membrane - Loosely laid and mechanically anchored / Fully adhered
system
EPDM is a synthetic rubber sheet. EPDM membranes are extremelyresistant to weathering, and they
have very good low-temperature flexibility. However, EPDM is susceptible to swelling when exposed to
aromatic, halogenated and aliphatic solvents, and animal and vegetable oils such as those exhausted from
kitchens. On portions of roofs where the membrane may be exposed to these materials, an epichlorohydrin
membrane can be specified over the EPDM as discussed below. EPDM membranes are suitable at airport
buildings, provided liquid fuel is not spilled on the membrane.
The sheets are typically available in widths of 10, 20 and 45 or 50 feet [3, 6 and 14 or 15 m], and lengths
up to 200 feet [61 m]. Hence, on large roofs with very few penetrations, this type of membrane can be
very economical to install. Most EPDM sheets are black, although white sheets are available. White sheets,
however, are not nearly as resistant to weathering as black sheets. EPDM is typically non-reinforced.
However, only reinforced sheets are recommended for mechanically attached and loose-laid air-pressure
equalized applications. Reinforced sheets also offer some increased resistance to puncture and tearing
when used in fully adhered and ballasted applications.
In fully adhered applications, typically a contact adhesive is applied to the substrate and the sheet. After
the adhesive dries, the sheet is mated with the substrate. Another method of application uses fleece-
backed EPDM, which is set in a low-rise sprayed polyurethane foam adhesive.

363
Field seams are fabricated with either a liquid-applied adhesive or specially formulated tape. Although
tapes offer performance advantages over liquid-applied adhesives, the contractor still needs to exercise
care in cleaning the EPDM prior to tape application, priming the EPDM and diligently executing the seam
work as recommended by the manufacturer.
f. Bentonite based membrane systems
Sodium Bentonite has the ability to absorb small amounts of water and to prevent the penetration of more
water. This is similar to creating a molecular “ball valve” where in the transmission rate through it drops
as you increase the pressure. Only the sodium Bentonite generates the internal pressure when it gets wet
necessary to form a waterproof seal. The confinement of wet Bentonite prevents further expansion and
therefore stops water absorption and/or penetration. This is the mechanism Bentonite uses to waterproof
buildings.
This confining expansion of wet Bentonite also gives it the capability to prevent water migration, to self-
repair damaged areas and to reseal cracks that will occur from time to time in most concrete. Bentonite ‘S
capacity to “self-repair” and a potential life span measured in centuries (it is already up to 90 million years
old) makes it the major sealing component of virtually all toxic waste and landfill projects. In combination
with the strength and impervious qualities of high-density polyethylene (HDPE), Bentonite/HDPE composite
creates a strong, resealing waterproofing system providing waterproof protection. The construction of
permanent earthen dams, levees and ponds are rendered waterproof by the incorporation of Bentonite
products.
For the ultimate in multi-layered waterproofing system, Bentonite clay is laminated on both sides of
virgin HDPE membrane to form a waterproof barrier on both surfaces. This will eliminate water migration
between building layers. The toughest projects (such as blindside installations, shot Crete lagging, under
slab floors, and elevator pits under hydrostatic conditions) require an unmatched waterproofing system,
with multiple layers in one membrane.
g. HDPE Membrane - Loosely laid and mechanically anchored or self-adhesive

membranes
This waterproof membrane adopts high-density polyethylene (HDPE) as the main waterproof layer, which
is composed of HDPE layer / self-adhesive layer, protective layer (for environmental change), and isolated
layer. The self-adhesive layer and protective layer have self-healing function. This waterproof membrane
reserves a 70 mm wide self-adhesive overlap edge on the long side. After its reaction with liquid state
concrete mortar, a seamless combination between the waterproof layer and concrete structure is achieved,
this improves the reliability of the waterproof system. HDPE waterproof membrane has found a wide scope
of applications, and is widely applied in underground projects.

364
Features
• New wet bonding technique: after moisture curing reaction between cement slurry and high
polymer, the membrane and the structural layer are firmly bonded, improving the reliability of the
waterproof layer.
• The waterproof membrane is not bonded with the substrate, so the sedimentation and deformation
of the substrate will not affect the waterproof performance.
• Excellent shock resistance and puncture resistance: can withstand the working load and the attack
of the reinforcement cage, eliminating the need for special protections
• Strong self-healing function: unique self-healing capacity for slight construction damage
• Outstanding chemical resistance: good resistibility towards the alkali water from the concrete,
home scrap has no effect on it.
• Wet construction, remove the need for levelling layer, the construction is not limited by the
condition of weather.
• Minimal surface treatment: doesn’t need oil or heat to dry the wet substrate, with no volatile
substance
• Have no need for cement mortar protective course
• Cold construction, need no cementing agent, safe and environment-friendly
h. T P O Membrane - Loosely laid and mechanically anchored / Fully adhered

system
• TPO is short for
Thermo-Plastic
Olephine and is
quickly becoming
the standard for
low slope roofing
applications. TPO is
a highly reflective
and durable single
ply membrane.
What makes TPO
great is its’ ease of

365
installation and its heat welded seams.
• Hot air, forced from electric heaters, is used to fuse flashings and seams. In addition TPO is available
in rolls larger than more traditional roofing systems meaning fewer seams. Less seams means less
chance for failure. TPO is an excellent choice where minor ponding water may exist due to its
excellent lack of water permeability.
• TPO is commonly installed mechanically fastened or fully adhered. Due to its’ lightweight nature
it can often times be installed over existing roofing systems (when code allows). TPO is available
in thickness ranging from 45 mils up to 80 mills. As you can imagine the thicker TPO will be more
durable, last longer, is able to be warranted for longer terms, but also does require more up-front
investment.
Product Specifications - Typical

Thickness (mm) Width (m) Length (m)
1.2
2.0, 2.4, 3.0, 3.6 15, 20, 30
1.5
Performance Index - Typical

Item Performance Index
Tensile strength at break, N/50mm ≥ 500
Elongation at break, % ≥ 450
Tear strength, N ≥ 20
Water Impermeability(0.3MPa, 30min) No leakage
Low temperature bending temperature, ≤ -40
Heating extensive quantity(80, 168h) mm Extend ≤ 2
Shrink ≤ 2
Seam peel strength, N/mm ≥ 1.5
Water absorbing capacity (70, 166h), % ≤ 3.0
Alkali resistance (10%Ca(OH)2, Normal Conservation rate of tensile strength at break, % ≥ 90

conditions, 168h) Maximum elongation, % ≥ 90
Anti-ozone performance (40 *168h, No cracking
200*10-8 )
Conservation rate of breaking strength, % ≥ 90
Hot air aging(116, 680h)
Conservation rate of tensile strength at break, % ≥ 90
Conservation rate of breaking strength, % ≥ 90
Artificial weathering
Conservation rate of tensile strength at break, % ≥ 90
Combined strength(FSZ type surface layer and sandwich layer)N/mm ≥ 1.2
Features
1. TPO material combines the advantages of the EP (weather resistance and durability) and polypropylene
(weld ability).
2. Special formulation, need no plasticizer (which may make the material fragile), with high flexibility
and long-term waterproof performance

366
3. There is a layer of polestar fabric between two layers of TPO materials, which can improve the
physical performance, breaking strength, as well as fatigue-resistance and puncture-resistance
ability. So it is applicable to mechanical fastening roofing system.
4. Outstanding flexibility at low temperature (-40℃), super mechanical strength at high temperature.
5. Thermal aging resistance, good dimension stability
6. Exceptional chemical resistance: corrosion resistant to acid, alkali, salt, animal fat, vegetable oil,
lubricant
7. The TPO in the surface of the reinforcing layer is mainly in white color, flexible and smooth.
8. For it contains no chlorinated polymer or chlorine, it is beneficial to the environment and construction
safety.
9. Adopt thermal welding for overlapping, which can form high strength sealing layer.
• TPO Membrane Thermal Welding System

TPO membrane lap seam adopts adhesive lap joint using hot air. The adjacent membranes overlap each
other by means of thermal welding to form continuous sealing waterproof layer of the whole membrane.
Thermal welding is applicable to fix each membrane and substrate.
• TPO Membrane Roofing System (Mechanical Fastening)

TPO membrane roofing system usually adopts mechanical fastening. Fastening screw or setting-up piece
are used to fix the lower layer of membrane overlap to the substrate, while the overlap between the upper
layer of membrane and the lower layer of membrane adopts hot air welding. The outer edge of joint can
be sealed by sealant according to engineering requirement.
• Mechanical Fastening System

Construction Points
1. Substrate: The substrate the TPO will be laid should be firm, smooth, clean and dry. The movement
joint part should be sealed at first, and add an extra TPO membrane as an additional layer.
2. Pre-laying of TPO membrane: Lay the membrane orderly, avoiding twisting or overlapping of the
adjacent membranes.
3. Overlap uses thermal welding, 150mm wide membrane (long side) should be removed between
two adjacent membranes, the fasteners of the lower layer of the membrane are covered by the
upper layer, clear the welding zone before perform welding by welding torch.
4. Additional waterproofing in some special parts: Adopt non-reinforced TPO effusions substrate
as the additional waterproof layer, which connects to the main waterproof layer through hot air
welding.
• TPO Membrane Adhesive System

The substrate and the underside of membrane are fully coated with cementing agent. The overlap of
the adjacent membranes is welded by hot air, and the edge is sealed by sealant. The bonding process is
applicable to the buildings that are cement concrete base.
• Seam Overlapping Conditions

Auto hot air welding machine: usually, welding pressure: about 500~550N, welding temperature:
500~550, welding speed: 1.5-2m/min.

367
Manual welding: temperature of the welding torch is controlled from 250 to 450, welding speed is from
0.2 to 0.5 m/min.
III Built up Membranes-Liquid spray applied

Liquid-applied membranes are applied on site in a liquid form which is allowed to set and form into a
water impermeable membrane. Bituminous-based (except those containing coal tar) and polymeric-based
membranes can be applied when they are cold while those containing coal tar are usually applied when
heated.
Acrylic, bituminous, Cementitious, coal tar, epoxy, silicone, urethane, polyurethane, Polyurea materials
are used as film forming membrane over concrete surface. These materials are applied either hot or cold
over concrete by using brush, broom, roller, squeeze, spray etc. and sprayed membrane are more effective
compound with other types.
Liquid-applied membranes are seamless, semi-flexible, and easy to apply, detail, maintain and repair.
However careful supervision and control during application is needed, particularly in ensuring proper curing
of concrete, consistent thickness and uniform application. The Polyurea material is used as a liquid applied
coating to a concrete surface which gives better results than the polyurethane material. The Polyurea
membrane is used in low movement structure, waste water treatment plants and substructures. Whereas,
the polyurethane material is used in high movement structures, car parking’s, roofs etc.
a. Spray applied advanced polyurethane membrane

This waterproofing system shall be a spray applied fast curing, heat resistant polyurethane seamless
waterproofing membrane with necessary/ essential components to ensure the waterproofing integrity
of the structure. The waterproofing membrane has high elasticity, excellent tensile strength, high tear
strength and exceptional abrasion resistance. The spray applied PU waterproof system shall be of thickness
average up to 2.0mm. The system can be installed over the hardened well leveled surface of the concrete
or screed surface with leveled smooth finish and in slope. It shall cover all types of substrates (concrete /
Bitumen/ metal / wood etc. Suitable primers to be used depending on the type of substrate to enhance
the bonding) andup stand.

368
Concrete and other cementitious substrates must have a minimum pull off strength of 1.5 N/mm2.The
primer shall be a two component epoxy moisture insensitive primer for concrete substrate. Primer to
be chosen depending on the substrate. The primer shall exhibit excellent bond strength by exceeding
adhesion of 2 MPa as perASTM D 4541 testing
The waterproofing membrane shall be a solvent free two component spray applied system. It is highly
reactive and can only be applied by special, two component spray equipment.The mixed product shall
set in few seconds and makes the applied area impervious.The top sealer for use onexposed areas after
spraying of waterproof system, shall be based on aliphatic polyurethane, pigmented, single component,
moisture curing, UV and weather resistant of approved colour.
b. Spray applied advanced polyureamembrane

This waterproofing system is similar to earlier one but using a two component, 100% solids, flexible
Polyurea consists of wpe part A ISO component and WPE part B AMINE component sprayed at required
pressure to form a seamless, impervious layer.
c. Spray applied neoprene rubber modified water based membrane

This waterproofing system is similar to earlier one but using a single component, cold sprayed instant
setting self-flashing black coloured neoprene modified rubber at required pressure to form a seamless,
impervious layer.

369
TYPICAL COMPARISON OF SOME OF THE WATER PROOFING SYSTEMS
Sl# Particulars Spray applied Brush / Roller / Fully bonded rubberised
Polyurea based Spray applied Pitch APP membrane system
system Polyurethane based
system
1 Thickness 0.5mm to 4.0mm 1.0mm to 2.0mm 4mm
2 System technology Polyurea Pitch polyurethane APP Bitumen
3 Application method Sprayed Brush / Roller / Spray Torch on membrane
4 Primer application YES NO YES
5 Seamless YES YES End Lap at every 10m and
Adjacent Lap at every 1m
6 Resistances to rot YES hence NO NO
penetration recommended
7 Expansion joint Can be taken across Can be taken across Curtail at the end of
joints by providing joints by providing expansion joints
Backer rod over Backer rod over
sealant sealant
8 Adhesion with Monolithic due to 100 % Contact with Depends on application,
substrate epoxy primer and the substrate due to chances of formation of
150bar pressure liquid application form blister / bubble leads to de
spray applied system to membrane after bonding
self-curing
9 Shear resistance Excellent Good Failure can occur at lap
joint
10 Lateral Migration of Not possible Not possible vulnerable
water
11 Crack bridging Excellent Excellent poor
capacity
12 Back to service time 3 hours 72 hours 24hours
13 Recommended 1.5mm 1.3mm 4mm
thickness
14 Application per day 500 to 600 sqm 450 to 500 sqm 300 to 350 sqm
15 Protection layer Concrete screed Concrete screed 3.2mm bituboard
16 Compartmentation does not demands does not demands does not demands
17 Membrane Sand no no no
witch
370
TYPICAL COMPARISON OF SOME OF THE WATER PROOFING SYSTEMS
Sl# Particulars Fully bonded Loosely laid and Spray applied
rubberised SBS self- mechanically fastened a d v a n c e d
adhesive membrane TPO/FPA/PVC polyurethane based
system system
1 Thickness 2mm 1.2mm , 1.5mm & 2.0mm 2 mm
2 System technology SBS Membrane Loose laid membrane Advanced
Polyurethane
3 Application method Self-adhesive Hot welded membrane Sprayed
membrane
4 Primer application YES NO YES
5 Seamless End Lap at every End Lap at every 25m YES
10m and Adjacent and Adjacent Lap at every
Lap at every 1m 2.1m
6 Resistances to rot NO YES hence recommended YES hence
penetration recommended
7 Expansion joint Curtail at the end of Can be taken across joints Can be taken across
expansion joints by providing Backer rod joints by providing
over sealant Backer rod over
sealant
8 Adhesion with Depends on NO Adhesion Monolithic due to
substrate application, chances epoxy primer and
of formation of 150bar pressure
blister / bubble leads spray applied system
to de bonding
9 Shear resistance Failure can occur at Good Excellent
lap joint
10 Lateral Migration of vulnerable very high Lateral Not possible
water migration of water
11 Crack bridging poor Excellent Excellent up to
capacity 6mm
12 Back to service time 24hours 15 minutes
13 Recommended 2mm 2mm 2 mm
thickness
14 Application per day 300 to 350 sqm 600 to 700sqm 500 to 600 sqm
15 Protection layer 3.2mm bituboard does not demands does not demands
16 Compartmentation does not demands YES, using pvc water does not demands
stops
17 Membrane Sand witch no Geo textile 140 to 300 no
gsm to avoid friction and
provide cushion effect

371
Non Barrier Systems
Non barrier systems work within the matrix of a concrete structure, giving the concrete itself a waterproof
quality. There are two main types of non-barrier waterproofing systems: the hydrophilic and the hydrophobic
systems. A hydrophilic system typically uses a crystallization technology that replaces the water in the
concrete with insoluble crystals. Various brands available in the market claim similar properties, but not
all can react with a wide range of cement hydration by-products, and thus require caution. Hydrophobic
systems use fatty acids to block pores within the concrete, preventing water passage.
a) The Integral Water Proofing System

By introducing right type and dosage of additives and admixtures to the concrete to produce an intrinsically
waterproof concrete that is damp-proof and corrosion resistant, the Industry would no longer have to rely
on the risky procedure of applying membranes, coatings or other temporary barrier systems. There have
been several integral waterproofing systems developed over the years that purport to make concrete
‘damp-proof. Many have been shown to be severely limited in their long-term performance due to low
dosage or failure to address the mechanism of water ingress by capillary absorption.
The basic approach found to be useful in the application of construction chemicals is to cast as good a
concrete as possible so that the concrete itself is watertight. It should be rendered watertight by making it
denser and rectifying the various defects like honeycombs, capillaries, cracks etc. are corrected in the body
of the concrete itself. This makes the concrete strong and dense and a stronger concrete is more likely to
be watertight over a longer period of time than a weak concrete that is covered with some barrier.
The penetrative System

b) The Crystallization method
Crystalline waterproofing technology improves the waterproofing and durability of concrete by filling and
plugging pores, capillaries, micro-cracks and other voids with a non-soluble, highly resistantcrystalline
formation. The waterproofing effect is based on two simple reactions - one chemical and one physical.
Start with the basic fact that concrete is chemical in nature. When cement particles react with water in
a process known as hydration, soluble chemical by-products are also produced and lie dormant in the
concrete. When crystalline waterproofing chemicals are introduced in the presence of moisture, they
react with the by-products of cement hydration in the concrete, causing a catalytic reaction that produces
a non-soluble crystalline formation. Because this crystalline structure can only occur where moisture is
present, it will form in the pores, capillary tracts and shrinkage cracks in concrete. Wherever water goes,
the crystalline growth will follow.
When crystalline waterproofing is applied to the surface, either as a coating or as a dry-shake application
to a fresh concrete slab, a process called chemical diffusion takes place. The theory behind diffusion is that
a solution of high density will migrate through a solution of lower; density until the two equalize.
Thus, when concrete is saturated with water prior to applying crystalline waterproofing, a solution of
low chemical-density is also being applied. When crystalline waterproofing is applied to; the concrete, a
solution of high chemical density is created at the surface, triggering the process of chemical diffusion.
The crystalline waterproofing chemicals must now migrate through the water (the solution of low density)
until the two solutions equalize.
The crystalline waterproofing chemicals now spread through the concrete and become available to the
byproducts of cement hydration, allowing the chemical reaction to take place. A crystalline structure is
formed, and as the chemicals continue to migrate through the water, this crystalline growth will form
behind this |advancing front of chemicals. This reaction will continue until the crystalline chemicals are
either depleted or run out of water. Chemical diffusion can take these chemicals: about 12 inches (30 cm)

372
into the concrete. ! If water has only soaked 2 inches into the ‘ I surface, then the crystalline chemicals will
only travel 2 inches and stop, but it still has the potential to travel 10 inches further if water re-enters the
concrete at some point in the future and reactivates the chemicals.
Instead of just reducing the porosity of concrete, like water reducers, plasticizers, and super plasticizers,
the crystalline ; formation engages the material filling and plugging the voids in concrete to become an
integral and permanent part of the structure.
Traditional methods of water proofing systems followed

Brick Bat Coba Method (BBC)
All existing treatment, coatings on roof slab top is to be removed and surface cleaned by hard wire brush
and washed with water. The surface should be free from any oil, grease, dust etc. Remedial measured by
provided to all structural cracks. Expansions joints should be treated as per standard practice.
All non-structural cracks more than 0.5 mm wide and construction joints if any, should be cut in “V”
shape, cleaned with wire brush and washed and filled with suitable crack filler. Cement slurry mixed with
recommended water proofing compound is spread uniformly.
Application
Over this 15 mm thick cement, sand mortar, 1:4 admixed, with water proofer is laid. On the above green
mortar, a layer of brick bats, soaked overnight in water, is laid, having an average thickness of about 110
mm, about 70 mm near rain water pipe and 150 mm at ridge and slopes as required are provided.
The gaps between the brick bats are generally kept between 15 and 20 mm. These gaps are filled with
cement sand mortar, 1:4, admixed with water proofing compound either in liquid or powder form. It is
preferable to mix the water proofing compound with the water prior to mixing it with mortar mix. In hot
and dry weather, the surface should be covered with wet gunny bags immediately after finishing. Curing
should start next day and continued for 7 days. The top surface is then finished smooth with 20 mm thick
cement sand mortar, 1:4, admixed with water proofer. The surface when green is marked with 300 mm
false squares. Curing is to be done by ponding.
The system provides an excellent slope for the water to drain away and since water does not accumulate
there is no leakage. Also it has a certain water retaining capacity and water is absorbed by the brick when
it rains and released when it stops. Of course overloading results in leakages.
This system has some inherent disadvantages as below;
Cracks Due To Temperature Variations- The BBC treatment through successful in the damp heat of coastal
regions cracks up completely on contact with the variations of temperature faced in North India between
day and night temperature.
Imposes Unnecessary Load- This system has the disadvantage of imposing an unnecessary load on the
system. Once cracks appear they are almost impossible to repair and water as in the case of the tar
felting travels below the coba and exits wherever it finds a path. It is impossible to trace the inlet point let
alone repair it.

373
Almost Impossible To Dismantle For Repairs- Some parts of the coba stick so well to the concrete that even
if an attempt is made to dismantle the system the slab gets damaged.
Lime Surki or Lime Concrete Method (IS3036-1992)

Application Areas: Flat Roofs, Roofs with moderate slope
This method of water proofing is more suitable for hot and humid regions of India. This system requires
high quality workmanship. The procedure for surface preparation is same as mentioned in earlier methods.
During British rule this system became more popular not because of its waterproofing efficiency but
because of its efficiency in keeping the interiors cool.
Some applicators developed better skills in laying these systems, with neatly finished top with lines engraved
on top of plastic mortar now known as IPS. Some practiced embedding broken tile or ceramic pieces in the
plastic mortar and called it china mosaic. This type of system remained popular most with multi-storeyed
construction in all major cities.
The system lasts up to 15 years if done by skilful applicators. This system may be considered more from
its weather proofing abilities rather than its waterproofing qualities. Once water starts entering into the
brickbat coba the brick pieces absorb too much of water and the roof becomes an invisible pond of water
continuously causing leakage and increasing burden on the roof slab.
It will be highly beneficial if brick-bat coba is laid on a flexible waterproofing membrane as water proofing
as well as economical weather proofing can be achieved with this system.
Materials
Lime- As far as possible class C lime (fat lime) in the form of hydrated lime conforming to IS 712: 1984
shall be used.
Quick lime shall be slaked in accordance with IS 1635:1975.
Coarse Aggregate-Coarse aggregate for use in lime concrete having maximum size of 25 mm shall be
broken brick (burnt clay) aggregates conforming to IS 3068:1986 or natural stone aggregates conforming
to IS 383: 1970 depending upon the situation of use.
Water
Water used for both mixing and curing concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of
deleterious materials. Sea water shall not be used. Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for
mix.
Preparation Mortar for Concrete

One part of slaked lime and two parts of burnt brick Pozzolana (or lime Pozzolana mixture) by volume shall
be mixed on a water tight platform. This shall then be sprinkled with the required quantity of water and
shall be well ground in a mill or using mechanical grinder. Hand pounding maybe done for small quantity.
If hydrated lime is used adjustments shall be made in the proportion in accordance with IS 2250: 1981.
Coarse Aggregate
If coarse aggregate contains excessive dirt it shall be washed and well drained before use. Burnt clay or
other porous coarse aggregate shall be thoroughly soaked in water for a period not less than six hours
before use in concrete mix.
Mixing
Lime concrete may be hand mixed or small hand operated mixer may be used. For large quantities the use
of mechanical mixer would be desirable. Two and a half parts by volume of clean saturated surface dry

374
coarse aggregate shall first be fed into the mixer and then one part by volume of lime. Pozzolana mortar
as per 6.1 shall then be added to the mixer and the content mixed well.
Mixing shall be continued until there is a uniform distribution of the material. Final adjustment of water,
to obtain concrete of required consistency may be made by adding clean water, if necessary, and; turning
the ingredients in the mixer.
Laying
Laying of lime concrete shall be started from a corner of the roof and proceed diagonally towards centre
and other sides considering the slopes required for draining the rain¬water smoothly. The average thickness
of lime concrete shall not be less than 100 mm. In case the thickness is more than 100 j mm each layer
shall not be more than 100; to 125 mm.
If the roof is fat, slope not less than 1 in 60 shall be given. However, in case of heavy rainfall area slope
of 1 in 40 is recommended. The minimum compacted thickness of the concrete layer shah, however, be
nowhere less than 50 mm.
After the lime concrete is laid, it shall be initially rammed with a rammer weighing not more than 2 kg and
the finish brought to the required evenness and slope. Alternately bamboo strips may be used for the initial
ramming. Further consolidation shall be done using wooden THAPIES with rounded edges. The workmen
will sit close together, and beat the surface lightly and in rhythm and move forward gradually. The beating
will normally have to be carried on for at least seven days until the THAPI makes no impression on the
surface and rebounds readily from it when struck.
If the surface during the process of compaction becomes too uneven that water lodges in pools, the
surface shall be pricked and fresh lime concrete spread and consolidated as is necessary so as to ensure
proper slopes and levels are being maintained with adequate bonding between old and new concrete by
sprinkling requisite quantity of lime water. Special care shall be taken to properly consolidate the concrete
at its junction with the parapet wall. During compaction by hand-beating the surface shall be sprinkled
liberally with lime water ( 1 Part of putty and 3 to 4 parts of water ) and small proportion of sugar solution
or a solution prepared by soaking in water the dry nuts of Terminalia chebula for obtaining improved
waterproofing of the concrete. On completion of beating, the mortar that comes on the top shall be
smoothened with a trowel or float, if necessary, with the addition of sugar solution and lime putty.
Curing
The lime concrete after compaction shall be cured for a minimum of 10 days or until it hardens by covering
with a thin layer of grass or straw which shall be kept wet continuously.
Finish
In case of accessible roof finish one
layer of burnt clay flat terracing tiles
may be laid lover a thin layer of lime
mortar. However, in the extreme
condition where there is considerable
expansion and contraction, two layers
of tiles may be put on the top of lime
pozzolana concrete. The tiles should be
joined with non-shrinking impervious
mortar by adding suitable integral
waterproofing admixtures or 5 percent
used engine oil by weight of cement
and finished neat.

375
The protection against water penetration for the roof finish is enhanced by efficient drainage of surface
water For this purpose, the slope of the terrace with lime concrete and tile finish shall not be less than 1
in 60 and the slope in the case of plain lime concrete finish shall not be less than 1 in 50. For every 40 m2
of roof area, one 100 mm diameter rain water pipe shall be provided.
Bituminous Methods (IS-1346-1991)

Discovery of petroleum and its products and by-products has given the construction industry an indispensable
product in the form of bitumen. Bitumen is more commonly used in the form of felt or flexible membrane
formed by sandwiching jute fabric or fibreglass/polypropylene mats with chemically modified bitumen.
These membranes are laid on the roofing over a bitumen primer.
There are two types of membranes one is cold applied and the other hot applied which means one needs
to heat the edges of the felt with a torch so that they melt and stick to the second layer in the overlap
area. On the RCC flat roofs the bitumen felts have not been successful because of the unacceptable black
appearance and inaccessibility of the terrace for other social uses.
Technically it is not preferred because bitumen layer or felt on the terrace not only makes it watertight
but also airtight. Concrete has the breathing property. It takes water/moisture and breathes out water
vapour. Hindrance of this breathing property of concrete develops pore pressure, which causes blisters
in the felt. After a few seasons the blisters multiply and eventually de-laminate the felt from the concrete
surface. Hindrance of breathing property of concrete makes the concrete weak. But on the asbestos
cement sheets and zinc sheets in factory roofs this bitumen felt is the only dependable waterproofing
system. Hence all factory roofs in India adopt this water proofing system.
Bitumen is very effective in waterproofing of basements from outside. Bitumen primers have very successfully
been used as damp-proof course in earlier days. This practice is slowly discontinued for whatever reasons
now very few engineers now believe that this was in practice once. As consequence of this absent DPC we
have a lot of cases of rising dampness, which we tend to attribute to wrong reasons such as the quality
or salinity of sand etc. Bitumen still is the product of first choice where it is commonly recommended, in
areas such as industrial roof waterproofing, basement waterproofing, and damp-proof course. More over
bitumen is the most economical product available for waterproofing. Following methods are discussed
here.
• Painting with Hot Bitumen

• Bitumen felt or Tar Felt
• Built up Bitumen Membrane
Painting with Hot Bitumen

The surface shall be painted when it is thoroughly dry. The surface to be painted shall be cleaned with wire
brushes and cotton or gunny cloth. All loose materials
Traditionally hessian based roofing felts impregnated with low grade bitumen are used as Bitumen Felts.
These hessian fibers act as restraints in the flow of bitumen in hot weather, resist contraction during cold
weather and essentially reinforce the membrane. During the manufacturing process, hessian fibers get
saturated in the bitumen and subsequently as the matrices iage, degradation sets in due to oxidation I
making the felts brittle. This characteristic i of brittleness leads to ingress of water and the system fails.
Service life of Bitumen felts is about 5 years and effective water proofing not guaranteed. Due to this
reason though Tar felting once universally used is found to be i inadequate even for the primary function
for which it is designed.

376
Disadvantage
The tar oil that is the binder in the system disintegrates on contact with both ‘UV radiation and aggressive
chemicals in subsoil water and then this leads to biodegradation of hessian reinforcement leading to
collapse of the system.
The specification clearly states that a light roller should be used on top of the tar felt so that air pockets
are eliminated. This is never done and so the air pockets remain in the system and the air expands and
contracts with every heating cooling cycle leading to stress on the reinforcement and ultimately they burst
leading to water ingress.
A typical problem is that since the adherence to the surface is never complete channels get formed below
the tar felting and water which enters from one place travels though these and exits wherever it finds a
weak point in the concrete. Repairs if any in tar felt have to be carried out at points sometimes far away
from the point that leaks and this is hard to identify.
Box Method and Surface method of water proofing

This method is quite popular with some designers and effective even now.
In this method stone slabs (Kota or Shahabad Stones) are first laid in the excavated pit over blinding
concrete in a staggered joint fashion to avoid the continuity of the mortar joints. The joints are effectively
filled with rich mortar admixed with integral waterproofing compound and cured. Over this the raft as laid
and shear/brick walls constructed.
The slabs are erected around the walls in a similar fashion leaving a gap of one to two inches between
the external surface of the wall and the inner face of the stone surface. The joints again effectively sealed
with rich admixed mortar and the same mortar is filled in the gap between the wall and the stones. This
stonework is continued up to ground level. In this system the raft and the sidewalls are protected from
direct exposure to sub soil water.
This system works on two principles of common sense. First the area exposed to subsoil water is only the
area of the joint where as the whole stone is impervious to water, hence only a fraction of area, that is,
:that of the joint is exposed to subsoil water, while the joint itself is filled with rich and quality mortar.
Secondly, the path of water to reach the raft or the sidewall is elongated. This elongated path is through
quality : mortar. This system seeks to delay the occurrence of leakages in the basements. A lot of building
structures are waterproofed by this system.
Floor Installation
Preparation of surface by cleaning, leveling etc.
20 mm thick cement-sand-mortar mixed with water proofing powder, 4% by weight of cement shall be
laid on PCC and 20 mm graded aggregate free from impurities shall be spread on the floor. It shall be
cured for 3 days.
Provide insert sockets and pipes to release the sub soil water pressure. • Then 18-20 mm thick stones ( Kota
or Shahbad) of approximate 600 x 600 mm in size shall be laid flat and joined with cement-sand-mortar.
This shall project 300 mm all around RCC raft. The stones shall be hard tough and free from cracks.
Then the surface shall be screeded with cement-sand mortar and finished smooth.
RCC raft, walls or masonry shall be constructed as designed.
• The sockets / pipes are grouted with pressure.

377
• Columns or any support etc. coming out of raft shall be sealed with poly-sulphide sealant at PCC
level and at top of raft.
Wall Installation
About 20 mm thick stone slabs shall be fixed with cement sand grout 1:4 (1cement: 4 sand). Grout mixed
with water proofing compound 4% by weight of cement and joint well grouted and cured.
External surface shall be plastered 20mm thick with cement sand mortar 1:4 (1cement: 4 sand) mixed with
4% by weight of water proof compound and in ratio
roughened. Vertical joints shall be well cleaned and grouted to make sure it forms a continuous
treatment. If required joint may be treated with sealant. Treatment shall be taken about 300 mm above
finished level. All pipes etc. coming out of walls shall be sealed by grouting with sealant
Re-roofing - major challenges

Refurbishment of an old, leaking roof is always very difficult as it comes with various challenges:
• Removal of existing layer : time, its debris management, extra cost
• Lack of information on the previous installation
• Lots of detailing, congestion and lack of open space
• Direct bonding with existing bitumen layer
• Dead load
• Renovation like asbestos, tile, thin metal deck, brick bat coba.
Refurbishment of old roofs with minimum

inconvenience & fast completion

378
• Small congested areas
• Areas with lots of penetrations
• Another key concern in a re-roofing work remains the “fire hazards” especially in an already
running building or industrial unit, which meant that systems involving open flame or similar
technique of application for the re-roofing work was “high risk” and banned in many countries.
However, with the latest development in the polyurethane chemistry with “Moisture Triggered Chemistry”
based Polyurethane in liquid form, there has been a leap frog movement in terms of “technology”
-”Performance” - “Reliability” and “Return on investment”.
This now provides a completely new dimension when it comes to planning for a re-roofing of an old
leaking roof, as this technology comes with several benefits which actually evolved by addressing the
genuine concerns and limitations of the earlier technology in liquid applied system
Product range with different combinations for various building

areas.
Sl # Type Features Areas of applications
1 Polymer modified i) More flexible and elastic i) Water proofing of roof slabs,
bitumen coatings foundation, basements, floors, and
underground structures, storage
tanks, pipelines etc. ii) Heavy
duty roof coating for new or old
construction, iii) Water proofing of
domes shells.
ii) Their elastic recovery is high and
are best suited for cooler climates.
Better resistance to fracture over
a wide range of temperature and
moisture variations,
iii) Provide protective coating after
curing time of 690 days,
iv) Cracks under weathering action,
v) Black in colour and therefore not
pleasing in appearance
2 Polymer Modified i) Treated or reinforced felt Roofs and basements require
bitumen felts. sandwiched between polymer protection on top with grit/sand or
modified bitumen layers, aluminium paint from ultraviolet
rays of sun. Terraces, water tanks
swimming pools.
ii) Laid by pour or roll method with
joints sealed by flow torch
iii) Behaves like a continuous
membrane,

379
3 Prefabricated elastic i) Polymeric bitumen reinforced with Roofs and basements require
membrane. non-woven plastic fabric, protection on top with grit/sand or
aluminium paint from ultraviolet
rays of sun. Terraces, water tanks
swimming pools.
ii) Provided with a thin polyurethane
film on outer surface,
iii) Available in rolls of 20 x 2sqm.
iv) Life 5-15 years. High crack
resistant and heat resistant
4 Polymer Emulsions/ i) Performance is good, To prevent dampness and
membranes water efflorescence and for water
based coatings based proofing of terraces, walls, chajjas
on. PVA, SBR etc. and all other concrete surfaces.
Terrace gardens.
ii) Allows concrete to breathe without
allowing diffusion of Oxygen, C02,
rainwater etc. from outside,
iii) Acrylic emulsion has better
compatibility with the substrates
and better weatheability.
iv) These are transparent after
drying,
v) Excellent adhesion to all types of
building materials such as Concrete
stone, brick and timber,
vi) Resistance to high temperature
variations, ultra-violet rays etc.
vii) Weight of treatment only 0.4 kg/
sqm.
viii) Not suitable for surfaces having
macro pores,
ix) Solvent based polymer water
proofing compounds applied on dry
surface by spray only.
5 Polymers -Solvent i) Gives water proofing, thermal
Based -Water Based insulation on walls as and / alkali
Alkali proof synthetic resistance,
felt
ii) Synthetic polymeric membrane of
4 layers including LPDEandHDPE
iii) Available also in brand name of
‘Roof guard’ is fire retardant.
iv) Life 40 years (claimed by
manufactures)

380
6 Silicon based Colourless water repellent, limited Vertical walls, specially stone
emulsions life, poor bridging capacity, do not facades,
withstand hydrostatic pressure,
7 Epoxy based i) Very good adhesion and bonding i) Used as water proofing, damp
coatings properties, proofing, protective coatings for
internal application, ii) Water
thinnable epoxy coatings can be
applied on wet surfaces for damp
proofing, iii) Useful for coating
in water tanks, surface floors,
swimming pools, treatment plants.
Grouting of cracked CC/RCC
elements
ii) Resistant to most of the
chemicals,
iii) Costly, limited resistance when
exposed to sunlight,
iv) Water thinnable epoxy coating
cannot be used for external walls,
v) Cannot withstand expansion/
contraction.
8 P o l y u r e t h a n e Forms impervious membrane. Has Waterproofing/ damp proofing of
compounds good adhesion to concrete. Resistant floorings and internal surfaces i.e.
to mild acids/alkalies. High elasticity, water tanks, basements, inside of
strong addition to substrate, high treatment plants. Terraces walls,
abrasion and cracking resistance water tanks effluent, treatment
and high resistant to biological plants, lagoons etc
defacement. Adverse effect of
ultraviolet rays and requires covering
by materials resistant to sun rays.
Should be applied on dry surfaces, ,
9 Cementitious Polymer i) Available in two packs part-A Waterproofing/ damp proofing of
W a t e r p r o o f i n g - Cement and chemical additives floorings and internal surfaces i.e.
compound. Part-B Polymer emulsion water tanks, basements, inside of
treatment plants. Terraces walls,
water tanks effluent, treatment
plants, lagoons etc
ii) Suitable for application on surfaces
having macro pores also,
iii) Can be applied on damp
surface,
iv) Resistant to aggressive
environment and abrasion,
v) Can be applied by brush on dry &
wet surfaces. Weight of treatment 1
kg/ sq m.

381
TYPICAL STANDARD DETAILS OF WATER PROOFING WORKS

382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
WATER PROOFING WORK CHECK LIST
Sl No. Description [ 3 ] Date Remarks
1 Check floor Area are free from
Debris/Dust/and surface
cleaned thoroughly Yes / No / NA
2 Water ponding (48hrs) and check Yes / No / NA
for leakage
3 Check grouting to be done all Yes / No / NA
leakages spots and allow for
water ponding for final leak test.
4 Provide honching for all vertical Yes / No / NA
surfaces and 15x15 groves for
membrane termination.
5 Check for surfaces complete dry Yes / No / NA
condition and final cleaning of
dust with blower before applying
bitumen primer.
6 Application of primer evenly and Yes / No / NA
allow for 6hrs min
7 Check for proper laying of Yes / No / NA
membrane with even torching,
100mm overlapping and
termination at grooves.
8 Provide button mark for brick coba Yes / No / NA
with proper slop as per drawing.
9 providing wet brick coba and Yes / No / NA
filling joints with CM 1:1 with
waterproofing compound as per
spec over the membrane to the
required slope and thickness as
per specs and drawing.
10 Check for average thickness / Yes / No / NA
slope as per spec and drg.
11 Check for providing waterproof Yes / No / NA
plastering on top finish with cm
1:2 and maintaining final slope
to ensure smooth water flow
including 300x300 square pattern
with 3mm rod.
12 Thickness of flooring material are Yes / No / NA
as specified
13 Termination and overlap at pipe Yes / No / NA
penetrations

395
14 Termination at vertical surfaces Yes / No / NA
15 Flood testing after laying of Yes / No / NA
membranes and rectifications of
leakage areas
16 Treatment to construction joints Yes / No / NA
17 Third party test certificates Yes / No / NA
submitted for all materials used.
18 Final flood testing and snag list Yes / No / NA
prepared.
Note : * Conformity to requirement as per specification. Put a  Mark as applicable

396
WATER PROOFING CHECKSHEET
PROJECT: DATE:
BUILDING No / Flat No: FLOOR: CHECKSHEET
REF:
CONTRACTOR NAME:
OPERATION Site Engineer Q C Engineer Consultant REMARKS
WET AREAS
1) Level/Slope
2) Preparation of surface and pond test on concrete bare
slab
3) Leakage of slab arrested or not
4) Sleeve packing properly done or not
5) Treatment to joints
6) Coving to edges, corners
7) Shop drawings, test reports on materials
8) First layer of application of coatings
9) Second layer of application
10) Termination details
11) Junctions and Penetration details
12) Water ponding tests
13) Protection by screed or board
14) Finishing of top layer to receive further works
Signature:
NAME :
DATE:

397
Bureau of Indian Standards references
Standard No Year Title
IS 12027 1987 silicone-based water repellents
IS 12054 1987 Code of practice for application of silicone based water repellents
IS 13182 1991 Waterproofing and Damp-Proofing of Wet Areas in Building -
Recommendations
IS 13435 : Part 1 1992 Acrylic based polymer waterproofing material – Method of tests Part 1
Determination of solid content
IS 13435 : Part 2 1992 Acrylic based Polymer waterproofing Materials – Methods of Test - Part 2
: Determination of Coarse Particles
IS 13435 : Part 3 1992 Acrylic based polymer waterproofing material – Methods of test Part 3
Determination of capillary water take-up
IS 13435 : Part 4 1992 Acrylic based polymer waterproofing material – Methods of test Part 4
Determination of pH value
IS 13826 : Part 1 1993 Bitumen based felts - Method of test Part 1 Breaking strength test
IS 13826 : Part 2 1993 Bitumen based felts - Methods of test Part 2 Pliability test
IS 13826 : Part 3 1993 Bitumen based felts - Methods of test Part 3 Storage sticking test
IS 13826 : Part 4 1993 Bitumen based felts - Method of test Part 4 Pressure head test
IS 13826 : Part 5 1994 Bitumen based felts - Methods of test Part 5 Heat resistance test
IS 13826 : Part 6 1993 Bitumen based felts - Methods of test Part 6 Water absorption test
IS 13826 : Part 7 1993 Bitumen based felts - Methods of test Part 7 Determination of binder
content
IS 14695 1999 Glass Fibre Base Coal Tar Pitch Outer wrap -
IS 7198 1974 Code of practice for damp-proofing using bitumen mastic
IS 7290 1979 Recommendations for use of polyethylene film for water-proofing of
roofs
IS 9918 1981 Code of practice for in-situ waterproofing and damp-proofing treatments
with glass fibre tissue reinforced bitumen
IS 1322 1993 bitumen felts for water proofing and damp-proofing
IS 1346 1991 Code of Practice for Waterproofing of Roofs with Bitumen Felts
IS 1580 1991 bituminous compound for water-proofing and caulking purposes
IS 1609 1991 Code of practice for laying damp-proofing treatment using bitumen
felts
IS 3036 1992 Code of practice for laying lime concrete for a waterproofed roof finish
IS 3037 1986 bitumen mastic for use in water-proofing of roofs
IS 3067 1988 Code of practice for general design details and preparatory work for
damp-proofing and water-proofing of buildings
IS 3384 1986 bitumen primer for use in waterproofing and damp-proofing
IS 4365 1967 Code of practice for application of bitumen mastic for waterproofing of
roofs

398
IS 4911 1986 Glossary of terms relating to bituminous waterproofing and damp-
proofing of buildings
IS 5871 1987 bitumen mastic for tanking and damp-proofing_
IS 6494 1988 Code of practice for water-proofing of underground water reservoirs and
swimming pools
IS 7193 1994 glass fibre base bitumen felts
IS 13435 : Part 5 1992 Acrylic based polymer waterproofing material - Methods of test Part 5
Determination of minimum film forming temperature and white point
International’s roofing- and waterproofing-related standard

guides and practices
The following list of ASTM International standard guides and practices applicable to roofing and waterproofing
provides a synopsis for each standard. This is not an all-inclusive directory of all available standards though
many standards developed specifically for use in roofing and waterproofing construction are included. It is not
practical to provide a comprehensive inventory of the ASTM International resources roofing professionals use
because of the sheer variety of subject matter related to roofing and waterproofing applications.
An ASTM International standard guide provides options or instructions that offer direction but do not
recommend a specific course of action. A guide’s purpose is to increase the awareness of information
and methods in a subject area. An ASTM International standard practice is a specific set of instructions for
performing one or more specific tasks that does not produce a test result.
ASTM International’s Annual Book of ASTM Standards volumes and individual standards can be purchased by
calling (610) 832-9500 or visiting ASTM International’s Web site, www.astm.org.
ASTM C981, “Standard Guide for Design of Built-Up Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing Systems for
Building Decks,” provides design guidelines for built-up waterproofing systems in plaza deck and promenade
applications, which provide for a separate wearing course, over occupied spaces.
ASTM D1079, “Standard Terminology Relating to Roofing and Waterproofing,” is a glossary of standard
terminology used in roofing and waterproofing. It provides up-to-date definitions of industry terms.
ASTM D529, “Standard Practice for Enclosed Carbon-Arc Exposures of Bituminous Materials”; ASTM D4798,
“Standard Practice for Accelerated Weathering Test Conditions and Procedures for Bituminous Materials
(Xenon-Arc Method)”; and ASTM D4799, “Standard Practice for Accelerated Weathering Test Conditions
and Procedures for Bituminous Materials (Fluorescent UV, Water Spray, and Condensation Method)”, provide
guidelines for exposing asphalt- and coal-tar-based materials to ultraviolet light, moisture and temperature
variation under controlled laboratory conditions. Such exposure in a laboratory is intended to reproduce, in a
much compressed time period, the weathering effects that occur when materials are exposed for extended
time periods in their intended service environments. Materials suitable for investigation using these standard
practices have a minimum softening point of 200 F, meaning the bitumen does not visibly flow when vertically
oriented specimens are exposed inside the weathering apparatus.
ASTM D2829, “Standard Practice for Sampling and Analysis of Existing Built-Up Roof Systems,” provides
guidelines for removing test specimens from existing built-up roof systems and for determining the approximate
quantities of roof system components.
ASTM D3617, “Standard Practice for Sampling and Analysis of Built-Up Roof Systems During Application,”
provides guidelines for sampling before the application of flood coating and top surfacing. Guidelines are also
provided for determining the approximate quantities of system components and the presence of moisture
and/or dry (unbounded) spots between built-up plies.

399
ASTM D3805, “Standard Guide for Application of Aluminum-Pigmented Asphalt Roof Coatings,” provides
guidelines for application of materials complying with ASTM D2824 over built-up roof systems, polymer-
modified bitumen roof systems, bituminous base flashings, concrete surfaces, metal surfaces, emulsion
coatings and solvent-based coatings.
ASTM D5036, “Standard Practice for Application of Adhered Poly(Vinyl Chloride) Sheet Roofing,” provides
the minimum requirements for the installation of adhered PVC roofing materials. It includes criteria for
delivery, storage and handling of materials, prevention of safety hazards, environmental conditions suitable
for installation, substrate preparation and different available installation techniques.
ASTM D5082, “Standard Practice for Application of Mechanically Attached Poly(Vinyl Chloride) Sheet Roofing,”
provides the minimum requirements for the installation of mechanically attached PVC roofing materials. It
includes criteria for delivery, storage and handling of materials, prevention of safety hazards, environmental
conditions suitable for installation, substrate preparation and different available installation techniques.
ASTM D5295, “Standard Guide for Preparation of Concrete Surfaces for Adhered (Bonded) Membrane
Waterproofing Systems,” provides recommendations for preparation of concrete deck surfaces before the
installation of adhered waterproofing. The guide addresses concrete deck surface cleaning, conditioning and
repair practices used to remove surface defects and provide adequate adhesion between a waterproofing
system and concrete surface.
ASTM D5469, “Standard Guide for Application of New Spray Applied Polyurethane Foam and Coated Roofing
Systems,” provides guidelines for the application of new spray polyurethane foam (SPF) roof systems. It
includes requirements applicable to substrate preparation, SPF application technique and equipment, and
protective top coating and granule surfacing application.
ASTM D5843, “Standard Guide for Application of Fully Adhered Vulcanized Rubber Sheets Used in
Waterproofing,” provides information for developing specifications for the application and protection of
adhered EPDM, butyl and neoprene vulcanized rubber waterproofing systems installed over concrete
substrates. It provides material delivery, storage and handling criteria, safety precaution recommendations,
guidelines for addressing concerns related to environmental conditions during installation, recommendations
for substrate preparation and installation practices, and guidelines for quality assurance.
ASTM D5898, “Standard Guide for Standard Details for Adhered Sheet Waterproofing,” addresses typical
conditions encountered in adhered sheet waterproofing on below-grade structures and plazas. In addition to
construction detail drawings, it provides general information regarding materials and construction practices
used in adhered sheet waterproofing applications.
ASTM D5957, “Standard Guide for Flood Testing Horizontal Waterproofing Installations,” contains guidelines
for testing the watertightness of waterproofing systems installed on substrates sloped at a maximum of 1/4
inch per foot. The guide is intended for waterproofing applications in parking garages, plaza decks over
habitable spaces and on other elevated structures. It is not intended for use with building roof systems. The
guide addresses recommendations for materials used in testing, test procedure and reporting.
ASTM D6135, “Standard Practice for Application of Self-Adhering Modified Bituminous Waterproofing,”
provides installation recommendations for self-adhering polymer-modified bitumen sheets used in
new waterproofing installations. It includes criteria for delivery, storage and handling of materials and
recommendations for substrate preparation and waterproofing system installation.
ASTM D6369, “Standard Guide for Design of Standard Flashing Details for EPDM Roof Membranes,”
provides guidelines and illustrations to assist designers with the preparation of details for flashing conditions
encountered in new ballasted, mechanically attached and adhered EPDM sheet roof systems.

400
ASTM D6622, “Standard Guide for Application of Fully Adhered Hot-Applied Reinforced Waterproofing
Systems,” provides minimum installation recommendations for adhered reinforced waterproofing systems
applied with hot bitumen to low-slope and vertical surfaces. The standard defines an identification classification
made of four types of waterproofing systems. Also, it provides material specification recommendations;
material delivery; storage and handling criteria; safety precaution recommendations, guidelines for addressing
concerns related to environmental conditions during installation; recommendations for substrate preparation
and installation practices; and guidelines for quality assurance, inspection, testing and repair.
ASTM D6705, “Standard Guide for Repair and Recoat of Spray Polyurethane Foam Roofing Systems,” provides
guidelines for the repair and recoating of existing spray polyurethane foam (SPF) roof systems. It includes
information related to existing roof system inspection and primer selection and requirements applicable to
substrate preparation, SPF application and protective coating and granule surfacing application.
ASTM D6769, “Standard Guide for Application of Fully Adhered, Cold-Applied, Prefabricated Reinforced
Modified Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing Systems,” provides installation guidelines applicable to
below-grade and below-wearing-surface vertical or horizontal applications. It includes recommendations
addressing materials storage and handling, environmental conditions, material types, substrate preparation
and installation practices.
ASTM D6950, “Standard Practice for Application of Heat Weldable Atactic Polypropylene (APP) Modified
Bituminous Waterproofing Membranes Systems for New Building Decks,” provides the minimum installation
recommendations for torch-applied and/or hot-air welded APP polymer-modified bituminous waterproofing
systems installed over occupied spaces and covered by a separate wearing course. It includes material
specification recommendations, criteria for delivery, storage and handling of materials, recommendations for
environmental conditions suitable for installation, and guidelines for substrate preparation and waterproofing
system installation.
ASTM D7119, “Standard Guide for Sampling Spray Polyurethane Foam and Coating in Roofing,” provides
guidelines appropriate for investigating existing spray polyurethane foam (SPF) roof systems and performing
quality assurance for new systems. It provides information about sample cut types and their uses, visual
inspection techniques, physical property tests and methods used for repairs at sample locations.
ASTM D7186, “Standard Practice for Quality Assurance Observation of Roof Construction and Repair,”
provides guidelines for performing visual monitoring of roof system construction and defining the role,
qualifications and responsibilities of quality-assurance observers. It applies to new construction, reroofing,
repairs and maintenance work.
ASTM E1980, “Standard Practice for Calculating Solar Reflectance Index of Horizontal and Low-Sloped
Opaque Surfaces,” provides a procedure for calculating Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) values. SRI incorporates
solar reflectance and emittance in a single value, which is a relative measure of the steady-state surface
temperature with respect to the standard white (SRI = 100) and standard black (SRI = 0) surfaces under the
standard conditions defined in the practice.
ACKNOWLEDMENT:
WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS, ASTM
BUILT IN EXPRESSION.

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402
Chapter
20
Building Maintenance and Repair
20. Building Maintenance and Repair
20.1 Introduction
Building maintenance is a work undertaken in order to keep, restore or improve every facility, i.e. every
part of building, its services and surroundings to a currently acceptable standards and to sustain the utility
and value of the facility.
Or
Building maintenance is the act of maintaining the building in its serviceable condition. Building maintenance
not only a technical job, but also administrative from an organizational angle. Building maintenance is the
combination of all technical and administrative actions, including supervision actions intended to retain an
item in or restore it to.
20.2 Objectives of Maintenance

• To preserve building & its services in good serviceable condition.
• To restore buildings & its services in its original standard, when deterioration occurs due to any
reason.
• To make improvements in serviceability whenever required.
• To sustain utility value.
• To prevent & slowdown the rate of deterioration of structure
• To enhance serviceability of structure.
• To avoid crisis maintenance by regular & planned maintenance programme.
20.3 Methods of Maintenance

a) Corrective Maintenance
b) Preventive Maintenance
Corrective Maintenance: Corrective maintenance is the common or usual method to carry out repair
and rehabilitation when a component fails or when it falls below the level of acceptable standards. Eg:
Corrosion, Cracks etc.
Preventive Maintenance: Preventive maintenance is to intervene in the life cycle of each item immediately
before it is expected to deteriorate in its health and to restore it to an acceptable standard of the health.
Eg: Protective coatings, Water proofing membrane etc.
Categories of Maintenance: Depending on the schedule, maintenance is categorized as mentioned

below:
a) Periodical / Regular Maintenance

b) Continuous Maintenance
c) Specific Maintenance
d) Part or Full Maintenance
e) Preventive Maintenance
f) Health Monitoring Maintenance

404
Dependant Factors: Some of the factors on which the maintenance of buildings depends are:
• Type of building or construction

• Type of quality of material used
• Age of building
• Quality of workmanship
• Technology adopted
• Geographical location
• Location on the main road subjected or not subjected to vibration due to moving vehicles.
• Location in interior roads & streets
• Neighboring environment
• Ground Water Table (GWT) level
• Day-to-day care
• Periodical care/ Cleaning
Elements Influencing Maintenance: There are various criteria and elements which influence the decision
to carryout preventive maintenance. Therefore it is necessary to consider these criteria and elements for
effective maintenance of buildings. These are:
a) Cost
b) Age of Building
c) Availability of physical resources
d) Urgency of Maintenance
e) Future use
f) Social Consideration
a) Cost: The cost of maintenance comprises of direct / indirect cost. The direct cost in maintenance
operations ranges generally from 70% to 90% of total cost. Before coming to decision to
implement a particular item of maintenance, indirect cost factors like restricted access, production
stoppage, safety aspects, availability of time, overhead expense ect., must also considered along
with direct cost.
b) Age of Building: Any building constructed will have certain life expectancy since the materials &
components wear out. This wearing out will reduce overall serviceability of building and also affects
its remaining useful life. To obtain the maximum life out at the building, a planned inspections and
maintenance should be established as soon as the building has been constructed.
c) Availability of Physical Resource: Physical resource in building maintenance can be defined as all
the materials, components, services, equipment which are necessary for maintenance. Therefore,
when an item of maintenance is being planned, the availability of all these physical resources must
be considered & ensured.
d) Urgency: The matter of urgency may outplay other factors when decision is to be taken to carry
out a specific maintenance job. An urgent maintenance task may be required for a no of reasons
such as the repair of services which unless rectified immediately would render them unserviceable,
BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS

405
causing lot of inconvenience. Urgency is a relative term & therefore it is established whether the
repairs need to be carried out immediately within hours or within days.
e) Future use: Future use of building as a whole must be considered while deciding when & how
much maintenance can be carried out @ any given period of time.
f) Social Considerations: The agencies carrying out maintenance activities can create disturbances
such as notice, safety dust, temp, Interruption of services. Plan the maintenance in such a manner
that disturbance will be kept to a minimum level.
20.4 Maintenance Policy or Plan:

a) Intended life span of building
b) Likely time periods to major repair activity
c) Required standard of the building condition
d) Permissible time between recognizing the maintenance or repair requirement & its execution.
Or
a) Inspection & monitoring including their periodicity
b) Appraisal of monitoring data to assess the performance of structure with predetermined
standards
c) Construction methods for repair & replacement of components of structure whose life is assessed
to be less than the overall structure. If the life of structure has come to an end, rehabilitation
or replacement of the whole structure will be required, it does not constitute maintenance of
structure.
20.5 Economic Considerations:

There is a wrong notion in the minds of people that regular maintenance makes the building usage costly
& uneconomical. If the real cost of building for serviceable life is considered then the regularly maintained
buildings are much economical and cost effective due to enhanced serviceable life.
20.6 Management of Preventive Maintenance

The purpose of preventive maintenance/periodical maintenance is to increase the life of building, reduce
day to day repairs & complaints.
• Better the routine maintenance, less preventive/periodical maintenance.

• Better the preventive/ periodical maintenance less routine maintenance.
20.7 List of Preventive Maintenance:

The following preventive maintenance measures to be taken up at appropriate times.
1) Repainting of buildings.
2) Repainting of various steel structures at exposed locations on the site e.g. ladders, railings, steel
sheds transformer yards, street light poles, M.S. covers and platforms, steel gates, steel sign boards,
parking steel structures etc.
3) Cleaning of water storage tanks on roofs of buildings and other places.

406
4) Cleaning of storm water drains
5) Cleaning of septic tank, if any
6) Servicing of rolling shutters including greasing/oiling of bearings.
7) Cleaning of bushes and wild vegetation around the building.
8) Inspection of roofs at regular intervals and remove chocking of drain pipes if any to avoid seepage
from roof.
9) Epoxy painting of critical doors such as bathroom doors, steel structures, pipes etc.
BIBILOGRAPHY & REFERENCES

1. “Nabhi’s Compilation of CPWD Maintenance Manual”, 1st revised eddition June 2011.
2. “Building Repair and Maintenance management”, P.S.Gahlot and Sanjay Sharma Edition:2010
3. “Nabhi’s Practical H
BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS

407
408
Chapter
21
Quality Aspects of
Materials and Construction
21. Quality Aspects of Materials
and Construction
21.1 CONCEPTS OF QUALITY SYSTEMS
QUALITY:
The term “Quality” can be defined as the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that
bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
QUALITY ASSURANCE :
It includes all those planned actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that the product (Or service)
will meet the requirements and is essentially system of planning, organizing and controlling human skill
to assure quality.
QUALITY CONTROL :
Operational techniques and activities that are used to fulfill requirements for Quality.
QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN :

Sets out planned actions required for Quality Assurance.
QUALITY POLICY :
A formally documented statement of management’s intentions and directions as regards to Quality.
QUALITY AUDIT :
It is management tool used for reviewing the whole or part of the Quality system by internal or external
agencies not connected with operation of QA Plan.
QUALITY ASSURANCE MANUAL :

A Quality Assurance Manual provides a base document outlining policy, procedures, responsibilities,
compliance, acceptance criteria and documentation. It should generally cover the following.
a) Identification of all parties involved in QA and their inter relationship.

b) Internal QA system of each party.
c) Levels of cross checking / verification in case of multiple verifications / controls, including systems
of inspection and audit, wherever applicable.
d) Organisation of personnel, responsibilities and lines of reporting for QA purposes.
e) Criteria for acceptance / rejection, including identification of proper authorities for such
decisions.
f) Inspection at the end of defect liability period.
g) Items to be covered in maintenance manual.
h) All formats for documentation.

410
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) :
TQM is an integrative philosophy of management for continuously improving Quality of product and
processes. TQM is all about Total Quality of Management rather that Total Management Quality. TQM is
concerned with the way the management organizes itself to achieve the organization objectives.
QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN :

The Quality Assurance Plan (QAP) is the methodology that is selected for ensuring that the project
incorporates all elements that are needed for the successful design, construction and maintenance of
a project. Since projects vary in scope, the QAP has to be project-specific. The QAP should deal with all
aspects selection and testing of materials, acceptance criteria, guidelines for non-conforming materials
and work and documentation.
21.2 SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTS RELATED TO BUILDING MATERIALS :

CEMENT (OPC-43 grade) (IS:8112-1989 R 2005)
No Test Frequency Ref. codes Acceptance standards
PHYSICAL TESTS
a) Setting time Once for every IS:4031 (Part 5)-1988
source approval R 2005
i) Initial Once for every lot Not less than 30 minutes
i) Final Once every 3 Not more than 600
months minutes
b) Compressive IS:4031 (Part 6)-1988
Strength R 2005
i) At 72 ± 1 hr Not less than 23 MPa
ii) At 168 ± 2 hr Not more than 33 MPa
iii) At 168 ± 4 hr Not less than 43 MPa
c) Fineness (Blain’s air IS:4031 (Part 2)- 1988 Minimum 225 m2 / Kg
permeability method) R 2008
d) Soundness IS:4031 (Part 3)-1988
R 2005
i) Le Chatelier 10 mm (Max)
ii) Autoclave 0.8 % (Max)
Quality Aspects of Materials and Construction

411
CEMENT (OPC-53 grade) (IS:12269-1987 R 2008 )

PHYSICAL TESTS
a) Setting time Once for every IS:4031 (Part 5)-1988 R
source approval 2005
i) Final Once every 3 Not more than 600
months minutes
b) Compressive Strength IS:4031 (Part 6)-1988 R
2005
c) Fineness IS:4031 (Part 2)- 1988 Minimum 225 m2 / Kg
(Blain’s air permeability R 2008
method)
d) Soundness IS:4031 (Part 3)-1988 R
2005
PORTLAND SLAG CEMENT (IS:455-1989 R 2005)

PHYSICAL TESTS
a) Setting time Once for every source IS:4031 (Part 5)-
approval 1988 R 2005
i) Final Once every 3 months Not more than 600
minutes
b) Compressive Strength IS:4031 (Part 6)-
1988 R 2005
c) Fineness IS:4031 (Part 2)- Minimum 225 m2 / Kg
(Blain’s air permeability 1988 R 2008
method)
d) Soundness IS:4031 (Part 3)-
1988 R 2005

412
PORTLAND POZZOLONA CEMENT (Fly Ash based) (IS:1489 (Part-1)-1991 R 2005)

PHYSICAL TESTS
a) Setting time Once for every source IS:4031 (Part 5)-
i) Final Once every 3 months Not more than 600 minutes
b) Compressive Strength IS:4031 (Part 6)-
1988 R 2005
c) Fineness IS:4031 (Part 2)- Minimum 300 m2 / Kg
(Blain’s air permeability 1988 R 2008
method)
d) Soundness IS:4031 (Part 3)-
1988 R 2005

413
COARSE AGGREGATE (IS:383-1970 R 2007)
1) Particle Size
and Shape
a) Sieve 1) Once for IS:2386 (Part IS Sieve Percentage passing for graded Aggregate of
Analysis every source 1) -1963 R Nominal Size
approval 2007
2) Once in a Designation 40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm
week
40 mm 95 - 100 100 … …
20 mm 30 - 70 95 - 100 100
100
16 mm … … 90 - 100 …
12.5 mm … … … 90-100
10.0 mm 10 -= 35 25-55 30 - 70 40-85
4.75 mm 0-5 0-10 0-10 0-10
b) Flakiness 1) Once for IS:SP:23-1982
Index every source Maximum 25 %
approval
2) At every
change of
source
2) Deleterious 1) Once for IS:2386(Part-2) Deleterious material % by weight
Materials every source -1963 R 2007 (Maximum)
approval
2) At every Coal & Lignite 1
change of
source
Clay lumps 1
Material finer than 75 micron sieve 3
Total 5
3) Mechanical IS:2386(Part-4)
Properties - 1963 R 2007
a) Once for 45 % maximum by weight
Aggregate every source
Crushing approval
value
b) Impact 45 % maximum by weight
value
c) Abrasion 50 % maximum by weight
Value
4) Soundness Once for IS:2386(Part-5) Maximum Average loss of weight after 5 cycles
every source - 1963 R
approval 2007
i) Tested with Sodium Sulphate - 12 % (max)
ii) Tested with Magnesium Sulphate - 18 % (max)

414
FINE AGGREGATE (Sand) (IS:383-1970 R 2007)
1) Particle Size 1) Once for IS:2386 IS Sieve Percentage by weight Passing for
every source (Part-5) - 1963
approval R 2007
2) Once in a Designation Zone I Z o n e Zone III Zone
month II IV
10 mm 100 100 100 100
4.75 mm 9 0 - 9 0 - 90-100 95-100
100 100
2.36 mm 60-95 7 5 - 85-100 95-100
100
1.18mm 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100
600 Micron 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100
300 Micron 5 -=20 8 30 12 -= 15-50
40
150 Micron 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15
Note :
1. Where the grading falls outside the limits of any particular grading zone of sieves other than 600
micron IS sieve by a total amount not exceeding 5 percent, it shall be regarded as falling within that
grading zone. This tolerance shall not be applied to percentage passing the 600 micron IS sieve or
to percentage passing any other sieve size on the coarse limit of grading zone I or the finer limit of
grading zone IV
2. Fine aggregate conforming to zone IV should not be used in RCC unless tested to ascertain its
suitability.
3. For crushed stone sands, the permissible limit on 150 micron IS sieve is increased to 20 percent.
2) Deleterious 1) Once for IS:2386 Deleterious material % by weight
Materials every source (Part-5) - (Maximum)
2) Once on Coal & Lignite 1
change of
source
Clay lumps 1
Material finer than 75 micron 3
sieve
Shale 1
Maximum allowable 5%
3) Soundness Once IS:2386(Part-5) - Maximum Average loss of weight after 5 cycles
for every 1963 R 2007
source
approval
i) Tested with Sodium Sulphate - 10 % (max)
ii) Tested with Magnesium Sulphate - 15 % (max)


415
WATER (IS:456:2000 R 2005)
1) Organic Once for every IS:3025 (Par-18)-1984 200 mg / l
source approval R 2002
At every change
of source
2) Inorganic IS:3025 (Par-18)-1984 3000 mg / l
R 2002
3) Sulphates (as SO3) IS:3025 (Par-24)-1986 400 mg / l
R 2003
4) Chlorides (as Cl) IS:3025 (Par-32)-1988 2000 mg / l
R 2003 for concrete not containing
embedded steel and 500 mg /
l for reinforced concrete work
5) Suspended matter IS:3025 (Par-17)-1984 2000 mg / l
R 2002

416
CONCRETE (IS:456-2000 R 2005)
1) Grade of IS:456 -2000 Group Grade Specified
concrete R 2005 Designation characteristic
clause 15.2 Compressive
strength of 150
cube at 28 days
N / mm2
Quantity Sample Nos M 10 10
in m3 Ordinary
1-+5 1 Concrete M 15 15
6-+15 2 M 20 20
16 - 30 3 M 25 25
31 - 50 4 M 30 30
51 & above 4 plus one M 35 35
additional
sample for
each 50
m3 or part Standard
thereof Concrete
M 40 40
On sample for every 50 IS:4926- M 45 45
m3 of production or every 2003 R 2007 M 50 50
Readymix 50 batches whichever is
concrete the greater frequency M 55 55
M 60 60
High M 65 65
Strength M 70 70
Concrete M 75 75
M 80 80
2) Characteristic IS:456 -2000 Specified Mean of the Individual Test
Compressive R 2005 grade group of 4 Results in N /
Strength Table 11 Non-Overlapping mm2
Compliance Consecutive test
requirement results in N /
specification mm2

417
≥ fck + 0.825 ≥ fck - 3 N /
x established mm2
standard
deviation
(rounded off
to nearest 0.5
M 15 N / mm2
OR
fck+ 3 N / mm2
Whichever is
greater
≥ fck + 0.825 ≥ fck - 3 N /

x established mm2
standard
deviation
(rounded off
M 20 or
to nearest 0.5
above
N / mm2
OR
fck + 3 N / mm2
Whichever is
greater


418
HIGH STRENGTH DEFORMED STEEL BARS (IS:1786-2008)
No Test Frequency Ref. Acceptance standards
codes
Mechanical Properties
Fe 415 Fe 415 D Fe 500 Fe 500 Fe 550 Fe 550 Fe 600
D D
a) 0.2 Once IS:1608- 415 415 500 500 550 550 600
percent for every 2005 R
proof brand 2006
stress/ approval
yield stress for all
minimum diameters
N/mm2
b) Tensile Once for 10 % 12 % 8% 10 % 6% 8% 6%

strength every lot more more more more more more more
minimum than than the than the than than than than
the actual actual the the the the
actual 0.2 % 0.2 % actual actual actual actual
0.2 % proof proof 0.2 % 0.2 % 0.2 % 0.2 %
proof stress stress proof proof proof proof
stress / yield / yield stress stress stress stress
/ yield stress stress / yield / yield / yield / yield
stress but not but not stress stress stress stress
but not less than less than but not but not but not but not
less 500 N/ 545 N/ less less less less
than mm2 mm2 than than than than
485 565 585 600 660
N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
c) Elongation 14.5 18 12.0 16.0 10.0 14.5 10.0
percent,
minimum
on gauge
length
5.65 (A)
0.5 where
A is the c
/ s area of
the test
piece

419
d) Total … 5 … 5 … 5 …
elongation
at
maximum
force,
perecent,
Min on
gauge
length
5.65
(A)0.5,
where A is
the cross-
sectionsl
area of
the test
piece
e) Bend test IS:1599-
1974 R To be satisfactory
2006
f) Rebend IS:1599-
test 1974 R To be satisfactory
2006

420
HOT ROLLED LOW, MEDIUM AND HIGH TENSILE STRUCTURAL STEEL (IS:2062-2006)

codes
1) Mechancial IS:1608- Tensile Yield stress minimum Percentage
Properties 2005 Strength MPa Elongation
R2006 Minimum minimum
MPa
Grade Quality 2 per cast / heat < 20 20-40 > 40
Design and a class of mm mm mm
ation steel product
irrespective of
cast / heat size
E 250 410 250 240 230 23

A
E 300 440 300 290 280 22
BR
E 350 490 350 330 320 22
BO
E 410 540 410 390 380 20
C
E 450 570 450 430 420 20
E 550 650 550 530 520 12
A
E 600 730 600 580 570 12
BR
E 650 780 650 630 620 12

Note :
1) Subqualities : A - Impact test not requried, semi-killed / killed

BR - Impact test optional; at room temperature if required, killed
BO - Impact test macdatory at 00 C, killed
C - Impact test mandatory at (-) 200 C, killed
2) Class of steel product :
1) Plates, strips
2) Sections
3) Flats and bars (Round, hexagonal etc)

421
MARBLE (BLOCKS, SLABS AND TILES) (IS:1130-1969 R 2008)
No Test Frequency Ref.
Acceptance standards
codes
1 Dimensional No. of Sample Nos + 2 percent for all
Tolerances Blocks / dimensions
Blocks
slabs / tiles
in the lot
+ 2 percent for length
Up to 25 3 Slabs and width ± 3 percent for
thickness
26-100 5
+ 4 percent for linear
101-200 8 Tiles
dimensions
201-500 13
501-1000 20
2 Moisture IS:1124- Maximum 0.4 percent
absorption 1974 R
after 24 hours 2008
immersion in cold
water
3 Hardness (Mhos … 3 Minimum
Scale)
4 Specific Gravity IS:1122- 2.5 Minimum
1974 R
2008
SAND STONE (SLABS AND TILES) (IS:3622-1977 R 2008)

1 Dimensional … Rough cut - ± 3 mm for
Tolerances thickness
No. of slabs / Sample Nos Machine cut slab - ± 1 mm for
tiles per lot length / breadth and ± 3 mm
for thickness
Up to 100 5
101-300 8
301-500 13
501-1000 20
2 Water Not more than 2.5 percent by
absorption weight
3 Transverse IS:1121 (Part II) - Not less than 7 N / mm2
strength 1974 R 2008
4 Resistance to IS:1706-1972 R Not greater than 2 mm on the
wear 2008 average and 2.5 mm for any
individual specimen

422
5 Durability IS:1126-1974 R Shall not develop sign of
2008 spalling, disintegration of
cracks
LATERITE STONE BLOCK FOR MASONRY (IS:3620-1979 R 2008)

1 Dimensional ± 5 mm on all directions
Tolerances
2 Water absorption IS:1124-1974 R Not more than 12 % by
No. of Blocks Samples No.s
2008 mass
Up to 100 5
3 Specific Gravity 101-300 8 IS:1124-1974 R Not less than 2.5
2008
301-500 13
4 Compressive 500 & above 20 IS:1121 (Part 1) Not less than 3.5 N / mm2
strength -1974 R 2008
STRUCTURAL GRANITE (IS:3316-1974 R 2008)

1 Compressive No.of blocks / Sample Nos IS:1121 (Part Shall not
strength slabs per lot 1) -1974 R be less than
2006 1000 kg / cm2
up to 100 5
101-300 8
301-500 13
501-1000 20
2 Specific Gravity IS:1122-1974 Shall not be
R 2008 less than 2.6
3 Water absorption IS:1124-1974 Shall not be
R 2008 more than 0.5
percent
4 Dimensional … Slabs ± 2 mm in length
Tolerances and breadth ± 1
mm in thickness
Blocks ± 5 mm for
facing blocks

423
COMMON BURNT CLAY BRICKS (IS:1077-1992 R 2007)
a) Class Designtaion IS:5454-1978 R 2006
Lot Size Sample Class Average
Nos Designation Compressive
strength not less
than
2001-10000 5 35.0 35 N / mm2
10001-35000 10 30.0 30 N / mm2
35001-50000 15 25.0 25 N / mm2
20 20 N / mm2
17.5 17.5 N / mm2
15.0 15.0 N / mm2
12.5 12.5 N / mm2
10 10.0 N / mm2
7.5 7.5 N / mm2
5.0 5.0 N / mm2
3.5 3.5 N / mm2
b) Compressive IS:3495 (Part-1)- Minimum 3.5 N / mm2
Strength 1992 R 2007
c) Water absorption IS:3495 (Part-2)- Maximum 20 % upto class 12.5
1992 R 2007 Maximum 15 % above class 12.5
d) Efflorescence IS:3495 (Part-1)- “Moderate’’ upto class 12.5
1992 R 2007
‘’ Slight’’ for higher classes
e) Dimensions
Modular Bricks Nominal size 200 mm x 100 m x
100 mm Actual size 190 mm x 90
m x 90 mm
Non Modular Nominal size 229 mm x 114 m x
Bricks 70 mm Actual size 225 mm x 111
m x 70 mm

424
HOLLOW AND SOILD CONCRETE BLOCKS (IS:2185 (Part-1)-2005
codes
1) Type Grade IS:2185 Density of Min average Min average
(Part 1)- block Kg / c o m p r e s s i v e compressive
2005 m2 strength of strength of
units N/ individual
mm2 units N/
Total 20 blocks mm2
from every lot
A (3.5) / consigment 3.5 2.8
A (4.5) of 5000 blocks 4.5 3.6
A (5.5) or part there 5.5 4.4
of 8 blocks for
Hollow A (7.0) compressive Not less 7.0 5.6
(Open and A (8.5) strength 3 than 1500 8.5 7.0
closed blocks for
cavity) load A (10.0) 10.0 8.0
density
bearing unit A (12.5) 12.5 10.0
A (15.0) 15.0 12.0
B (3.5) Less than 3.5 2.8
B (5.0) 1500 but 5.0 4.0
Soild load C (5.0) 5.0 4.0
bearing unit Not less
than 1800
C (4.0) 4.0 3.2
2) Drying shrinkage 3 blocks Maximum 0.06 percent (Average of threee
units)
3) Water Absorption 3 blocks Maximum 10 % by mass (Average of threee
units)
4) Moisture Movement 3 blocks Maximum 0.09 percent (Average of threee
units)
5) Nominal Dimensions Length 400, 500 or 600 mm
Height 200 or 100 mm
Width 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250 or 300 mm
6) Dimensional Tolerances Variation in length Max. ± 5 mm
Variation in Height & Width ± 3 mm

425
PULVERISED FUEL-ASH LIME (FLY ASH) BRICKS (IS:12894-2002)

1) Class As per IS:5454 IS:3495 Class Designation Average wet
Designation (Part-1)- Compressive
1992 R 2007 strength not less
than
Lot size Sample No.s 3.5 3.5 N / mm2
2001-1000 5 5.0 5.0 N / mm2
10001-35000 10 7.5 7.5 N / mm2
35001-50000 15 10.0 10.0 N / mm2
12.5 12.5 N / mm2
15.0 15.0 N / mm2
17.5 17.5 N / mm2
20.0 20.0 N / mm2
25.0 25.0 N / mm2
30.0 30.0 N / mm2
2) Drying IS:4139-1989 Average drying shrinkage (average
Shrinkage R 2004 of three units) shall not exceed 0.15
percent
3) Efflorescence IS:3495 (Part- Shall have the rating efflorescence
1)-1992 R not more than “Moderate’’ upto
2007 class 12.5 and “Slight’’ for higher
classes
4) Water IS:3495 (Part- Maximum 20 % for class upto 12.5
absorption 1)-1992 R Max 15 % for class above 12.5
2007

426
CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING TILES (IS:1237-1980 R 2006)

1 Dimensional In accordance with IS:1237-1980 1) ± 1 mm in length or breadth
Tolerances inspection level
I in Table 1 and R 2006 2) The difference in length of
AQL 6.5 percent in side between the longest side
Table 3 of IS:2500 and the shorter side in the
(Part 1)-1973 sample shall not exceed 1 mm
3) + 5 mm on thickness
4) Difference in thickness between the

thickest and thinnest tile in the sample
shall not exceed 3 mm
2 Flatness of the tile IS:1237-1980 Amount of concavity and convexity shall
surface R 2006 not exceed 1 mm
(Appendix A)
3 Perpendicularity IS:1237-1980 The longest gap between the arm of the
R 2006 “Square’’ and the edge of the tile shall
(Appendix B) not exceed 2 percent of the length of
edge.
4 Straightness IS:1237-1980 The gap between the thread and the
R 2006 edge of the plane of the tile shall not
(Appendix C) exceed 1 percent of the length of edge.
5 Water absorption IS:1237-1980 Average percentage of water absorption
R 2006 shall not exceed 10 percent
(Appendix D)
6 Wet Transverse IS:1237-1980 Minimum 3 N / mm2
strength R 2006
(Appendix E)
7 Resistance to wear IS:1237-1980
R 2006
(Appendix F)
a) General
purpose tiles
1) Average wear 3.5 mm
2) Wear on 4.0 mm
individual specimen
b) Heavy duty
tiles
1) Average wear 2 mm
2) Wear on individual 2.5 mm
specimen

427
PRE-CAST CONCRETE BLOCKS FOR PAVING (IS:15658-2006)
1) Grades of paver blocks IS:15658-
2006 Table 1,
Annexure D
Grade Designation 8 blocks from Specified Traffic Recommended
each batch of Compressive Category minimum
consignment strength N/ paver block
of blocks upto mm2 thickness
a quantity of
25000 blocks
M 30 30 Non traffic 50 mm
M 35 35 Light traffic 60 mm
M 40 40 Medium 80 mm
traffic
M 50 50 Heavy traffic 100 mm
M 55 55 Very heavy 120 mm
traffic
Note : 1 Light traffic - Daily traffic upto 150 commercial vehicles exceeding 30 kN laden weights
2. Medium traffic - Daily traffic upto 150 -450 commercial vehicles exceeding 30 kN laden weights
3. Heavy traffic - Daily traffic upto 450-1500 commercial vehicles exceeding 30 kN laden weights
4. Very heavy traffic - Daily traffic upto more than 1500 commercial vehicles exceeding 30 kN laden
weights
2) Water absorption 3 Blocks IS:15658-2006 Average of three units shall not be more than
Table 1, 6 percent by mass and in individual samples,
Annexure C the water absorption should be restricted to
7 percent
3) Dimensional Tolerances 8 Samples IS:15658-2006
Table 1,
Annexure B
Dimension Recommended Value Thickness < Thickness ≥ 100 mm
100 mm
Width W To be specified by manufacturer ± 2 mm ± 3 mm
Length L To be specified by manufacturer ± 2 mm ± 3 mm
Thickness T To be specified by manufacturer ± 3 mm ± 4 mm
Plan Area (Asp) Max 0.03 m 2
± 0.001 mm2
Squareness Nil ± 2 mm ± 3 mm
Aspect Ratio Max 4.0 0+0. 2 mm 0+0. 2 mm
Thickness of Wearing Minimum 6 0+0.2 mm 0+0.2 mm
Layer mm
Wearing Face Minimum 75 0- 1.0 % 0- 1.0 %
% of plan area
Aris / chamfer Minimum 5 ± 1 mm ± 1 mm
mm, Maximum
7 mm

428
PREFORMED FOAM CELLULAR CONCRETE BLOCKS [IS:2185 (PART 4)-2008]
1 Classification IS:2185 (Part i) Density ranges 800 kg / cum to 1000 kg
i) Non load 4) Clause 5 / cum. Grade designation G-2.5 and G-3.5
bearing units ii) Density ranges 1200 kg / cum to 1800
ii) Load bearing kg / cum. Grade designations G-6.5, G-12.0,
units G-17.5 and G-25
2 Grade Block 23 blocks at random IS:2185 (Part Compressive Thermal Water
Density in from every lot of 4 ) - 2 0 0 8 Strength N / mm2 Conductivity Absorp
oven dry 10,000 blocks or part Annex C, D, E in air dry tion
condition there of the same IS:3346-1980 condition (Oven
(Kg / cum) size, grade and same (R 2004) Kcal/m/h/°C dry
batch of manufacture. density)
3 Nos-Block Density, %
8 Nos - Compressive
strengh, 3 Nos- Water
Absorption, 3 Nos-
Thermal Conductivity,
3 Nos- Drying
shrinkage & moisture
movement, 3 Nos-
Reserve for retest for
drying shrinkage &
moisture movement
Average Individual
Min Min
i G-2.5 800 2.5 2.0 0.32 12.5
ii G-3.5 1000 3.5 2.8 0.36 12.5
iii G-6.5 1200 6.5 5.2 0.38 10.0
iv G-12 1400 12.0 9.0 0.45 10.0
v G-17.5 1600 17.5 14.5 0.50 7.5
vi G-25 1800 25.0 22.0 0.54 7.5
Note : Block Density shall not vary by more
than ± 5 percent of the density
3 Drying Shrinkage IS:2185 (Part i) Load bearing class of bricks - 0.05%
4) Annex F ii) Non Load bearing - 0.08%
class of bricks
4 Moisture IS:2185 (Part Moisture movement of dried blocks on immersion
Movement 4) Annex G in water, being the average of 3 units, shall be
less than drying shrinkage specified above by
atleast 0.01 percent
5 Nominal Dimensions Dimensions Sizes Tolerances
& Tolerances
Length 400, 500 or 600 mm ± 5 mm
Height 250 or 300 mm ± 3 mm
Width 100, 150, 200 or 250 ± 3 mm
mm
Note : Blocks shall be manufactured in half
lengths of 200, 250 or 300 mm to correspond
to full lengths

429
AUTOCLAVED CELLULAR (AERATED) CONCRETE BLOCKS [IS:2185 (Part 3)-1984 R 2005]
IS:6441- Compressive Thermal
1972 (Part strength conductivity in
1) (R 2006) (Minimum) air dry condition
IS:6441- W / m.k
1972 (Part
5) (R 2006)
IS:3346-1980
(R 2004)
24 blocks to Grade 1 Grade 2
be selected at
random from
each lot (Lot of
10,000 blocks or
less of same size
and from the
same batch of
manufacture)
1 Density in oven
N/mm2 N/ mm2
dry condition
i 451 to 550 2 1.5 0.21
ii 551 to 650 4 3 0.24
iii 651 to 750 5 4 0.3
iv 751 to 850 6 5 0.37
v 851 to 1000 7 6 0.42
2 Nominal
Dimensions &
Tolerances
Dimensions Sizes Tolerances
Length 400, 500 or 600 mm ± 5 mm
Height 200, 250 or 300 mm ± 3 mm
Width 100, 150, 200 or 250 mm ± 3 mm
Note : Blocks shall be manufactured in
half lengths of 200, 250 or 300 mm to
correspond to full lengths
3 Drying IS:6441-1972
Shrinkage (Part 2) (R Grade 1 Max 0.05 %
2006)
Grade 2 Max 0.1 %

430
MARINE PLYWOOD (IS:710-2010)
1 Dimensions
i 2400 mm x 1200 mm
ii 2100 mm x 1200 mm Sampling as The thickness shall be 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6
iii 1800 mm x 1200 mm per IS:7638- IS:710-2010 mm, 9 mm, 12 mm, 15 mm, 19 mm, 22 mm
iv 2100 mm x 900 mm 1999 (R 2003) and 25 mm
v 1800 mm x 900 mm
2 Tolerances in IS:710-2010
Dimension Tolerance
Dimensions Annex B
i) Length + 6 mm, - 0 mm
ii) Width + 3 mm, - 0 mm
a) Less than 6 mm ± 10 percent
b) 6 mm and above ± 5 percent
iii) Edge Straightness Max. 2 mm / 1000 mm
or 0.2 percent
iv) Squareness Max. 2 mm / 1000 mm
or 0.2 percent
3 Adhesion of Plies IS:1734-1983 Veneers shall offer appreciable resistance to
(Part 5) (R separation and the fracture samples shall show
2008) some adherent fibres distributed more or less
uniformly.
4 Glue Shear Strength IS:1734-1983
(Part 4)(R
2008)
a) Dry state a) Average failing load shall be not less than 1350
N and no individual value shall be less than 1000
N
b) Wet state b) Average failing load shall be not less than 1000
N and no individual value shall be less than 800
N
5 Tensile Strength IS:1734-1983 i) Not less than 42.0 N/mm2 in the direction parallel
(Part 9) (R to grain direction of the face veneers.
2003)
ii) Not less than 25.0 N/mm2 in the direction of
right angles to the grain direction of the face
veneers.
iii) Sum of tensile strength in both directions shall
be not less than 84.5 N/mm2
6 Static Bending IS:1734-1983 MOE - Modulus of Elasticity
strength (Part 11) MOR- Modulus of Rupture
(R2003)
Minimum
Along the Face Grain Across the Face Grain
Requirement
i) MOE N/mm2
a) Average 7500 4000

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b) Minimum 6700 3600
Individual
ii) MOR N /
mm2
a) Average 50 30
b) Minimum 45 27
Individual
7 Wet Bending strength IS:1734-
1983(Part 11)
(R 2003)
Minimum Along the Face Grain Across the Face Grain
Requirement
i) MOE N/mm2
a) Average 3750 2000
b) Minimum 3400 1800
Individual
ii) MOR N /
mm2
a) Average 25 15
b) Minimum 22 13
Individual
8 Moisture Content IS:287-1993 (R Finished plywood boards shall have moisture
2008) content of not less than 5 percent and not
more than 15 perecent at any time of the year
depending on the part of the country where the
test is carried out.

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21.3 TOLERANCES IN CONSTRUCTION
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE FOR BUILDINGS
(ACI 117-90 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR TOLERANCES FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION AND
MATERIALS)
Vertical alignment
• For heights 30 meters or less

Lines, surfaces, and arrises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………………………………25 millimeters
• Outside corner of exposed corner columns and control
joint grooves in concrete exposed to view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………………12 millimeters
• For heights greater than 30 meters
Lines, surfaces, and arrises, 1/1000 times the height but not more than…………150 millimeters
Outside corner of exposed corner columns and control joint grooves in concrete,
1/2000 times the height but not more than .....…………………….. ……………..75 millimeters
Lateral alignment
• Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………………………..25 millimeters

• In slabs, centerline location of openings 0.30 meters or smaller and
edge location of larger openings ………………………………………………........12 millimeters
• Sawcuts, joints, and weakened plane embedments in slabs ......…………………..19 millimeters
Level alignment
Top of slabs:
• Elevation of slabs-on-grade . ................. . . . ………………................……………..19 millimeters
• Elevation of top surfaces of formed slabs before removal of supporting shores . . . 19 millimeters
• Elevation of formed surfaces before removal of shores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 millimeters
• Lintels, sills, parapets, horizontal grooves, and other lines exposed to view . . . . . 12 millimeters
Cross-sectional dimensions
• Members, such as columns, beams, piers, walls (thickness only), and slabs (thickness only)
0.30 meters in dimension or less . . . . . . ………....………………. + 9 millimeters / - 6 millimeters
• More than 0.30 meters dimension
but not over 0.9 meters dimension . . . . . . …………………….+ 12 millimeters / - 9 millimeters.
• Over 0.90 meters dimension. . . . . . ……………………............+ 12 millimeters / - 19 millimeters
Relative alignment
• Stairs
Difference in height between adjacent risers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 millimeters..
Difference in width between adjacent treads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 millimeters.

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21.4 TOLERANCES SUGGESTED BY ACI FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE
(ACI 347-78 Recommended practice for Concrete Form Work)
Variations from the plumb.
• In the lines and surfaces of columns, piers, walls and in arrises
In any 3 meters of length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 millimeters
Maximum for entire length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 millimeters Max.
• For exposed corner columns, control-joint grooves and other conspicuous lines
In any 6 millimeters of length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 millimeters
Maximum for entire length. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 millimeters maximum
Variation from the level or from the grades indicated on the drawings.
• In slab soffits, ceilings, beam soffits and in arrises
In any 3 meters of length........................................................... 6 millimeters
In any bay or in any 6 meters of length ..................................... 9 millimeters
Maximum for entire length...................................... 19 millimeters maximum
• In exposed lintels, sills, parapets, horizontal grooves and other conspicuous lines
In any bay or in any 6 meters of length ..................................... 6 millimeters
Maximum for entire length...................................... 13 millimeters maximum
Variations of distance between walls, columns, partitions and beams.
6 millimeters in 3 meters of distance but not more than 13 millimeters maximum in any one bay
and not more than 25 millimeters total variation
Variation of linear building lines from established position in plan............................25 millimeters
Variation in the sizes and locations of sleeves, floor openings and wall openings.
Minus.........................................................6 millimeters
Plus .........................................................12 millimeters
Reductions in thickness Minus...................5 percent of specified thickness
Variation in cross-sectional dimensions of columns and beams and in the thickness of slabs and walls.
Minus ......................................................... 6 millimeters
Plus ..............................................................12 millimeters
Footings.
Variation in dimensions in plan
Minus ..............................................................12 millimeters
Plus ......................................................... 50 millimeters
• When formed or plus 75 millimeters when placed against unformed excavation Misplacement or
eccentricity2 percent of the footing width in the direction of misplacement but not more than . .
. . . . . . . . 50 millimeters
Variations in steps.
• In a flight of stairs Rise . ....................................................... 3 millimeters
Tread............................................................................ 6 millimeters

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In consecutive steps
Rise . ........................................................................ 1.5 millimeters
Tread........................................................................... 3 millimeters
Grooves ................................................................................... - 12 millimeters.
Greater than 2 ft. but less than 6 ft . . . . . . . . + 150 millimeters.. . . . . . . . . - 12 millimeters.
Over 6 ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + 12 in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- 12 millimeters..
Formed surfaces may slope with respect to the specified plane at a rate not to exceed the
following amounts in 10 ft
• Vertical alignment of outside corner of exposed corner columns and control joint grooves in
concrete exposed to view
• All other conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 millimeters.
The offset between adjacent pieces of formwork facing material shall not exceed:
Class of surface:
Class A ............................................................... 3 millimeters..
Class B ................................................................ 6 millimeters..
Class C ............................................................. 12 millimeters..
Class D ............................................................. 25 millimeters..
Floor finish tolerances shall meet the requirements of either Section 4.5.6 or 4.5.7, as set forth by the
specifier.
Floor finish tolerances as measured in accordance with ASTM E 1155-87 Standard Test Method for
• Determining Floor Flatness and Levelness Using the F Number System (Inch-Pound Units)
• Minimum FF FL number required Floor profile quality Test area Minimum local F number classification
Flatness FF Level FL Flatness FF Level FL Conventional
Bullfloated 13 13 10
Straightedged 20 15 15 10
Flat 30 20 15 10
Very flat 50 30 25 15
The FL levelness tolerance shall not apply to slabs placed on unshored form surfaces and/or shored form
surfaces after the removal of shores. FL levelness tolerances shall not apply to cambered or inclined surfaces
and shall be measured within 72 hr after slab concrete placement.
Floor finish tolerances as measured by placing a freestanding (unleveled) 10 ft. straightedge anywhere on
the slab and allowing it to rest upon two high spots within 72 hr after slab concrete placement. The gap
at any point between the straightedge and the floor (and between the highspots) shall not exceed:
Classification:
Conventional
Bullfloated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 millimeters..
Straightedged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/16 in.

435
436
Chapter
22
Health, Safety and Environment
22. Health, Safety and Environment
22.1 INTRODUCTION
Safety: is the state of being “safe” the condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual,
financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological, educational or other types or consequences of
failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be considered non-desirable. Safety
can also be defined to be the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level of risk. This
can take the form of being protected from the event or from exposure to something that causes health or
economical losses. It can include protection of people or of possessions.
Accident and Causes of accident

An unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally, typically resulting in damage or
injury. An accident often has more than one cause. Accidents can be prevented by removing their causes.
Basically there are two causes of accidents:
a. Unsafe acts and procedures
• ack of training
• lack of suitable equipment
• Inappropriate use of equipment.
b. Unsafe conditions
• confined space
• lack of protective equipment
• too few staff/too many staff.
Difference between Hazard and Risk

Hazard Risk
Chemical hazard Working with acids may lead to burns
Mechanical hazard Coming in contact with fast running motors may lead to amputation
Biological hazard Coming in contact with rodents and bio medical waste may lead to
infections
Physical hazard Working at edge may lead to fall of person
Electrical hazard Working with bare wires may lead electrocution
Fire hazard Short circuit in the electrical panel may lead to fire.
What is risk control hierarchy? And how it is done
I. Elimination
a. Elimination of mass excavation manually
II. Substitution
a. Replace ladder with scissor lift
b. Replace of heavy duty excavation equipments from doing it manually

438
III. Engineering
a. Reverse horns fitted for reversing of the vehicle
b. Exhaust ventilation fitted to remove fumes from chemical labs
c. Providing step excavations in loose earths
IV. Administrative
a. Job rotation
b. Work instructions
c. Safety inspections and improvement
V. Behavioral
a. Stopping all unsafe actions at site
b. Follow safe operation procedures before starting the job
VI. Usage of Personnel protective equipments (PPEs)
a. Helmet – for protecting head
b. Safety belt – to work at height
c. Goggle – to safe guard eyes
d. Hand gloves – to safe guard our hands from handling chemicals
e. Safety shoes – to safe guard our legs
f. Apron – to work with chemicals
g. Dust mask – to protect from dust and respiratory disease
h. Ear plugs – to protect our ears from excess noise
i. Clothing – to protect our body from spills and sparks
The following are the Types of Hazards and Risk job in construction industry, the do’s and don’ts have
been provided for more clarity during operation in the hazardous environment.
Working in Excessive noise, vibration

Do’s Don’ts
Wear ear plugs Do not work without ear protection
Do job rotation Stay very near to the source of noise
Working with heavy machinery

Do’s Don’ts
Guard the machine with barricades Do not allow the persons to walk around the machine
Put cautions around the machines Do not allow the persons to sleep below the machine
Deploy a supervisor before starting the job Do not walk in the vehicle lane
HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT

439
Lifting and carrying of excessive weight
Do’s Don’ts
For adult women 30 kgs and for adult man 55 Do not carry the heavy weight which is not
kgs weight is permissible to carry permissible
Follow the safe weight lifting postures Always safe to carry the weight in trolleys
Use trolleys to carry the heavy weights
Material fall
Do’s Don’ts
Provide the canopy’s / head protections Walk in unsafe places
Provide the safety nets where every necessary Do not walk below the crane boom or while weights
been carried
Mark the safe walk ways with necessary Do not stand below the tower crane travelling path.
signage’s
Slipping, tripping, cutting, drowning and falling hazards

Do’s Don’ts
Barricade all the ducts, excavations and pits Do not obstruct the walk way by keeping any
materials, laying the cables etc
Keep the walk way free of any obstructions Do not walk inside the site without knowing the
geography of the site
Keep the site clean and tidy Do not walk in the spillage area (oil, grease, chemicals
and water)
Dust gases, fumes etc

Do’s Don’ts
Sprinkle water regularly to arrest the dust Do not through the garbage inside the site
Do regular housekeeping of the area Do not enter the dusty area without proper dust
protection
Wear dust mask to control the exposure
Grow dust extracting plants / trees around the
site.
Coming in contact with corrosive substances

Do’s Don’ts
Wear appropriate clothing Do not touch the material without any protective
equipments
Wear hand and leg protection before handling Do not inhale the corrosive substances
the corrosive substances
Read proper safe operating procedures before
handling the material


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Electrocution hazard
Do’s Don’ts
Always operate the electrical appliances which are Do not plug the bare wires
tested and ISI marked
Used always armored cables to temporary Do not lay the cables and wires on the walk
electrifications way
Use proper plug and sockets for connections Do not touch the electrical appliances without
knowledge about it.

Vehicular traffic
Do’s Don’ts
Follow the vehicular traffic rules and always travel in Do not drive / ride the vehicle without proper
the traffic lane operator license
Travel only at 15 km/hr speed inside the construction Do not park the vehicles in the place which is not
site designated for it.
Collapse of building / caving in of earth

Do’s Don’ts
Provide shoring to the embankments to mitigate the Do not enter the areas of huge excavation area
caving-in and collapse of earth without the permission from engineer in charge
Take permission from the work in charge before
entering the area
Keep your escape way ready and clear of any
obstructions
Working in poor lighting / illumination

Do’s Don’ts
Ensure sufficient illumination/lighting at the work Do not allow if the lighting is not sufficient in the
area work area.
Stacking of materials and housekeeping

Do’s Don’ts
Ensure a separate material stacking place for each Do not dump the material
material
Store the heavy materials in the below storage racks Do not keep the unwanted materials
and the lighter on the above
Regularly clean and clear all the unwanted debris
from the site

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Working at height, working with scaffolding, platforms and ladders.
Do’s Don’ts
Wear safety belts while working at heights Do not walk in construction site without head
protection
Hook the safety belts to the fixed supports Do not climb the scaffolding without safety
belts
Check for base plates, bracings and ties to permanent Do not use the scaffold if it is not safe for usage
structure before starting the job on scaffolding.
Welfare of workers
• Medical facility and first aid: Every construction site has to be provided with a emergency vehicle
and first aid centre with a trained first aider in each shift.
• Working hours : The working hours of the workers should not be more than that specified in
BOCW act
• Working environment: The employer has to ensure that the working environment is safe as
specified in BOCW act
• Providing clean drinking water, canteen facility: The employer has to ensure that the workers are
been provided with clean potable drinking water and canteen facility in site premises.
• Crèche facility for the children’s: if the women workers are 50 or more in a building site then the
employer has to provide crèche facility to take care of the workers children’s.
• Emergency care: to tackle any kind of emergency at site, the emergency contact numbers of site
incharge, first aiders, nearby hospital, police station, fire station and other required emergency
numbers should be displayed at site and workers educated about it.
• Temporary toilets: temporary toilets have to be provided at site for workers usage.
• Payment of minimum wages: a register of wages payment have to be maintained at site.

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22.2 Construction Industry an Overview
• Construction is an Rs 4000 billion Industry which is 6% of GDP.
• Construction sector is second largest employer after agriculture.
• Construction accidents amount to about 6% of total building cost
CHALLENGES
• Labour intensive.
• Migrant farm Labour.
• Employment is precarious and short term.
• 32 million work force – 73% unskilled.
• Fatal accidents are 4 to 5 times that of manufacturing sector.
• Average fall accident frequency in India is 15.8 against 00.23 per 1000 in USA.
Accident statistics
Descriptive Fatality
• 45 % fall of person
• 12 % fall of objects
• 10 % vehicle
• 9 % Electrocution
• 3.5 % collapse of structure
22.2 Accident & Hazard

ACCIDENT :
An accident is an unplanned or unforeseen event which could result in injury to persons, damage to plant
and equipment or both.
HAZARD:
• Hazard is anything which has the potential to cause harm
• A hazard hasn’t caused an accident but it COULD.
• They are all around us however we should understand them & work through them.
It is prudent to categories hazards.
Hazards :
• Falling objects
• Person falling

443
• Stepping/striking against the objects
• Electricity
• Excavation
• Chemicals
• Fire
• Transport and machinery
Falling objects
• Hazards in construction industries.
• One agency is working at height and other down below, material falls from top and causes injury
to others.
Fig 22.2 Safety Helmet

Fig 22.1 Falling Object
• Provide canopy to avoid injury.

• Wear Helmet
Fig 22.3.Safety Pre cautions at Site

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Fig 22.4 Safety Shoes Fig 22.5 Poor quality of electrical machines
Fig 22.6 Damaged/ poorly insulated wires/Cables Fig 22.7 Unauthorized tapping power supply
Safety Harnesses for Working at Height
• Neglecting the basic statutory requirements.

• Not providing insulated tools.
• Not providing PPE’s as per the required voltage
Excavation
• After blasting the loose earth should be removed.
• The excavated area must be barricaded.
• The sides should be inclined (angle of repose).
22.3 CHEMICALS
• Although chemicals are used less, but this is also one of the hazard which leads to accident, such
as Acetone is used for cleaning.
• Thinners/paints are used.
• These are used without wearing PPE’s especially Lead/aluminum paints.
• If used in confined space it may lead to explosion/fire.
• Fire incidents are frequent
• Throwing cigarette bud or match sticks carelessly

445
Fig 22.8 Fire Extinguisher Fig 22.9 Different Types of Fire Extinguisher
• Welding/Gas cutting sparks catches fire

• The problem arises when workers don’t have knowledge about FE.
22.4 OPERATORS & DRIVERS

The Operators and Driver shall,
• Be Authorized and competent

• Possess License
• Not wear loose clothing
• Cover loose hair Fig 22.10 Construction Equipment
• Have clear view of the load & operational area

• Act upon the instructions of the signaler
22.5 Fencing of Machinery

• All rotating & moving parts of machines should be guarded.
• Guards should not be removed when the machine is on.
• Guard removed for maintenance should be replaced as soon as possible.
Fig 22.12 Care to be taken when working near machines

Fig 22.11 Machine Guarding

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22.6 Working near Overhead Electrical Line
Fig 22.13 Precautions to be taken when working near Electrical Line
Avoid Working Overhead Power Line.
In unavoidable case the following minimum clearance shall be maintained between the machinery and
the line.
11kv and below 1.40m
33 kV and below 3.60m
22.7 Accident preventive system

• Senior management commitment
• Safety Induction
• HSE policy and Organization Plan.
• Annual safety improvement plan.
• Safety Training.
• Control of movement of Contractors/associates (Permit to work)
• PPE
• Fire prevention measures.
• Lock Off procedure.
• Machine Guarding.
• Risk Assessment.
• Regular safety Inspection.

447
• MSDS.(Material safety data sheet)
• Near Miss reporting.
• Good House Keeping.
22.8 Senior Management Commitment

Commitment Indicators
1. Status given to health, safety and environment
2. Resource allocation (time, money & people)
Site Management.
Managers need to be seen to lead by example as much in health and safety as in the other ways, in order
to visually demonstrate their commitment.
Managers need to be aware of the negative effect of behavior that suggests insincerity.
Managers need to walk the talk.
Suggested methods
1. Regular health and safety tours
a. Demonstrate management commitment
b. First hand feels of good or bad practices. Priority in overall safety effort
2. Setting up Safety Committees with Wide Representation.
3. Regular frequency of meeting and chairing of meeting.
4. General encouragement to safety committee members.
5. Regular safety audit / inspection.
6. Safety Awards.
22.9 Induction
Employees have a duty to work safely as instructed and to take reasonable care of their own safety and of
others. They should also report any danger or shortcomings in health and safety arrangement.
Factors determining work force approach to safety are:-
i. Have they been given proper safety training

ii. Will they remember it all
iii. Will they recognize the hazards?
iv. Is the climate such that they feel comfortable reporting hazard to management?
v. Will they be more likely to take shot cuts?

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22.10 Health and Safety Policy Document
Health & Safety Policy document - Copy of current company health & safety policy document should be
available with all department heads and the manager must explain its contents to all new employees at
the time of induction programme.
The document should cover the following or more
Subjects:-
• Accidents and accident recording.

• Area(s) of authority.
• Dangerous occurrence and near miss incidents.
• First aid
• Five hazards and precautions
• Use of contractors
• Persons appointed to hold responsibility.
• Visits to sites
• Protective clothing
• Safety equipment
• Alcohol and drugs
• Manual Handling
• Use of Padlocks and lock off procedures
• COSHH (control of substance hazardous to Health)
• Risk Assessment
• Lifting operations and lifting equipments
• Policy on working in confined areas.
• Provision and use of work equipment
• Working at height and sampling of tanks and silos.
22.11 Safety Improvement Plan

The objective of Improvement plan is to review the compliance of all statutory norms given by pollution
control board. Identify the individuals responsible for the safety management system. Review audit process
and compliance. Identify and organize training needs. Waste management and documentations.

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Table 22.14 Safety Improvement Plan
22.12 Safety Training

Sufficient training and knowledge shall be provided to the staff to perform the operation safely. Only then
they shall be considered as competent. Only competent persons shall be authorized to perform task.
It helps by:
• Increasing awareness
• Improving information regarding role and responsibility.
• behavior
• Increase knowledge & efficiency.
• Increase output
• Improves attitude
• Building better teams in place.
Safety Awareness among Contract Personnel

1. 1.By involving them regularly in safety meetings
2. By proper implementation of permit to work system
3. By repeatedly stressing the importance of using ppe and encouraging them to use the same
4. By monitoring their working and ensuring that they follow the site rules and safe working
practices.
22.13 PERMIT TO WORK

A permit-to-work system is, essentially, a formal, documented, safe system of work. The permit-to-work
procedure is an extension of the safe system of work, not a replacement for it.

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Operation of a permit to work
Permit-to-work systems use pre-printed forms, listing specific checks and actions required at specific stages
of the work. The terms ‘permit-to-work’, ‘permit’ or ‘work permit’ refer to these forms, or certificates,
which are used as part of an overall system of work and which have been devised by a company to meet
its specific needs. An example of a typical work permit form is:-
• Scope of permit
• Identification of hazards
• Precautions to be taken prior to the issue of the permit
• Precautions to be taken during work
• Issue of permit
• Revoking the permit.
Permit to work
Employee/Contractor................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
Date Open..............................................................Date Close..................................................................
Scope of Work..........................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
Method Statement ..................................................................................................................................
Check List:-
Managers Rules Noise
Compliance PPE
COSHH Pressure Systems
Electricity Risk Assessment
Lifting Equipment Welfare Facility
Lock OFF Procedure Emergency
Signed by Permit Holder
Table 2.6.1 Permit to Work

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22.14 PPE
Every employee must:
1. Use PPE in accordance with training and instruction;
2. Return all PPE to the correct storage place; and
3. Report any loss or defect in the equipment to the employer.
4. Maintain a record of PPE issued with date
PPE’S TO BE USED
• Do not enter the plant without hard hat (Helmet)& safety shoe THEY HAVE TO BE WORN AT ALL
PLACES EXCEPT BATCH CABIN & OFFICE
• Safety Spectacles: To be worn where eye protection is necessary eg. Grinding, polishing dusty
areas
PPE’S RELATED TO WORK

• Eye Or Face Protection
Welding, grinding and separating work. Rock working driving tools, pneumatic breakers and drills. Work
with acids and caustic solutions, disinfectants and corrosive cleaning products.
• Respiratory Protection
Where visible airborne dust is present. Working with cement, dust, grinders.
• Hearing Protection
Work with pneumatic drills. Work in crusher and screen houses. Work in materials coating. Any work
done in designated hearing protection zones.
• Foot Protection
Safety shoe to be worn at all places in the plant, site
• Body protection
Care to take to for Adequate Body Protections
• Hand protection
Work with or in the vicinity of hot materials, and welding... Work
with hand knives involving drawing the knife towards the body.
(Belt repair) Handling of sharp-edged objects
• Safety Harnesses
Work on scaffolding, Work at silos, hoppers and bunkers where
entry is intended or there is a danger of falling
• Reflective Clothing
Work where the workers must be clearly visible.
Fig 22.15 Safety Belts

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22.15 Fire Preventive Measures
FIRE HAZARD
• Class Of Fire
There are 5 class of fire
»» A-Wood, Paper Etc

»» B- Oil Solvent,Petrolum Product
»» C- Burning Gas
»» D-Magnesium,Al,Zinc
»» E-Electrical Equipment
• Triangle of Fire
Three things for fire to take place
»» Fuel
»» O2
»» Source
If we succeed in removing or isolating one component Fire can be controlled
22.16 LOCK OFF PROCEDURE

NO. OF PERSON =NO. 0F LOCK
• Having thrown the switch to the off position IS NOT

ENOUGH.
• It will need to be locked off in that position for the duration
of the task. With some form of device, eg. Lock guard
Clamp, Isolock etc.?
LOCK YOUR SAFETY

NO. OF PERSONS = NO. OF LOCKS
REMEMBER – Removal of lock guard system indicates the system is
safe and ready for operation Fig 22.16 Machine Lock Off
Can you think of some more?
Locking Off
• It is all very easy switching off the power or the pneumatic
supply or the water, hydraulics, aggregate feed, engine
etc... Etc...Etc...
• BUT –
• What is to prevent someone else, from turning the
equipment back on, feeding in some new material, turning
on the power, water, etc... Fig 22.17 Machine Lock Off

453
• To prevent others mistakenly starting it up again.
• This is our own responsibility to ourselves and not one which we should expect others to take for us.
22.17 GUARD & FENCE

Fence
A barrier of limited height. Mounted on the ground or floor which deters persons
from access to particular areas, machines etc.
Guard
A barrier which prevent persons from being in contact with or within dangerous
proximity of particular parts of machines etc.
22.18 RISK
Risk is the probability of injury occurring.
Variable controlling risk is
• Likelihood of occurrence.
• The likely injury & severity
RISK ASSESMENT
LAW - Not optional in advance countries.
HUMANITARIAN - If carried out correctly it will involve and

safeguard people.
Best Value - It can make huge savings &
Best practice - Increase productivity, quality and efficiency.
WHY RA
REALISTINC - PROACTIVE
ACCIDENT PREVENTION.
CREDIBLE - It can be applied to give positive results.
Most accidents can be avoided – upto 90%.

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Table 22.1 Risk Assessment
22.19 Safety Inspection

The concern officer shall make daily inspection of Site machinery and working area.
The findings must be recorded in the relevant form and take necessary action to eliminate danger.
All workmen in the normal course of duties when noticing defects in the machine, equipment must alert
the manager or appropriate officer even though these may have been reported through daily inspection.
22.20 MSDS
A material safety data sheet is an important component of a product used in our day to day work. It is
intended to provide workers and emergency personnel with procedures for handling or working with
substances in a safe manner. It includes information such as physical data, toxicity, health effects, first aid,
reactivity, storage, disposal, protective equipment and spill handling procedures.
22.21 Near Miss

A near miss is an unplanned event that did not result in injury, illness, or damage but had the potential to
do so. Most safety activities are reactive and not protective.
Employees are not enlightened to report these close call as there has been no disruption or loss in the form
of injury or property damage..Recognising and reporting near miss incident can make a major difference
to the safety of workers within the organization.
In terms of human lives and property damage,nearmiss is a zero cost learning tool for safety than actual
injury or property damage.To prevent the near miss from happening again the organization must institute
teamwork training, feedback on performance and a commitment to continued data collection and

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analysis.
22.22 House keeping

Keep work area free from rubbish and obstructions, maintain all floor surface safe, suitable and free from
slip or trip hazards. The floor openings must be covered of fenced.
All material should be properly stacked and stored safely. There should be unobstructed and clearly defined
passageways. Adequate lighting to be provided.
Provide fire extinguishers near all welding, or other source of ignition. Keep fire extinguishers easy to
locate and reach in case of emergency.
Site layout
Emergency routes, exits, traffic routes, walk way, danger area, loading bay, ramps should be planned and
marked. Provide suitable safety signs and warning notice.
Welfare and toilet facilities

Welfare and toilet facilities should be part of health and safety plan.
Washing facilities and rest areas are to be provided at suitable positions.
22.23 Accidents Control Measures

• Accident Report
• Accident data
• Safety calendar
• Emergency Plan Table 22.2 Format of Accident Reporting
• Safety meeting
• Communicating Safety
Accident reporting
All accidents and dangerous occurrence will
be investigated to determine cause and to
prevent possible reaccurance.The accident
book should be completed.
The site management should encourage and

promote accident reporting at grassroots
level.

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Accident Data
It is the responsibility of the site management to ensure that the details of the accidents are completed as
soon as possible and reviewed on monthly basis.
Table 22.3 Format of Accident Data

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22.24 Safety Calendar
A record of all health and safety related activities are to be listed and the activity to be performed at the
frequency mentioned.
Table 22.4 Format of Safety Calendar
22.25 Emergency Plan

To respond in a precise Manner to any untoward incidence and contain it systematically and effectively.
Emergency Planning Procedures (EPP)

• Accidents occur with little or no warning.
• To enable provision to be made for the protection of life and to minimize damage to plant &
Equipment, An EPP should be in place.
• The plan should be in writing and as simple as possible.
• The emphasis must be on priority areas that controlling major problems than finer details.
• It should include information on availability of staff on duty and provision to recall staff.
• List of key personnel along with site / home / mobile phone numbers, compiled, updated and
should be circulated to all concerned and displayed on notice boards.
• A list of hospitals, & other emergency agency should be displayed.
• Safe shut down of plant & equipment
• First aid treatment, facility equipment and list of employees trained in first aid procedures.
• Counselling of injured persons or others affected by the Incident.
Table 22.5 Format of Emergency Plan

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22.26 Safety Meeting
Safety meeting will be the central focus of the site management of health and safety.
The minutes will be record of safety related events such as accidents, training, system review and discussion
of safety topics.
AGENDA FOR CONDUCTING MEETING

Accidents & Reportable Incidents:-
• Inspections
• Mobile Plant (Plant /truck/FEL)
• Plant Guards
• PPE (Personal Protective Equipments)
• Welfare Facilities
• First Aid Equipment
• Lock Guard
• Pressure System
• Electrical System
• COSHH (Control of substances Hazardous to health)
• Fire Precautions

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• Gases
• Environmental
• Review Permit to Work
• Risk assessment
22.27 COMMUNICATING SAFETY

Ways Of Effective Communication
1. Through Safety Committee

2. Face to Face
3. Health and Safety Document
4. Induction
5. On Job Training
6. Company Notice Board
7. By Incorporating it in the “Job Description”
8. Communication should be Clear, concise and Jargon Free, If Possible Local Language.
Safety Propaganda
Hand out, Notices, Posters, Stickers, Flags.
• Most effective safety messages should be positive & not negative.

• Address the message to the right people (target audience)
• Preferably be placed near to the print of danger.
• Be simple and specific (perhaps in the form of a slogan or picture)
“QUALITY IS OUR PASSION SAFETY IS OUR PRIORITY”

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REFERENCES :
IS 3696: 1987(part 1), 1991 (part 2) Safety code for scaffolds and ladder
IS 3764:1992 Code of safety for excavation
IS 4082:1996 Recommendations on stacking and storage of construction material and components at

site
IS 4138:1977 Safety code for working in compressed air.
IS 4912:1978 Safety requirements for floor and wall openings, railings and toe boards
IS 7293:1974 Safety code for working with construction machinery
IS 7969:1975 Safety code for handling and storage of building material
IS 13415:1992 Code for safety protective barriers in and around buildings
Recommendations for preventive measures against hazards at work place:
IS 13416(Part 1):1992 – Falling material hazards prevention.
IS 13416(Part 2):1992 – Fall
IS 13416(Part 3):1994 – Disposal
IS 13416(Part 4):1994 – timber
IS 13416(Part 5):1994 – Fire.
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act – 1974
Air (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act – 1981.

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Chapter
23
Construction Management and
Quality Checklists
23. Construction Management and
Quality Checklists
Section 1 – Management Basics
A Project, Construction Management and Project Management

A Project is a temporary group activity designed to produce a unique product, service or result. A project
is temporary, it has a defined beginning and end in time, and therefore defined scope and resources. A
project is unique. it is not a routine operation, but a specific set of operations designed to accomplish a
singular goal. So a project team often includes people who don’t usually work together – sometimes from
different organizations and across multiple geographies.
Construction Management includes organising, scheduling, mobilizing, and directing equipment, material,
and personnel in performance of a construction contract.
Project Management, then, is the application of knowledge, skills and techniques to execute projects
effectively and efficiently. It’s a strategic competency for organizations, enabling them to tie project results
to business goals — and thus, better compete in their markets. Project management is the science and
art of organizing the components of a project, whether the project is development of a new product, the
launch of a new service, a marketing campaign, or a wedding.
Project Organisations and Interrelations

Companies come in all different shapes and sizes, and the same can be said of their organizational structures.
Organizational structures can be “tall,” meaning they have many tiers between the common worker and
the owner of the company, or they can be “flat,” meaning there are very few levels between the common
worker and the owner. E.g. In Bangalore Metro Organization or KSHIP HQ, AE is 1st level and MD/CPO
is at 4th level. Regimentation is achieved but flexibility is affected in tall organisations while decisions &
communications will be fast and self-discipline is necessary in flat organisations. These structures also vary
in how those strata are defined.
Functional
A functional organizational structure, also called a bureaucratic organizational structure, divides the
company based on specialty. For example, divisions are made for piling, electrical, air conditioning, or
marketing, etc. Such organizational structure benefits from having individuals entirely dedicated to one
function. In some cases, there can be cost savings and efficiency gains in combining functions in this way.
However, this type of organizational structure is prone to conflict. It can be difficult to facilitate strong
lines of communication between functional departments; if departments are in separate locations, actual
communication can be difficult, as can understanding the needs of the other department. E.g. Rural road
unit and rural water supply unit may be independent up to some level. This system achieves expertise
building but communications may suffer.
Divisional
Organisations also may be structured according to projects or products. This type of organizational structure
is called divisional structure and is common in environments where projects, products or product lines are
governed independently of each other. Examples of this include retailers such as UltraTech, Reliance Fresh

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and TITAN. These divisions operate as separate companies, but they are each part of the Adithya Birla,
Reliance and TATA companies respectively. Another example is Karnataka Neeravari Nigam, KSPHC, etc
where people from different departments join together to achieve one goal. A divisional structure can
make it easier for a company to respond to market changes. Also, within the division, communication
is easier and team identification is encouraged. On the downside, work can become inefficient as some
efforts are duplicated. There also can be conflict between divisions, especially if one is more successful
than another.
Matrix
The matrix organizational structure combines the functional and additional organizational structure types.
There are project teams, bringing skilled individuals together from across the organization, but there are
still divisions. As such, a person has two bosses: the division manager and the project manager. In this
organizational structure, projects benefit from having cooperation across the company in that the best and
the brightest in the company can weigh in on projects they otherwise may not have access to. Further, all
departments can have a voice in the production process, from the actual fabrication of the product to its
marketing and sales. However, they also can be confusing. Responsibility and jurisdiction are not clearly
defined. Matrix organizations also tend toward the development of cliques, as all decisions generally fall
to a select group.
Project Phases
The process of directing and controlling a project from start to finish may be divided into 5 basic phases:
a. Project conception and initiation

An idea for a project will be carefully examined to determine whether or not it benefits the organization.
During this phase, a decision making team will identify if the project can realistically be completed. E.g. A
Minor Irrigation tank or launch of a new RMC unit at a particular location is debated and decided.
b. Project definition and planning

A project plan, project charter and/or project scope may be put in writing, outlining the work to be
performed. During this phase, a team should prioritize the project, calculate a budget and schedule, and
determine what resources are needed.
c. Project execution
Resources are positioned, teams are formed and responsibilities are fixed. A project is completed in this
stage and deliverables are achieved.
d. Project performance and control

Project managers will compare project status and progress to the actual plan, as resources perform the
scheduled work. During this phase, project managers may need to adjust schedules or do what is necessary
to keep the project on track. MDs, CEs or SEs normally carry out this function.
e. Project close
After project tasks are completed and the client has approved the outcome, an evaluation is necessary to
highlight project success and/or learn from project history. Preparatoion of As built drawings, completion
certificates are in this phase.
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT AND QUALITY CHECKLISTS

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Management Process Groups
Planning
Planning Process group is based on the Project Charter or project scope. Project Charter or project scopes
are the outputs of the Initiating Process as mentioned above. The purpose of the Planning Process is
to refine the project objectives and then plan the steps necessary to achieve those objectives within the
project scope that was given. The output of the Planning Process is the Project Management Plan.
Executing
The Executing Process Group takes the Project Management Plan as input. It is here that people and
other resources are combined with the Project Management Plan to carry out, or execute, the plan for the
project. As you can imagine, the outputs of this process are the project deliverables, any changes such as
change requests, preventive actions, defect repairs, and performance information about how the project
plan performed. Generally AEE/EE is part of such groups.
Monitoring and Controlling

Throughout the project there is a need to control change and monitor that the project is on time and on
budget while still producing a quality deliverable. The Monitoring and Controlling Process group is where
these actions take place. It is here that project change requests get approved or rejected, that defect repairs
are approved, and that any updates to the Project Scope and Project Management Plan are reviewed and
approved. This is the process group that is ultimately responsible for approving the final deliverables of the
project. SEs and CEs are normally part of this group in government organisations.
Closing
After all the deliverables of the project are created, the closing process group still has to close the overall
project and provide the deliverables to the customer. The inputs to this process group are the administrative
and contract closeout procedures. You may have had an internal or external vendor that supplied part of
the deliverables that needs to get paid. You may have an asset management systems that you now need to
update with the new product. You may have other procedures and accounts that need to be updated. It is
here that formal acceptance of the product or service is obtained from the customer and an orderly close
to the project occurs. Closing activities are such as Performance bank guarantees and withheld amount,
etc are returned after Defect Liability Period, some maintenance group is to be formed, audit objections
are replied, etc. This group orderly closes the project.
Management Knowledge areas

The various types of processes associated with the discipline of project management have been classified
and grouped into nine categories in the PMBOK Guide, known as Project Management Knowledge
Areas. The purpose of these Knowledge Areas is to better organize the different processes and bring the
processes having common characteristics under one category. For instance, the Project Cost Management
Knowledge Area would include all the different aspects of the budgeting process. Hence, processes like
Cost Estimating, Cost Budgeting, and Cost Control would fall under this Knowledge Area. But, it gets
tricky — these 3 processes are not part of the same project management process group.
Estimating and Budgeting fall under Planning whereas Cost Control is a part of the Monitoring and
Controlling process group. We can look at it this way: Knowledge Areas categorize and organize processes
on the basis of common features, whereas project management process groups are a mechanism to
determine the order in which the project management processes should be undertaken. It’s important to
remember here that it’s possible to come back through these processes more than once. Here are the nine
Knowledge Areas according to the PMBOK:

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1. Scope Management
2. Time Management
3. Cost Management
4. Quality Management
5. Communication Management
6. Human resource Management
7. Risk Management
8. Procurement Management
9. Integration Management
Processes Matrix of Knowledge areas Vs Project phases
Project Project phases

Knowledge areas

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Types of Project Plans
Project plans can be classified Baseline and Secondary plans.
When project requirements have been analysed and documented and the project planning baseline has
been established for scope, cost, and schedule, project execution and control activities can begin. This
involves application of conventional system control techniques to the project effort. The plans which are
created and measured for its performance is called baseline plans.
Secondary plans are derived from Baseline plans and are action plans. They may be short range plans
developed to identify activities, outcomes, responsibilities of individuals. Resource plan, risk plan,
logistics plan, material plan etc. are all subsidiary plans derived out of baseline plans, yet, they impact the
performance of the baseline plans. Unlike, baseline plans the project manager has liberty to change the
secondary plans to achieve objectives of baseline plan.
Interrelations between base plans – The PM

Triangle
The project management triangle is used by managers to analyse or
understand the difficulties that may arise due to implementing and
executing a project. All projects irrespective of their size will have
many constraints. Although there are many such project constraints,
these should not be barriers for successful project execution and for
the effective decision making. There are main three interdependent
constraints for every project; time, cost, and scope. This is also known
as Project Management Triangle.
The three constraints in a project management triangle are time, cost and
scope.
Time: A project’s activities can either take shorter or longer amount of time to complete. Completion of
tasks depends on a number of factors such as the number of people working on the project, experience,
skills etc. Time is a crucial factor which is uncontrollable. On the other hand, failure to meet the deadlines
in a project can create adverse effects. Most often, the main reason for organizations to fail in terms of
time is due to lack of resources.
Cost: It’s imperative for both the project manager and the organization to have an estimated cost when
undertaking a project. Budgets will ensure that project is developed or implemented below a certain cost.
Sometimes, project managers have to allocate additional resources in order to meet the deadlines with a
penalty of additional project costs.
Scope: Scope looks at the outcome of the project undertaken. This consists of a list of deliverables which
need to be addressed by the project team. A successful project manager will know to manage both the
scope of the project and any change in scope which impacts time and cost.
Quality: Quality is not a part of the project management triangle, but it is the ultimate objective of every
delivery. Hence, the project management triangle represents implies quality. Many project managers are
under the notion that ‘high quality comes with high cost’, which to some extent is true. By using low
quality resources to accomplish project deadlines does not ensure success of the overall project. Like with
the scope, quality will also be an important deliverable for the project.
It is always a requirement to overcome the challenges related to the project triangle during the project
execution period. Project managers need to understand that the three constraints outlined in the project
management triangle can be adjusted. The important aspect is to deal with it. The project manager needs

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to strike a balance between the three constraints so that quality of the project will not be compromised.
To overcome the constraints, the project managers have a several methods to keep the project going.
Some of these will be based on preventing stakeholders from changing the scope and maintaining limits
on both financial and human resources. A project manager’s role is evolved around responsibility. A
project manager needs to supervise and control the project from the beginning to the closure.
The following factors will outline a project manager’s role:
• Define the project and split the tasks amongst team members. The project manager also needs to
obtain key resources and build teamwork
• Set the objectives required for the project and work towards meeting these objectives
• Keep stakeholders informed on the progress of the project
• Asses and carefully monitor risks of the project.
Components of a project execution plans

The Project Execution Plan (PEP) is the core document for the management of a project. It is a statement of
policies and procedures defined by the project manager for approval. It sets out in a structured format the
project scope, objectives, milestones, communication plan, Project change control procedures and other
key project information. A project Execution template generally covers the items as below:
1. Project objectives
2. Project scope and specifications
3. Deliverables at various levels and milestones
4. Roles, responsibilities and authorities at different levels of project stakeholders
5. Project cost plan and cost management procedures
6. Risk and sensitivity analysis
7. Document management and issue tracking system
8. Contracting and procurement strategies
9. Project change management control procedures
10. Project communication pan
11. Safety and environmental issues, ( key construction design and management regulations)
12. Quality assurance
13. Commissioning and handover procedures
14. Project closeout procedures and
15. Post project evaluation methodologies
This Project Execution Plan template can be used to manage every stage / phase of project life cycle.

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Section 2 – Construction Planning and Control
Planning
The task of identifying actions and forming a logical sequence for the actions which will achieve a goal is
called planning. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who
is going to perform specific job. Planning is a detailed programme regarding future courses of action. It is
rightly said “Well planned is job half completed. Therefore planning takes into consideration available and
prospective resources of the organisation into consideration. It is the basic management function which
includes formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve a goal.
According to Urwick, “Planning is mental predisposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting
and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses”. Planning is deciding best alternative anong others to
perform different managerial functions in order to achieve predetermined goals.
According to Koontz & O’Donell, “Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to
do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go. It makes possible things
to occur which would not otherwise occur”.
Steps in Planning Function

Planning function of management involves following steps:-
1. Establishment of objectives
Planning starts with the setting of objectives to be achieved. Objectives provide a rationale for undertaking
various activities and sequence involved. Objectives focus the attention of managers on the end results to
be achieved. Objectives provide nucleus to the planning process. Therefore, objectives should be stated in
a clear, precise and unambiguous language. Otherwise the activities undertaken may be ineffective. As far
as possible, objectives should be stated in quantitative terms. For example, to construct ten houses in six
months or 500 piles in one year, etc. However some objectives cannot be stated in quantitative terms like
performance of quality control manager, effectiveness of personnel manager, etc. Finally objectives should
be SMART i.e. specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and tangible.
2. Establishment of Planning assumptions basis

Planning premises are the assumptions about the likely shape of events in future. They serve as a basis
for planning. Establishment of planning basis determines where one tends to deviate from the actual
objectives and causes of such deviations. It is to find out what obstacles are there in the way of execution.
Establishment of planning premises is concerned to take such steps that avoid these obstacles to a great
extent. Planning premises may be internal or external. Internal premises include capital investment policy,
stores procurement policy, etc. External basis are socio- economic, political changes, etc. Internal basis are
controllable whereas external are non- controllable.
3. Choice of alternative course of action

When objectives are identified and premises are established, a number of alternative courses of actions
will be available. Every alternative course will be evaluated by weighing its pros and cons in the light
of resources available in the organization. The merits, demerits as well as the consequences of each
alternative must be examined before the choice is being made. After objective and scientific evaluation,
the best alternative is chosen. E.g. One course may be complete an irrigation dam first and take up canals
later, second course may be first complete canals and later take up irrigation dam. Both options will be
assessed before deciding final plan.

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4. Formulation of derivative plans
These detail plans include policies, procedures, rules, programmes, budgets, schedules, etc. For example,
if profit maximization is the main aim of the enterprise, plans will include sales maximization, production
maximization, and cost minimization. If an utility is to be shifted, plans will be obtaining permission to
shift utility, arrangements required for the period till utilities are shifted and commissioned, etc .Final plans
indicate time schedule and sequence of accomplishing various tasks.
5. Securing Co-operation
After the plans have been determined, it is advisable to take subordinates or those who have to implement
these plans into confidence. The purposes behind taking them into confidence are :-
i. The staff will feel motivated since they are involved in decision making process.
ii. The organization will be able to get valuable suggestions and improvement in final plans.
iii. The staff will be more interested in the execution of these plans.
6. Follow up/Appraisal of plans

a. After choosing a particular course of action, it is put into action.
b. After the selected plan is implemented, it is important to appraise its effectiveness.
c. This is done on the basis of feedback or information received from departments or persons
concerned.
d. This enables the management to correct deviations or modify the plan.
e. This step establishes a link between planning and controlling function.
f. The follow up must go side by side the implementation of plans so that in the light of observations
made, future plans can be made more realistic.
Types of plans
Plans commit individuals, departments, organizations, and the resources of each to specific actions for the
future. Effectively designed organizational goals fit into a hierarchy so that the achievement of goals at
low levels permits the attainment of high-level goals. This process is called a means-ends chain because
low-level goals lead to accomplishment of high-level goals. Eg: If an Assistant Engineer completes his 2 KM
of road, Executive Engineer would do 50 KMs of road as per their objectives.
Three major types of plans can help managers achieve their organization’s goals: strategic, tactical,
and operational. Operational plans lead to the achievement of tactical plans, which in turn lead to the
attainment of strategic plans. In addition to these three types of plans, managers should also develop a
contingency plan in case their original plans fail.
Operational plans
The specific results expected from departments, work groups, and individuals are the operational goals.
These goals are precise and measurable. “Process 150 sales applications each week” or “Publish 20 books
this quarter” are examples of operational goals.
An operational plan is one that a manager uses to accomplish his or her job responsibilities. Supervisors,
team leaders, and facilitators develop operational plans to support tactical plans (see the next section).
Operational plans can be a single-use plan or an ongoing plan.

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• Single-use plans apply to activities that do not recur or repeat. A one-time occurrence, such as
a special sales program, is a single-use plan because it deals with the who, what, where, how,
and how much of an activity. A budget is also a single-use plan because it predicts sources and
amounts of income and how much they are used for a specific project.
• Continuing or ongoing plans are usually made once and retain their value over a period of years
while undergoing periodic revisions and updates. The following are examples of on-going plans:
»» A policy provides a broad guideline for managers to follow when dealing with important
areas of decision making. Policies are general statements that explain how a manager should
attempt to handle routine management responsibilities. Typical human resources policies, for
example, address such matters as employee hiring, terminations, performance appraisals, pay
increases, and discipline.
»» A procedure is a set of step-by-step directions that explains how activities or tasks are to be
carried out. Most organizations have procedures for purchasing supplies and equipment, for
example. This procedure usually begins with a supervisor completing a purchasing requisition.
The requisition is then sent to the next level of management for approval. The approved
requisition is forwarded to the purchasing department. Depending on the amount of the
request, the purchasing department may place an order, or they may need to secure quotations
and/or bids for several vendors before placing the order. By defining the steps to be taken and
the order in which they are to be done, procedures provide a standardized way of responding
to a repetitive problem.
»» A rule is an explicit statement that tells an employee what he or she can and cannot do. Rules
are “do” and “don’t” statements put into place to promote the safety of employees and
the uniform treatment and behaviour of employees. For example, rules about tardiness and
absenteeism permit supervisors to make discipline decisions rapidly and with a high degree of
fairness.
Tactical plans
A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower level units within each division must do, how they must
do it, and who is in charge at each level. Tactics are the means needed to activate a strategy and make it
work.
Tactical plans are concerned with shorter time frames and narrower scopes than are strategic plans. These
plans usually span one year or less because they are considered short-term goals. Long-term goals, on the
other hand, can take several years or more to accomplish. Normally, it is the middle manager’s responsibility
to take the broad strategic plan and identify specific tactical actions.
Strategic plans
A strategic plan is an outline of steps designed with the goals of the entire organization as a whole in
mind, rather than with the goals of specific divisions or departments. Strategic planning begins with an
organization’s mission.
Strategic plans look ahead over the next two, three, five, or even more years to move the organization
from where it currently is to where it wants to be. Requiring multilevel involvement, these plans demand
harmony among all levels of management within the organization. Top-level management develops the
directional objectives for the entire organization, while lower levels of management develop compatible
objectives and plans to achieve them. Top management’s strategic plan for the entire organization becomes
the framework and sets dimensions for the lower level planning.

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Contingency plans
Successful project management depends upon a constant vigilance, flexibility and understanding of
changing conditions. A good project manager thinks of “keeping all options open” approach at all times.
In specific cases contingency planning will be required.
Contingency planning involves identifying alternative courses of action that can be implemented if and
when the original plan proves inadequate because of changing circumstances. It may be noted that events
beyond a project manager’s control may cause even the most carefully prepared operational plans to go
awry. Management can then develop contingency plan to the existing operational plan and ready them
for use if circumstances make these alternative contingency plan necessary.
Planning Techniques
Construction Planning & Scheduling
Important aspect of construction project management is planning and scheduling of construction activities.
Every construction project is unique, project managers must plan and schedule their work utilizing their
experience and applying their judgment to the particular conditions of the current project. The bar chart
was, and still is, quite useful for illustrating the various items of work, their estimated time durations and
their status positions in the work schedule as of the report date represented by the bar chart. However, the
relationship that exists between the various work items is not in bar chart. In complex projects, it is difficult
to identify the interrelationships between the work items. There is no indication of the criticality of the
various work items or activities in controlling the project duration. A sample bar chart for a construction
project is shown below:

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The development of the critical path method (CPM) in the late 1950s provided the basis for a more
formal and systematic approach to project management. Critical path methods involve a graphical display
(network diagram) of the activities on a project and their interrelationships and an arithmetic procedure
that identifies the relative importance of each activity in the overall project schedule. These methods
have been applied with notable success to project management in the construction industry and several
other industries, when applied earnestly as dynamic management tools. Also, they have provided a much-
needed basis for performing some of the other vital tasks of the construction project manager, such as
resource scheduling, financial planning, and cost control. Today’s construction manager who ignores the
use of critical path methods is ignoring a useful and practical management tool.
Planning and Scheduling

Planning for construction projects involves the logical analysis of a project, its requirements, and the
plan for execution. Planning considers the existing constraints and available resources that will affect the
execution of the project. Considerable planning is required for the support functions for a project such as
material storage, worker facilities, office space, temporary utilities, etc.
Planning, with respect to the critical path method, involves breaking down of a project into logical activities,
arranging the activities with respect to each other, and the development of a network logical diagram that
graphically portrays the activities and sequence. Figure 2 is an I-J CPM logic diagram. The planning phase
of the critical path method is most important. A project is completed on paper by a Planning Engineer. A
planning Engineer has to be familiar with the project plans, specifications, resources, constraints, etc and
consider various plans for completing the project. Out of various plans best one is selected.
The planning engineer shall consider the level of detail needed for the identified activities. For instance, a
general or civil contractor will normally consider two or three activities for an electrical work (e.g. Installation
of a lift) to be sufficient for their schedule. However, a mechanical contractor will find this to be totally
inadequate because he will need a detailed breakdown of their activities in order to schedule their work.
Therefore, the level of activity detail required depends on the needs of the user of the plan.

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Once the activities have been determined, they must be arranged into a working plan in the network logic
diagram. Starting with an initial activity in the project, one can apply known constraints and reason that
all remaining activities must fall into one of three categories:
1. They must precede the activity in question.

2. They must follow the activity in question.
3. They can be performed concurrently with the activity in question.
The next planning task is the estimation of the time durations for each activity shown on the logic diagram.
The estimated activity time should consider resources and proposed method for performing the activity.
The estimation of activity time requires a working knowledge of the production capabilities of the various
machineries or plants.
Scheduling of a construction project involves the determination of time for each activity, sequencing the
activities, calculation of the starting and finishing time for each activity, the evaluation of the available
float for each activity, identification of critical path or paths and the project duration. In a broader sense,
it includes the more complicated areas of construction project management such as fund flow analysis,
resource scheduling & levelling and inclement weather scheduling. The planning process and scheduling
process of construction projects using critical path methods have been discussed as two separate processes.
Although the tasks performed are different, the planning and scheduling processes normally overlap. The
ultimate objective of the project manager is to develop a working plan with a schedule that meets the
completion date requirements for the project. This requires an interactive process of planning and re-
planning, and scheduling and rescheduling, until a satisfactory working plan is obtained.
CPM – Critical Path Method

The development of the critical path method (CPM) in the late 1950s provided the basis for a more formal
and systematic approach to project management. Critical path methods involve a network diagram of the
activities and their interrelationships. Arithmetic procedure finds the relative importance of each activity in
the overall project schedule. These methods have been applied with notable success to project management
in the construction industry and several other industries. CPM has provided a much needed basis for
performing vital tasks such as resource scheduling, financial planning, cost control, etc to a construction
project manager. Today’s construction manager cannot ignore the use of critical path method.
CPM is commonly used with all projects. Any project with interdependent activities can have CPM. The
essential technique for using CPM is to construct a model of the project that includes the following:
1. A list of all activities required to complete the project (typically categorized within a work breakdown
structure),
2. The time (duration) that each activity will take to completion, and
3. The dependencies between the activities.
Using these values, CPM calculates the longest path of planned activities to the end of the project, and the
earliest and latest that each activity can start and finish without making the project longer. This process
determines which activities are “critical” (i.e., on the longest path) and which have “total float” (i.e., can
be delayed without making the project longer). In project management, a critical path is the sequence of
project network activities which add up to the longest overall duration. This determines the shortest time
possible to complete the project. Any delay of an activity on the critical path directly impacts the planned
project completion date (i.e. there is no float on the critical path). A project can have several, parallel, near
critical paths. An additional parallel path through the network with the total durations shorter than the
critical path is called a sub-critical or non-critical path.

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Although the activity-on-arrow diagram (“PERT Chart”) is still used in a few places, it has generally been
superseded by the activity-on-node diagram, where each activity is shown as a box or node and the arrows
represent the logical relationships going from predecessor to successor as shown here in the “Activity-on-
node diagram”.
“Crash duration” is a term referring to the shortest possible time for which an activity can be scheduled.
It is achieved by shifting more resources towards the completion of that activity, resulting in decreased
time spent and often a reduced quality of work, as the premium is set on speed. Crash duration is typically
modelled as a linear relationship between cost and activity duration, however in many cases a convex
function or a step function is more applicable.
Originally, the critical path method considered only logical dependencies between terminal elements.
Since then, it has been expanded to allow for the inclusion of resources related to each activity, through
processes called activity-based resource assignments and resource levelling. A resource-levelled schedule
may include delays due to resource bottlenecks (i.e., unavailability of a resource at the required time), and
may cause a previously shorter path to become the longest or most “resource critical” path. A related
concept is called the critical chain, which attempts to protect activity and project durations from unforeseen
delays due to resource constraints.
Since project schedules change on a regular basis, CPM allows continuous monitoring of the schedule,
allows the project manager to track the critical activities, and alerts the project manager to the possibility
that non-critical activities may be delayed beyond their total float, thus creating a new critical path and
delaying project completion. Currently, there are several software solutions available in industry that use
the CPM method of scheduling
PERT
The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique, commonly abbreviated PERT, is a statistical tool,
used in project management, that is designed to analyse and represent the tasks involved in completing
a given project. PERT is a method to analyse the involved tasks in completing a given project, especially
the time needed to complete each task, and to identify the minimum time needed to complete the total
project.
PERT was developed primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex projects.
It was able to incorporate uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing
precisely the details and durations of all the activities. It is more of an event-oriented technique rather
than start- and completion-oriented, and is used more in projects where time is the major factor rather
than cost. It is applied to very large-scale, one-time, complex, non-routine infrastructure and Research and
Development projects.
Some Terminologies for CPM and PERT

PERT event: a point that marks the start or completion of one or more activities. It consumes no time and
uses no resources. When it marks the completion of one or more tasks, it is not “reached” (does not occur)
until all of the activities leading to that event have been completed.
predecessor event: an event that immediately precedes some other event without any other events
intervening. An event can have multiple predecessor events and can be the predecessor of multiple
events.
successor event: an event that immediately follows some other event without any other intervening
events. An event can have multiple successor events and can be the successor of multiple events.

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PERT activity: the actual performance of a task which consumes time and requires resources (such as
labour, materials, space, machinery). It can be understood as representing the time, effort, and resources
required to move from one event to another. A PERT activity cannot be performed until the predecessor
event has occurred.
optimistic time (O): the minimum possible time required to accomplish a task, assuming everything
proceeds better than is normally expected
pessimistic time (P): the maximum possible time required to accomplish a task, assuming everything
goes wrong (but excluding major catastrophes).
most likely time (M): the best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task, assuming everything
proceeds as normal.
expected time (TE): the best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task, accounting for the fact
that things don’t always proceed as normal (the implication being that the expected time is the average
time the task would require if the task were repeated on a number of occasions over an extended period
of time).
TE = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6
float or slack is a measure of the excess time and resources available to complete a task. It is the amount of
time that a project task can be delayed without causing a delay in any subsequent tasks (free float) or the
whole project (total float). Positive slack would indicate ahead of schedule; negative slack would indicate
behind schedule; and zero slack would indicate on schedule.
critical path: the longest possible continuous pathway taken from the initial event to the terminal event.
It determines the total calendar time required for the project; and, therefore, any time delays along the
critical path will delay the reaching of the terminal event by at least the same amount.
critical activity: An activity that has total float equal to zero. An activity with zero float is not necessarily
on the critical path since its path may not be the longest.
Lead time: the time by which a predecessor event must be completed in order to allow sufficient time for
the activities that must elapse before a specific PERT event reaches completion.
lag time: the earliest time by which a successor event can follow a specific PERT event.
fast tracking: performing more critical activities in parallel
crashing critical path: Shortening duration of critical activities
Advantages of PERT and CPM

• PERT chart explicitly defines and makes visible dependencies (precedence relationships) between
the work breakdown structure (commonly WBS) elements
• PERT facilitates identification of the critical path and makes this visible
• PERT facilitates identification of early start, late start, and slack for each activity,
• PERT provides for potentially reduced project duration due to better understanding of dependencies
leading to improved overlapping of activities and tasks where feasible.
• The large amount of project data can be organized & presented in diagram for use in decision
making.

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Disadvantages of PERT and CPM
• There can be potentially hundreds or thousands of activities and individual dependency
relationships
• PERT is not easily scalable for smaller projects
• The network charts tend to be large and unwieldy requiring several pages to print and requiring
special size paper
• The lack of a timeframe on most PERT/CPM charts makes it harder to show status although colours
can help (e.g., specific colour for completed nodes)
• When the PERT/CPM charts become unwieldy, they are no longer used to manage the project.
Planning Tools - Softwares

Microsoft Project
Microsoft Project, popularly known as MSP, is a project management software program, developed and
sold by Microsoft, which is designed to assist a project manager in developing a plan, assigning resources
to tasks, tracking progress, managing the budget, and analysing workloads.
MSP creates budgets based on assignment work and resource rates. As resources are assigned to tasks and
assignment work estimated, the program calculates the cost, equal to the work times the rate, which rolls
up to the task level and then to any summary tasks and finally to the project level. Resource definitions
(people, equipment and materials) can be shared between projects using a shared resource pool. Each
resource can have its own calendar, which defines what days and shifts a resource is available.
Resource rates are used to calculate resource assignment costs which are rolled up and summarized at
the resource level. Each resource can be assigned to multiple tasks in multiple plans and each task can be
assigned multiple resources, and the application schedules task work based on the resource availability as
defined in the resource calendars.
The application creates critical path schedules, and critical chain and event chain methodology third-party
add-ons also are available. Schedules can be resource levelled, and chains are visualized in a Gantt chart.
Additionally, MS Project can recognize different classes of users. These different classes of users can have
differing access levels to projects, views, and other data. Custom objects such as calendars, views, tables,
filters, and fields are stored in an enterprise global which is shared by all users.
For further reading and assistance please log on to http://www.microsoft.com/project/en-us/project-

management.aspx
Primavera
The focus of Primavera (Enterprise Project Portfolio Management) EPPM software is to allow organizations
to effectively manage their programs and projects - regardless of complexity. The software provides end-to-
end, real-time visibility of all corporate information to inform portfolio management decisions, determine
the correct resources, and ensure individual project teams have the appropriate skills to complete any
given project.
Primavera is the most powerful, robust, and easy to use solution for globally prioritizing, planning,
managing and executing projects, programs and portfolios. Primavera is an integrated project portfolio
management (PPM) solution comprising role-specific functionality to satisfy each team member’s needs,
responsibilities and skills. It provides a single solution for managing projects of any size, adapts to various
levels of complexities within a project, and intelligently scales to meet the needs of various roles, functions,

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or skill levels in your organization.
Primavera software includes project management, collaboration and control capabilities and integrates
with other enterprise software such as Oracle or SAP’s ERP systems.
For further reading and assistance please log on to
http://www.oracle.com/us/products/applications/primavera/overview/index.html?origref=http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primavera_%28software%29
Project Monitoring and Controlling

The purpose of Project Monitoring and Control (PMC) is to provide an understanding of the project’s
progress so that appropriate corrective actions can be taken when the project’s performance deviates
significantly from the plan.
A project’s documented plan is the basis for monitoring activities, communicating status, and taking
corrective action. Progress is primarily determined by comparing actual work product and task attributes,
effort, cost, and schedule to the plan at prescribed milestones or control levels in the project schedule or
WBS. Appropriate visibility of progress enables timely corrective action to be taken when performance
deviates significantly from the plan. A deviation is significant if, when left unresolved, it precludes the
project from meeting its objectives.
Monitoring and control functions are established early in the project as the project’s planning is
performed.
When actual status deviates significantly from expected values, corrective actions are taken, as appropriate.
These actions can require re-planning, which can include revising the original plan, establishing new
agreements, or including additional mitigation activities in the current plan. If corrective actions are
required to resolve variances from project plans, these actions should be defined and tracked to closure.
When actual status deviates significantly from expected values, corrective actions are taken, as appropriate.
These actions can require re-planning, which can include revising the original plan, establishing new
agreements, or including additional mitigation activities in the current plan. If corrective actions are
required to resolve variances from project plans, these actions should be defined and tracked to closure.
The following are the common actions in plan monitoring and controlling:
• Monitor the Project Against the Plan

a. Monitor Project Planning Parameters
b. Monitor Commitments
c. Monitor Project Risks
d. Monitor Data Management
e. Monitor Stakeholder Involvement
f. Conduct Progress Reviews
g. Conduct Milestone Reviews
h. Monitor Transition to Operations and Support

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• Manage Corrective Action to Closure
a. Analyse Issues
b. Take Corrective Action
c. Manage Corrective Actions
Earned Value Management

Earned Value Management (EVM) helps project managers to measure project performance. It is a systematic
project management process used to find variances in projects based on the comparison of worked
performed and work planned. EVM is used on the cost and schedule control and can be very useful in
project forecasting. The project baseline is an essential component of EVM and serves as a reference point
for all EVM related activities. EVM provides quantitative data for project decision making.
EVM has the ability to combine measurements of :
• scope
• schedule
• and cost,
in a single integrated system, Earned Value Management is able to provide accurate forecasts of project
performance problems, which is an important contribution for project management.
Early EVM research showed that the areas of planning and control are significantly impacted by its use; and
similarly, using the methodology improves both scope definition as well as the analysis of overall project
performance.
Essential features of any EVM implementation include
1. a project plan that identifies work to be accomplished,

2. a valuation of planned work, called Planned Value (PV) or Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled
(BCWS), and
3. pre-defined “earning rules” (also called metrics) to quantify the accomplishment of work, called
Earned Value (EV) or Budgeted Cost of Work Performed (BCWP).
EVM implementations for large or complex projects include many more features, such as indicators and
forecasts of cost performance (over budget or under budget) and schedule performance (behind schedule
or ahead of schedule). However, the most basic requirement of an EVM system is that it quantifies progress
using PV and EV.
It is helpful to see an example of project tracking that does not include earned value performance
management. Consider a project that has been planned in detail, including a time-phased spend plan
for all elements of work. Figure 1 shows the cumulative budget (cost) for this project as a function of
time (the blue line, labelled PV). It also shows the cumulative actual cost of the project (red line) through
week 8. To those unfamiliar with EVM, it might appear that this project was over budget through week
4 and then under budget from week 6 through week 8. However, what is missing from this chart is any
understanding of how much work has been accomplished during the project. If the project were actually
completed at week 8, then the project would actually be well under budget and well ahead of schedule. If,
on the other hand, the project is only 10% complete at week 8, the project is significantly over budget and
behind schedule. A method is needed to measure technical performance objectively and quantitatively,
and that is what EVM accomplishes.

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Project tracking with EVM
Consider the same project, except this time the project plan includes pre-defined methods of quantifying
the accomplishment of work. At the end of each week, the project manager identifies every detailed
element of work that has been completed, and sums the PV for each of these completed elements. Earned
value may be accumulated monthly, weekly, or as progress is made.
Earned value (EV)
Figure 2 shows the EV curve (in green) along with the PV curve from Figure 1. The chart indicates that
technical performance (i.e., progress) started more rapidly than planned, but slowed significantly and fell
behind schedule at week 7 and 8. This chart illustrates the schedule performance aspect of EVM. It is
complementary to critical path or critical chain schedule management.
Figure 3 shows the same EV curve (green) with the actual cost data from Figure 1 (in red). It can be seen
that the project was actually under budget, relative to the amount of work accomplished, since the start
of the project. This is a much better conclusion than might be derived from Figure 1.
Figure 4 shows all three curves together – which is a typical EVM line chart. The best way to read these three-
line charts is to identify the EV curve first, then compare it to PV (for schedule performance) and AC (for
cost performance). It can be seen from this illustration that a true understanding of cost performance and
schedule performance relies first on measuring technical performance objectively. This is the foundational
principle of EVM.
For further details refer : Practice Standard for Earned Value Management—Second Edition, Project
Management Institute, 135 Pages.

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Section 3 – Documentation
Project Documentation
Project Documentation is a method of concisely capturing and sharing critical project concepts, plans and
information as they are developed, so that impacted parties can share this information, make informed
decisions, and keep the project moving forward without having to revisit old discussions.
Process Documentation
Process documentation is a method of capturing and sharing engineering and management practices so
that an organization can remember, reuse and refine its skills and not have to re-invent lessons learned
and best practices for each new project.
Before you develop any document, ask yourself:
1. What is the purpose of this document, why does this information need capturing and who is going
to use the document when it is complete? If there is no “user,” maybe it is “useless.”
2. If this document were not created, what would the risk be to the project’s success?
3. Is the information we capture critical or are we just “Filling out the template,” because “We
believe that we have to?”
If you can’t provide good answers to these questions, stop until you can. If you have sound responses,
continue reading the following strategies to make your documents more effective.
As a practitioner and supporter of Agile and Lean, I am a strong believer in doing things for a reason and
only those things that add value. So when it comes to documentation, many with basic exposure to Agile
may think that the methodology means that project documentation is not created. Instead, it should be
more about creating meaningful plans and if that means documentation, then it should also add value
and be the proper amount. I do not believe in producing documentation (unless the contract specifically
requires certain documents) for the sake of documentation. While many technical individuals balk at the
thought and mention of documentation, I personally see some real benefits.
Below are some steps on documentation:
1. Determine What Others Need to Know

Think through all aspects of the project, implementation and post launch support and maintenance to
determine what those within the direct project team and ancillary teams may need. If the implementation
team is not the team supporting the project, there will undoubtedly be a need for some degree of
documentation. Carefully analysing and consulting others on what they may need will better ensure your
time is well spent.
2. Determine the Proper Method and Style

Once you have a handle on the content and type of documentation needed, you can look at the audience
of that material. Does it need to be constructed in a searchable webpage, as a Wiki page or something
more formal? The writing style and delivery method should be based on the audience, which is in turn
determined by the content of the material.
3. Determine a Process for Updates

This is the hardest part. Keeping current with documentation requires a regimented process. Within our

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project schedules we should plan for continuous documentation updates and ensure that we take the
time for these checkpoints. Once you get in a rhythm with documentation, work hard to keep it going.
Restarting this behaviour and activity after a period of inactivity can be a challenge and hard to recover.
4. Consider Other Benefits and Applications

While the first three points focus on providing documentation to support a project or communication with
others, the process of documenting is very much a planning exercise. Just going through the process of
documenting requires our left brain, analytical hat and thinking through all aspects. This in itself can be
very useful. I’d suggest identifying the major unknowns and high risk areas and determine documentation
tasks for select portions. This can be helpful in getting the analysis started.
Documentation is a form of communication. Making good decisions about what to document, the method,
style and process surrounding documentation is important. Every tasks within our projects requires careful
consideration and documentation is no different. In order to be effective, you must have a specific goal
and audience for the material.
Project Documentation Examples

Decide at the outset which documents your project needs to deliver. Producing documents simply for
the sake of producing them or because someone asked for them will become an exercise in mindless
bureaucracy. The type and scope of your project documentation will depend on the duration and complexity
of your project. Common project documents include:
• Business Case
• Project Definition
• Project Plan
• Requirements Specification
• Project Schedule
• Stakeholder Communication Plan
• High-level Design
• Implementation Plan
• Risk Register
• Issues Register
• Change Control Register
• Project Review Report
• Benefits Realization Plan
The above list is by no means exhaustive. Some project documents may be subsumed under others,
especially for smaller projects. The trick is to know which documents to produce and when and for what
kind of project. This know-how will come with experience. However, you will need to decide at the
beginning of the project which documents will be produced and at what stage of the project. These
should be listed amongst the deliverables specified for the end of each project phase.
For each document your project produces, other things to consider are:

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• Who will compile, review and authorize it?
• To which individuals and stakeholder groups will it be circulated?
• How will successive versions be controlled?
Management Information System (MIS)

Management Information System is basically concerned with processing data into information. This
information is then communicated to the various Departments in an organization for appropriate decision-
making.
Data Information Communication Decisions
Management Information System (MIS) is basically concerned with the process of collecting, processing,
storing and transmitting relevant information to support the management operations in any organizations.
Thus, the success of decision-making, which is the heart of administrative process, is highly dependent
partly on available information, and partly on the functions that are the components of the process. For
example, if managerial objectives are absent or unclear, probably due to inadequate information, there
is no basis for a search. Without information obtained through a search, there are no alternatives to
compare, and without a comparison of alternatives the choice of a particular course of action is unlikely
to yield the desired result.
Well-constructed and well-organized MIS can provide management with the knowledge it needs to reduce
operating costs and increase profits. MIS can help management increase efficiency by quickly providing
critical information about procedures and operations.
MIS differ from regular information systems because the primary objectives of these systems are to analyse
other systems dealing with the operational activities in the organization. In this way, MIS is a subset of the
overall planning and control activities covering the application of humans, technologies, and procedures of
the organization. Within the field of scientific management, MIS is most often tailored to the automation
or support of human decision making.
MIS make it possible for organizations to get the right information to the right people at the right time by
enhancing the interaction between the organization’s people, the data collected in its various IT systems,
and the procedures it uses. It brings together the raw data collected by the various business areas of the
organization, which, while useful for specific functions such as accounting, does not provide, by itself,
information that can be used to make decisions. As organizations grow, MIS allows information to move
between functional areas and departments instantly, reducing the need for face-to-face communications
among employees, thus increasing the responsiveness of the organization.
MIS assists managers to solve structured problems. But it should also fulfil a number of other purposes:
• It should provide a basis to analyse warning signals that can originate both externally and internally;
this is the main function of data base
• It should automate routine operations thus avoiding human work in the processing tasks
• It should assist management in making routine decisions
• It should provide the information necessary to make non-routine decisions
• It should serve as a strategic tool to gain competitive advantages.

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Section 5 – Life and people skills
Work Place Communication

Effective communication demands that the parties involved in communication have a shared and clear
appreciation of the various definitions and parameters about which information is being exchanged.
According to Stefano Baldi and Ed Gelbstein (“Jargon, Protocols and Uniforms as barriers to effective
communication”): Workplaces are witness to generally five types of communication relationships:
Collaborative, Negotiative, Competitive, Conflictive and Non-recognition.
The diagram below illustrates how these are connected to each other and how these relationships are
potentially unstable and as a result of which a relationship can develop from one type to another either
to improve the effectiveness of communication (the positive development path) or slide into a complete
collapse of communication (the negative development path).
Needs for Communication

Communication occurs in an organization in the context of people trying to fulfil one or several of the
following six needs:
• To feel respected
• To give or get information
• To be empathically understood and respected
• To cause change of action
• To create excitement and reduce boredom
• To avoid something unpleasant, like silence or confrontation
• The methods used by them to fulfil those needs include listening, speaking, reading and •
writing.
Types of communication
People in managerial roles have many opportunities to communicate with others. Communication can be
classified in the following different ways.
Intrapersonal Communication: When people talk to themselves, communication takes place within
the brain. It embraces their thoughts, experiences and perceptions during a communication event.
Behavior responses on all other levels of communication essentially begin on intrapersonal level. On this
level, the individual forms personal rules and patterns of communication. Intrapersonal communication
encompasses:
• Sense-making e.g. interpreting maps, texts, signs, and symbols

• Interpreting non-verbal communication e.g. gestures, eye contact
• Communication between body parts; e.g. “My stomach is telling me it’s time for lunch.”
• Day-dreaming
• Nocturnal dreaming and
• Many others...

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Interpersonal Communication: Interpersonal communication is also referred to as dyadic communication,
or communication between two individuals. This type of communication can occur in both a one-on-one
and a group setting. This also means being able to handle different people in different situations and
making people feel at ease. Gestures such as eye contact, body movement, and hand gestures are also
part of interpersonal communication. The most common functions of interpersonal communication are
listening, talking and conflict resolution. Types of interpersonal communication vary from verbal to non-
verbal and from situation to situation. Interpersonal communication involves face-to-face communication
in a way that accomplishes the purpose and is appropriate.
Small Group Communication: Small group communication is an interaction process that occurs among
three or more people interacting in an attempt to achieve commonly recognized goals either face-to-face
or through mediated forms. This is sometimes included in the interpersonal level — the most obvious
difference is the number of persons involved in the process. The small group may be a family of three
talking at supper, or a meeting of an organization with just a few members.
Public Communication or Public Speaking: The speaker sends messages to an audience, which is not
identified as individuals. Unlike the previous levels, the speaker is doing most, if not all, of the talking.
Mass Communication: Mass communication occurs when a small number of people send messages
to a large anonymous and usually heterogeneous audience using specialized communication media. It
represents the creation and sending of a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience
through the media.
Non-Verbal Communication: In non-verbal communication, people send messages to each other without
talking. They communicate through facial expressions, head positions, arm and hand movements, body
posture, and positioning of legs and feet. How people use “space” also transmits a message. By being
aware of non-verbal communication, one can interpret the signals of others, or send signals to others.
Awareness of non-verbal communication helps people:
• Project an image of confidence and knowledge.

• Demonstrate power or influence
• Express sincerity, interest and cooperativeness.
• Create trust.
• Recognize personal tension in self and others.
• Identify discrepancies between what people are saying and what they are actually thinking.
• Change behavior and environment to encourage productive discussion.
Communication Styles
Every time a one speaks, s/he chooses and uses one of four basic communication styles: assertive, aggressive,
passive and passive-aggressive.
1.Passive Style: Passive communication is based on compliance and hopes to avoid confrontation at all
costs. In this mode, people do not talk much, question even less, and actually do very little. They usually
have a low sense of self-esteem, and have a difficult time recognizing their own needs and knowing how
to meet them more appropriately. They internalize discomfort rather than risk, upsetting others. This style
tends to result in a lose-win situation, and results in feelings of victimization, resentment, and a loss of a
sense of control.
2. Aggressive Style: Aggressive communication always involves manipulation. Managers adopting the
aggressive style create a win-lose situation. They use intimidation and control to get their needs met,
and they are disrespectful and hurtful to others in communications. They have the underlying beliefs that

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power and control are the only way to get needs met. They operate from a real sense of inadequacy and
may have a lack of empathy for others.
3. Passive-aggressive Style: Aggressive communication always involves manipulation. A combination

of styles, passive-aggressive avoids direct confrontation (passive), but attempts to get even through
manipulation (aggressive). The passive aggressive people incorporate elements of both of the previous
styles. They try to use procrastination, forgetfulness, and intentional inefficiency rather that being direct in
their communications with others. This style of communication often leads to office politics and rumour-
mongering.
4. Assertive Style: The most effective and healthiest form of communication is the assertive style. It’s
how people naturally express themselves when their self-esteem is intact, giving them the confidence to
communicate without games and manipulation.
The assertive people are direct with the goal of creating a win-win situation. They operate from the belief
that each person is responsible for solving his or her own problems, and neither party in communication
has to justify themselves to each other. They take responsibility for their own decisions and actions.
Understanding the four basic types of communication will help managers learn how to react most
effectively when confronted with a difficult person. It will also help them recognize when they are using
manipulative behaviour to get their own needs met. They should remember that they always have a choice
as to which communication style to use. If they are serious about taking control of their life, they should
practice being more assertive. It will help them diffuse anger, reduce guilt and build relationships - both
personally and professionally.
Communication roadblocks are an inevitable aspect of every workplace. These roadblocks distort the
normal flow of communication. The factors distorting the clarity of a communication are called ‘noise’.
Noise can occur at any stage in the communication process. Managers should realize the importance of
understanding the interpersonal communication process at the workplace, focusing on:
- Communication Roadblocks
• The way minds work
• Sender’s behaviour
• Receiver’s behaviour
- How to overcome Communication Roadblocks: by

• Listening
• Reading body language
• Speaking
• Skill Training
Presentation Skills
Management is the art of getting things done. A Presentation is a fast and potentially effective method
of getting things done through other people. In managing any project, presentations are used as a formal
method for bringing people together to plan, monitor and review its progress.
Firstly; it puts you on display. Your colleagues need to see evidence of decisive planning and leadership
so that they are confident in your position as their manager. They need to be motivated and inspired to
undertaking the tasks which you are presenting. Project leaders from other sections need to be persuaded

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of the merits of your project and to provide any necessary support. Senior management should be
impressed by your skill and ability so that they provide the resources so that you and your team can get
the job done.
Secondly; it allows you to ask questions and to initiate discussion. It may not be suitable within the
presentation formats of your company to hold a discussion during the presentation itself but it does allow
you to raise the issues, present the problems and at least to establish who amongst the audience could
provide valuable input to your decision making.
Finally; presentations can be fun. They are your chance to speak your mind, to strut your stuff and to tell
the people what the world is really like. While you hold the stage, the audience is bound by good manners
to sit still and watch the performance.
The single most important observation is that the objective of communication is not the transmission but
the reception. The whole preparation, presentation and content of a speech must therefore be geared not
to the speaker but to the audience. The presentation of a perfect project plan is a failure if the audience
do not understand or are not persuaded of its merits. A customers’ tour is a waste of time if they leave
without realising the full worth of your product. The objective of communication is to make your message
understood and remembered.
The main problem with this objective is, of course, the people to whom you are talking. The average
human being has a very short attention span and a million other things to think about. Your job in the
presentation is to reach through this mental fog and to hold the attention long enough to make your
point.
Workplace Etiquettes
Webster defines it as “the forms, manners, and ceremonies established by convention as acceptable or
required in social relations, in a profession, or in official life.”
Meeting People
When meeting people both nonverbal and verbal behaviours help to define your social skills. Using effective
handshakes, good eye contact, and making the proper introductions show proper etiquette.
1. Handshakes are vital in social situations.
a. Develop a comfortable handshake and keep it consistent.

b. Handshakes should not be too hard; or too soft.
c. Make a solid connection of the web skin between the thumb and forefinger.
d. The host or person with the most authority usually initiates the handshake.
2. Eye contact is another critical factor when meeting people.
a. Eye contact increases trust.

b. It shows confidence and good interpersonal skills.
c. Eye contact shows respect for the person and business situation.
3. Proper introductions help to establish rapport when meeting people.
a. Authority defines whose name is said first. Say the name of the most important person first and
then the name of the person being introduced.

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b. Introduce people in the following order:
ii. younger to older
iii. non-official to official
iv. junior executive to senior executive
v. colleague to customer
c. Keep the introduction basic.
d. Remember names for future reference.
e. Provide some information about the people you are introducing to clarify your relationship with
that person.
f. Always carry business cards.
g. Keep notes on people in order to follow-up both personally and professionally.
Telephone Etiquette
When speaking on the phone, proper etiquette is just as important as when you meet someone in person.
Like face-to-face interactions, how you behave on the telephone tells others much about you.
a. Always try to return calls on the same day.

b. Keep business conversations to the point.
c. Do not keep someone on hold more than 30 seconds.
d. Always leave your phone number if you ask for someone to call you back.
e. Maintain a phone log to refer back to for valuable information.
f. Listening is essential whether in person or on the phone.
g. Make sure your voice mail works properly.
Correspondence Etiquette
Whether you have just met someone, or have known the person for some time, it is important to follow-up
meetings with written correspondence.
1. Write a follow-up/thank you letter in 48 hours.
a. Whether a handwritten note or formal letter, always follow guidelines for writing effective
b. business letters.
i. Women should be addressed as “Ms.” no matter what their marital status.
ii. Do not forget to sign your letter.
iii. Always proof for typos and mis-spellings.
c. Letters usually contain the following elements:
i. Opener: the opener should be friendly and tells the reader why you are writing.
ii. Justification: the second paragraph reinforces or justifies what you are looking for and why

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iii. you should get it.
iv. Closing: close the letter by seeking the person to act on your behalf or request.
2. Email etiquette has some specific guidelines.
a. Email is appropriate to use, but never use all caps and watch for typos.
b. Always include a subject line in your message.
c. Make the subject line meaningful.
d. Use correct grammar and spelling.
e. Always use a signature if you can; make sure it identifies who you are and includes alternate
means of contacting you (phone and fax are useful).
f. Use active words instead of passive.
g. Do not ask to recall a message.
h. Use proper structure and layout.
i. Avoid long sentences.
j. Be concise and to the point.
No one would dispute that today’s gloomy economic news is a concern for workers everywhere. But, did
you know that showing workplace courtesy and respect to those in your department or team is a winning
way to build up your team?
Workplace etiquette pays in two ways for you and your team. First, it elevates you as an individual—and
it’s a good thing to be known as someone who shows respect and courtesy to others. In fact, research
shows that workplace etiquette is essential for keeping and being promoted in a job. Secondly—and of
equal importance—workplace etiquette improves work relationships. It shows your team that you care
about them, their work, and their value to the team.
Moreover, when the entire team or department embraces professional workplace etiquette, your team’s
stellar example can raise the bar for the rest of the organization. As the saying goes, “A rising tide floats
all the boats.”
Whether you have just met someone, or have known the person for some time, it is important to follow-up
meetings with written correspondence.
1. Write a follow-up/thank you letter in 48 hours
a. Whether a handwritten note or formal letter, always follow guidelines for writing effective business
letters.
i. Women should be addressed as “Ms.” no matter what their marital status.
ii. Do not forget to sign your letter.
iii. Always proof for typos and mis-spellings.
b. Letters usually contain the following elements:
i. Opener: the opener should be friendly and tells the reader why you are writing.
ii. Justification: the second paragraph reinforces or justifies what you are looking for and why
iii. you should get it.

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iv. Closing: close the letter by seeking the person to act on your behalf or request.
2. Email etiquette has some specific guidelines.
a. Email is appropriate to use, but never use all caps and watch for typos.
b. Always include a subject line in your message.
c. Make the subject line meaningful.
d. Use correct grammar and spelling.
e. Always use a signature if you can; make sure it identifies who you are and includes alternate
f. means of contacting you (phone and fax are useful).
g. Use active words instead of passive.
h. Do not ask to recall a message.
i. Use proper structure and layout.
j. Avoid long sentences.
k. Be concise and to the point.
7 ways rules of well behaviour

1. Attitude is everything.
Have a great attitude like your job depended on it. You may not be in your dream job or have a dream
boss, but don’t wear a negative attitude on your shirtsleeve. It shows! Refrain from gossip and negative
talk about anyone on your team. Rather than building you up, condescending conversation diminishes
you instead.
2. Notch up nonverbal communication.
Have good eye contact to show you are listening. Look at the upper part of the face—the eye and brow
area. Looking any lower on the face is too social and intimate for the workplace. Avoid crossing your arms
over your chest as this can indicate you are not approachable. Give a good handshake to those on your
team, not just to your clients.
3. Be timely, not tardy.
Regardless of age, job title, or level in the team hierarchy, be on time for work and meetings. Better yet,
be a few minutes early. Punctuality shows your team that you respect them and their time. Complete tasks
and projects on time, too; don’t let the team down with excuses.
4. Use proper 4. tech etiquette.
Don’t leave the team hanging. Answer their emails and phone calls in a timely way—by the end of the day
if possible, and no later than 24 hours. Using proper grammar and punctuation in departmental emails is
just as important as in client emails.
5. Go the extra mile—it’s not crowded!
Look for ways you can help out and show support to a teammate. If he has a heavy day and deadlines
to meet and you don’t, step up and offer to help. Your assistance and team spirit will be appreciated by
everyone in the group.

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6. Contribute value to team meetings.
Focus on the meeting, not on side conversations or on your BlackBerry. Be open to others’ ideas and points
of view. Avoid a ‘my way or the highway’ attitude. It makes you appear selfish and undermines team spirit.
Let others finish speaking before sharing your thoughts.
7. Show appreciation.
Everyone likes to be appreciated. Sincerely verbalize and demonstrate thanks as often as possible. Do this
both publicly—when appropriate—and privately. If your boss congratulates you on a job well done and
you had help from your team members, be sure to tell your boss so they can receive credit, too. They’ll be
more likely to rally around you on the next big project.
Ethics and Professional Integrity

Reference: Project Management Institute
Foundation
a) Responsibility
Responsibility is our duty to take ownership for the decisions we make or fail to make, the actions we take
or fail to take, and the consequences that result.
b) Respect
Respect is our duty to show a high regard for ourselves, others, and the resources entrusted to us. Resources
entrusted to us may include people, money, reputation, the safety of others, and natural or environmental
resources.
c) Fairness
Fairness is our duty to make decisions and act impartially and objectively. Our conduct must be free from
competing self-interest, prejudice, and favouritism.
d) Honesty
Honesty is our duty to understand the truth and act in a truthful manner both in our communications and
in our conduct.

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QUALITY CHECK LISTS
CHECK LIST PRIOR TO CONCRETING

SL No. DESCRIPTION YES NO REMARKS
1 Is the method statement approved by client/ consultant
2 Check that latest GFC drawings/ specifications have been referred to and
are available at site for reference
3 Is RMC of correct grade and accompanied by test certificate from
manufacturer
4 Check for cleanliness of the area to be concreted .
5 Check that preceding checklists /Test reports for formwork,reinforcement
and materials are approved
6 “Check for completion of other preceding activities such as fixing of
inserts & embedments and service conduits andgeneral preparedness for
concreting“
7 Check whether location of joints are as per drawings
8 Has old concrete surface been roughened & cleaned
9 Check for provisions of access platforms & walkways and their positioning
to avoid damage/disturbance to reinforcements and other laid services
10 Has the concreting sequence been approved
11 Has arrangement for protection from weather during or after concreting
been made
12 Safety measures been taken as per safety plan
13 Is batching plant calibration checked
14 Provision of adequate numbers and working condition of concrete aids
such as:
a) Mixer machines.
b) Transit mixers.
c) Cranes.
d) Vibrators
e) Concrete pumps.
f) Any other accessories
15 Availability of sufficient manpower and material
16 Availability of sufficient number of cube moulds (Minimum 6 Nos)
17 Availability of slump cone apparatus
18 Grade of concrete:
19 Total quantity of concrete:
20 Date of concrete:
Inspected By (Name & Designation) Signature Date
Non Conformance Details Rectification (Date & Sign)
Final Comment/Approvals

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CHECK LIST DURING CONCRETING
SL DESCRIPTION YES NO REMARKS
No.
1 Check conformance method statement approved by client/
Consultant
2 Check for the approval of preceeding stages of shuttering and
reinforcement activities
3 Check slump of the concrete being poured. Is it as per specs?
Mention the design & field values
4 Is concrete delevery, rate of placement and placement sequence
sufficient to avoid cold joints & excessive fluid pressure in wall
joints
5 In the case of site batching have all the ingredients been tested
and approved
6 Is proper vibration done to ensure compaction
7 Is admixture/ plasticizer as per specification
8 Check for correction of displaced reinforcement during
Placement
9 Check for provisions of construction joints as per drawings?
10 Check for protective gloves and boots for all workers handling
Concrete.
11 Check for levelling & finishing of exposed concrete surface for
Planar structure like slabs and pavements
12 Are concrete aids such as vibrators, transit mixers cranes
available in suffficient quantities
13 Number of cube specimens taken as per norms
14 Is the previously placed layer of concrete green to receive the
succeeding layer for amalgamation
15 Is shear key and roughening provided for next concrete pour
16 Quantity of concrete poured
17 Starting time of concrete
18 Completion time of concreting

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CHECK LIST POST CONCRETING AND DESHUTTERING
No.
1 Check that casting date is marked on the structural elements
2 Ensure curing as per approved method for specified period
3 Ensure periodic inspection of shuttering supports till deshuttering
4 Check whether inserts embedments which are flush with concrete
surface are exposed properly
5 Check for marking of location of service conduits & fittings,where
applicable
6 Verify deshuttering schedule
7 Verify test cube strength of appropriate concrete batch
8 Check for approved plan for removal of bottom forms
9 Ensure bottom supports replaced wherever specified/required
10 Check whether concrete quality is free from defects after deshuttering
a) Is there any honeycombing
b) Are there any cracks & holes
c) Is there any bulging
d) Is there any peeling and/or segregation
e) Check for dimensional accuracy of elements
11 Check condition of shuttering assembly
12 Are repairs carried out to damaged plates and other components of
shuttering assembly.
13 Clean ,oil and stack shuttering material for future use

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CHECK LIST PRIOR TO CERAMIC/VITRIFIED FLOOR TILE LAYING
1 Is the Method statement approved by PMC
2 Check if approved sample of tiles are available for reference
3 Check for availability of tiles, tiling masons, other construction aids
and material approved
4 Check that all defective tiles are removed
5 Check for availability of GFC drawings
6 Check if sand is screened and confirms to gradation
7 Check if approved pattern fits actual area
8 Check if waterproofed areas approved prior to tiling
9 Check for preparation of base and leveling of irregularities by
removing dead mortar
10 Check for completion of preceding activities like ducting, plastering,
fixing of door frames, partitions, false ceiling, etc.
11 Check for provision of service lines, raceways if specified

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CHECK LIST FOR LAYING CERAMIC/VITRIFIED FLOOR TILING
DURING TILING
1 Check for proper mixing and specified mortar mix proportion or
specified adhesive as appropriate
2 Check for thickness of mortar bed as per specification
3 Check for wetting of tiles before laying
4 Check for placing of insertions like spacers aluminium beading etc. if
specified.
5 Check for following with ref to Drawings and specifications during
laying of tiles
a) Fixing over mortar bed with cement slurry.
b) Pattern of laying
c) Thickness of joints between tiles.
e) Slope
f) True level surface
g) Matching of tile joints
h) Tiling around openings and reveals
j) Finishing of edges for cut tiles.
6 Check for tile drop when floors are at different levels
7 Check for laying of tiles over construction joints
8 Check for treatment of transit zone at openings/between different
areas/change in tile pattern or tiling material
AFTER TILING
1 Check for cleaning of tile joints
2 Check for flush pointing of tile joints with white cement or pigmented
cement
3 Final check for true level surface,pattern,surface finish, slope etc
4 Check for hollowness of tiles using wooden mallet
5 Check for cleaning of area after completion of tiling
6 Check for curing of tiled surface
7 Check for covering the tiled surface with plaster of Paris

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CHECK LIST PRIOR TO DADO & SKIRTING
No.
1 Check if approved samples of tiles are available for
reference
2 Check if approved pattern is available for reference
3 Check for availability of tiles, tiling masons & other construction
aids
4 Check that all defective tiles are removed
5 Check for cleaning and wetting of walls.
6 Check for wetting of tiles prior to laying
7 Check for marking of tile pattern as per drawing on wall prior
to starting of work
8 Check for completion and approval of preceding activities
like fixing of door/window frames, service conduits, sanitary
fittings, plumbing /switch /,junction boxes, etc.
9 Check for approval of line and level of receiving surface
10 Check if areas of applied waterproofing are approved prior
to tiling

498
CHECK LIST DURING AND AFTER DADO AND SKIRTING
DURING DADO AND SKIRTING
No.
1 Check for proper mixing and specified mortar mix proportion or specified
adhesive as appropriate
2 Check for roughening of plaster bed.
3 Check for following during fixing of tiles
a) wetting of tiles.
b) wetting of surface
c) Pattern of fixing
d) Coat of cement slurry for fixing.
e) Thickness of joints between tiles.
f) True level of surface and plumb
g) True horizontal top of skirting or dado
h) Matching of tile joints
i) Finishing of edges for cut tiles
j) Right angles
k) Tiling around electrical and plumbing fittings, doors & windows, etc.
4 Check for expansion joints location if any
AFTER DADO AN SKIRTING

No.
1 Check for flush pointing of joints with white cement or pigmented
cement.
2 Check for cleaning of joints
3 Final check for pattern, plumb, right angles, surface finish, level surface,
etc.
4 Check for cleaning of Tiled surface.
5 Check for curing of tiled surface for specified period

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CHECK LIST FOR BRICK / CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY
PRIOR TO COMMENCEMENT
1 Is the Method statement approved by PMC
2 Check for screening of sand before mixing for mortar
3 Do materials at site match approved samples Ref relevant test report
4 Check for availability of relevant GFC drawings
5 Check for accuracy of layout marking
6 Check for last minute modifications if any duly approved
by the client
7 Check for availability of labour and material as per the day’s
schedule
8 Check for preparation of bricks/ concrete blocks by soaking/
hosing and air drying
9 Check for proper stacking of bricks/ concrete blocks/ sand/
cement etc
10 Check for availability of appropriate tools for the work
11 Is area clean of loose material/ concrete/dead mortar etc
12 Check for hacking of contact surface between of concrete
and masonry
DURING CONSTRUCTION
1 Check for approved mortar mix proportion
2 Check for plumb/line/level
3 Check that bricks/ concrete blocks are moist and not dry
4 Check for sizes of door/window and other openings
5 Check for margins left for plastering jambs
6 Check for staggering of vertical joints
7 Check for thickness of joints as per specification
8 Check for raking of joints
9 Check for RCC bands/reinforcement in specified locations
10 Check for leveling of masonry at every 4th course or as
specified in contract document
11 Check that specified height of masonry in one lift is not
exceeded

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12 Are masons using appropriate tools for the job
13 Check for lintel height,levelling off and availability of precast
lintel if specified
14 Check for core fill of hollow blocks where specified
15 Check for packing of last course below concrete beam/
slab
16 Check for availability of appropriate PPE.
17 Check for stability, safety of scaffolding .
AFTER CONSTRUCTION
1 Check for raking cleaning of joints to receive plaster/
pointing (both sides of wall)
2 Check for curing of masonry
3 Check for removal of debris and cleaning up after
completion of masonry work

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CHECK LIST FOR CEILING PLASTER
2 Check for availability of approved materials as per daily
requirement
4 Check for completion of preceding activities like fixing of inserts,
completion of curing etc.
5 Check for hacking of concrete surface
6 Check for removal of efflorescence by brushing and scraping
7 Check for cleaning & wetting of surfaces to be plastered.
8 Check for availability of appropriate PPE
9 Check for stability , safety of scaffolding
DURING PLASTERING
1 Check for mortar mix proportion
2 Reject mortar not consumed within initial setting time if specified
or 30 minutes if not specified
3 Check thickness of plaster as specified
4 Check for incorporating features such as grooves, bands etc.
during plastering
5 Check that masons are using correct tools & frequently checking
& adjusting line & level.

AFTER PLASTERING
1 Check for true level surface, evenness of plaster
2 Check for application of lime rendering if specified.
3 Check for removal and cleaning of dead mortar debris
4 Is date of plastering marked on the finished surface
5 Check for curing arrangement and adequacy of curing for
specified period

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CHECK LIST PRIOR TO INTERNAL PLASTERING
No.
1 Is the method statement approved by PMC
3 Check that masonry/concrete surface to receive plaster
has been cured for at least 7 days prior to receiving
plaster
requirement
5 Check for completion and approval of preceding
activities like fixing of service conduits and pipes,
boxes, completion of curing etc.
6 Check for cleaning & wetting of masonry & concrete
surfaces.
8 Check for raking of masonry joints
10 Check for removal of efflorescence by brushing and
scraping
11 Check level pads at appropriate intervals
12 Check for fixing of GI mesh between RCC and masonry
members
13 Check for insertion of corner beading wherever
required

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CHECK LIST DURING AND AFTER INTERNAL PLASTERING
DURING PLASTERING
2 Check for mortar mix proportion
3 Reject mortar not consumed within initial setting time if
specified or 30 minutes if not specified
4 Check for completion of ceiling plaster prior to plastering
of walls
5 Check for marking of skirting/dado/cladding surface to be
left free of plastering
6 Check thickness and number of coats of plaster
7 Check for incorporating features such as grooves, bands
etc,during plastering
8 Check that masons are using appropriate tools and
frequently checking and adjusting line, level & plumb
AFTER PLASTERING
2 Check for straightness of edges
3 Check for right angles and plumb
4 Check for sealing of openings after plastering
5 Check for application of lime rendering if specified
6 Check for removal and cleaning of dead mortar debris
7 Is date of plastering marked on the finished surface
8 Check for curing arrangement and adequacy of curing for
specified period

504
CHECK LIST FOR LIME RENDERING
No.
requirement
4 Check for completion & approval of preceding activity of cement
plaster .
5 Check that lime rendering is done within 3 to 4 hours after
cement plastering
6 Check if uniform thickness of rendering is maintained through
out
7 Check if second coat of lime rendering is applied after the first
coat is completely dry
8 Check if surface has been smooth finished without any
undulations
9 Check for stability & safety of scaffolding
11 Check for curing arrangement & adequacy of curing for specified
period

505
CHECK LIST PRIOR TO EXTERNAL PLASTERING
No.
requirement
4 Check for raking of masonry joints
5 Check for stability , safety of scaffolding .
7 Check for completion and approval of preceding activities
like fixing of service conduits and pipes, boxes, completion
of curing etc.
8 Check for cleaning & wetting of masonry & RCC surfaces.
9 Check for removal of efflorescence by brushing and
scraping
10 Check level pads at appropriate intervals
11 Check for fixing of GI Mesh between RCC & masonry
members

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CHECK LIST DURING AND AFTER EXTERNAL PLASTERING
DURING PLASTERING
1 Check for the kind of finish required such as rough
finish (for cladding /first coat), smooth finish (for
textured coatings),sand cast etc
2 Check for mortar mix proportion and addition of
damp proofing compound if specified
3 Reject mortar not consumed within initial setting
time if specified or 30 minutes if not specified
4 Check thickness and number of coats of plaster
5 Check for incorporating features such as grooves,
bands etc,during plastering
6 Check that masons are using appropriate tools
and frequently checking and adjusting line,level &
plumb
AFTER PLASTERING
2 Check for straightness of edges
3 Check for right angles and plumb
4 Check for sealing of openings after plastering
5 Check for removal and cleaning of dead mortar,
debris
6 Is date of plastering marked on the finished
surface
7 Check for curing arrangement and adequacy of
curing for specified period

507
CHECK LIST FOR PAINTING
PRIOR TO PAINTING
No.
1 Check for the shade of the paint has been approved by
the architect,PMC and duly certified
2 Check if there is any specific requirement of the client
3 Check and ensure that wall and ceilling surfaces are
completely dry
4 Check for cleaning of loose particles , dirt and dust
from the surfaces.
5 Check for availability of appropriate tools
DURING PAINTING
No.
1 Check for the application of primer
2 Check whether putty has been applied after 24 hours
of primer application
3 Check whether the 2nd coat of putty been applied
after the 1st coat has completely dried.
4 Check whether all undulations been coverd by using
putty
5 Check for proper sanding of surfaces to render a
smooth finish
6 Check for cleaning of surfaces after sanding the puttied
surface
7 Has it been ensured that the first coat of paint is applied
and finished with roller
8 Check & ensure that the final coat is applied after 4 to
6 hours of first coat

508
AFTER PAINTING
No.
1 Check & ensure that the area which is painted is
protected by using caution boards

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510
Chapter
24
Dismantling and Demolition
DISMANTLING, DEMOLITION AND SITE CLEARANCE

511
24. Dismantling and Demolition
24.1 Introduction
The exponential increase in construction has also given rise to a need for demolition, dismantling, and
modification of structures. Demolition and Concrete Removal may be required due to the following
reasons:
• Changes to an existing structure or structure being built due to new design requirements
• Changes to a structure due to faulty design or faulty construction
• Rehabilitation of the structure due to deterioration of the structure because of corrosion
• Retrofitting of the structure to be able to take a different kind of loading
• Rehabilitation of the structure due to fire, earthquake, overloading or any other kind of damage
• Complete removal of the structure so as to make way for another structure or none at all e.g.
discarded nuclear power plants
Demolition today is a highly specialized activity and is coordinated by Professional Demolition Agencies.
These professionals are capable of advising the best method to demolish the building within the specified
parameters of vibration, noise, dust, speed, precision and safety of the structure and surroundings.
24.1.1 Parameters to consider for Demolition

1. Structural Stability
2. Noise Level
3. How fast the structure needs to be dismantled (due to safety reasons)
4. Precision Required
5. Environmental Considerations – Dust, Water, Smoke, High, Temperature etc
6. Operator Safety
9. Downtime Cost
10. Debris clearance : Methodology adopted and space available for machinery to clear and store
debris
24.2 Methods of Demolition

Concrete Removal can be categorized into three broad methods –
1. Building Demolition
2. Building Dismantling
3. Concrete Surgery.

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24.2.1 Building Demolition
Generally Demolition means that there is no need to save any part of the structure. Hence the methods
developed for demolition are fast, use brute force and generally have no specific control on the splitting or
breaking process other than the end objective being achieved. The reinforcing steel is generally torn or split
apart. Heavy impact and vibration are common in such processes. However, these methods are generally
of the lowest cost when compared on a “per cubic mtr of concrete removed” basis.
The most common techniques for the above are:
a. Controlled Explosion
b. Implosion
c. Wrecking Ball and Chain Method
d. Concrete Bursters
e. Non Explosive Demolition Powder Method
f. Plasma blasting
g. Crushers attached to Hyd. Excavators for Silent Demolition
24.2.2 Building Dismantling

Building Dismantling involves a slight degree of control on the concrete removal process. Generally there
is lower impact and vibrati on compared to Direct Demolition Methods. The costs are slightly more than
Direct Demolition.
The most common techniques for concrete dismantling are:
a. Hammer and Chisel

b. Pneumatic Breakers / Jackhammers
c. High Frequency Electrical Chippers
d. Flame Torch (Thermic Lance)
e. Robotic Machines (BROKK)
f. Concrete Cruncher
g. Hydraulic splitters
24.2.3 Concrete Surgery

Concrete Surgery involves a high degree of control on the concrete removal process. There is very less or
no vibration, practically no impact, is environmentally friendly and allows a high degree of precision to be
achieved. Noise can be reduced considerably and structural stability is generally retained. These methods
generally are expensive at first sight. However, they are extremely cost effective when compared to indirect
expenses associated with other demolition or dismantling techniques.
The most common techniques in concrete surgery are:
a. Diamond Floor Saw

b. Diamond Wall Saw
c. Circular Diamond Hand Saw

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d. Diamond Chain Saw
e. Diamond Wire Saw
f. Diamond Core Drilling
g. Handheld diamond wheel grinders
h. Concrete Scarifiers
i. High Pressure Water Jet Cutting/Hydrodemolition
24.3 Typical Jobs involving Building Demolition

a. Demolition of old and unwanted Buildings
b. Demolition of old bridge piers, cement silos, concrete chimneys
c. Dismantling of Underwater Structures
d. Dismantling of Bridges, Buildings, Concrete Roads, Waste Water Treatment Plants, Nuclear Plants
e. Dismantling of parts of Urban structures in conditions that demand control over flying debris so that
people don’t get hurt or adjacent buildings don’t get damaged
f. Surgery involving making of large openings in Concrete Slabs and Walls
g. Surgery involving Replacement of Sheared Foundati on Bolts for Heavy Machinery
h. Surgery involving cutting open part of a large concrete Foundation (e.g. Hot Strip Mill in steel
industry)
i. Surgery involving selective removal of corroded concrete
j. Surgery involving removing bumps in industrial floors
k. Sawing grooves in Industrial Floors for Shrinkage control or for vibration isolation
Engineers today realize that a number of tools are available today for Building Demolition and selective
and vibration free removal of concrete. These methods not only save time but are also immensely helpful
in execution of the job in a technically correct manner. Also, with the use of these specialized tools, it may
be possible to think of new ways of solving a problem, which will save time and money while achieving
specified performance of the structure.
24.4 Frequently Asked Questions:

1. I have an old building to be demolished. Which method should I use?
The selection of the method would depend on the various factors which have been discussed in the
beginning of this chapter. Simply put, if we have a free standing one or two storey masonry building, the
cheapest method would be to break it manually using hammer and chisel and gas cutti ng equipment to
cut the rebar. On the other hand, if only part of the building needs to be demolished or dismantled, then
in consultation with a professional demolition agency, the best way to do the job can be detailed.
2. I need to make an opening in a slab. How do I do this?

The first thing we need to understand is that whenever we cut a part of the structure, the load on

514
the structure will be redistributed to the other parts of the structure. Hence, you will need to do is to
have a joint meeting with the Architect, Structural Consultant and the Concrete Cutting Contractor to
understand the implications of the cutting. The Architect will show the opening size on the drawing. The
Structural Consultant will then examine it and determine the effect of the removal of that part of the slab
on the structure. He will also need to check if the remaining part of the structure needs to be strengthened
because of this cutting. The Concrete cutting Contractor will be able to explain the different methods
available for cutting. Based on the various methods, their pros and cons, a joint decision can be taken
on the preferred cutting methodology for the project. eg., if the structure can tolerate a small amount of
vibration, then High frequency hand held electrical chippers may be used. It may be decided to choose a
Floor Saw machine using Diamond blades to ensure no vibration at all.
3. Is it necessary to support the structure while cutting concrete members?

It is extremely important to support the rest of the structure while cutting any concrete member. Remember
that reinforced cement concrete weighs about 2400 to 2600 kg per cubic meter. If there is even a slightest
jerk while cutting, heavy concrete pieces can slide and fall and in some cases, even pull out remaining parts
of the main structure. Workers have been severely injured in many cases due to such carelessness. Hence,
it is imperative that a structural consultant be involved to advise on how the structure is to be supported
so that the cut pieces do not fall.
4. How do I remove the cut pieces after the cutting is done?

Cut pieces can be removed manually if they are small (150-200 kg) or by crane if they are bigger. Usually,
slab pieces are diamond core drilled to provide for a sling hole. Steel wire rope is then passed through the
sling hole, then around the cut member and then the member is lifted by crane and put on to a tractor
or truck.
5. How do I determine the sizes of the piece to be cut?

This depends on the lifting capability at the site. If there is a tower crane or EOT or lifting arrangement,
then the size of the piece to be cut will depend on the safe lifting capability of the crane at the end of the
boom. In general, larger the lifting capability, larger the size of the piece to be cut. This means that cutting
lines are lesser and the cost of the cutting comes down. On the other hand, if the pieces have to be lifted
manually, then the amount of cutting will increase (because smaller pieces have to be cut) and the cost of
cutting may be higher.
6. How do I remove the cut pieces after the cutting is done?

Cut pieces can be removed manually if they are small (150-200 kg) or by crane if they are bigger. Usually,
slab pieces are diamond core drilled to provide for a sling hole. Steel wire rope is then passed through the
sling hole, then around the cut member and then the member is lift ed by crane and put on to a tractor
or truck.
7. How do I determine the sizes of the piece to be cut?

This depends on the lifting capability at the site. If there is a tower crane or EOT or lifting arrangement,
then the size of the piece to be cut will depend on the safe lifting capability of the crane at the end of the
boom. In general, larger the lifting capability, larger the size of the piece to be cut. This means that cutting
lines are lesser and the cost of the cutting comes down. On the other hand, if there the pieces have to be
lifted manually, then the amount of cutting will increase (because smaller pieces have to be cut) and the
cost of cutting may be higher.

515
24.5 Precautions
1. Most of the time, the edges of the cut opening may need to be strengthened. Steel channels or IS
Sections may need to be fixed on all four edges to transfer the load to the adjacent beams or walls before
the cutting operation commences. A structural engineer will need to be consulted to give the correct
recommendations.
2. One has to make sure that while cutting the slab using a Floor saw (which is being used on top of
the slab), does not cut through the supporting rolled steel sections (channels or IS Sections).
3. Slab Supports: Always use steel pipe supports with cross bracing at two levels (for slabs which are
at approx. 3 m to 3.6m height). For higher slabs, double staging needs to be done. Each individual
slab piece which is to be cut should have four vertical pipe supports, (minimum 3), below it, before
cutting commences. Casuarina poles may be used in cases where steel pipes are not available.
However, they should also be cross braced at two levels.
4. Beam Supports: Beams should never be supported in a single line. It should have horizontal steel
pipes below the beam which are supported by steel pipe verticals at two ends which are cross
braced at two levels again.
5. Concrete Grade: In general, it is not wise to use diamond cutting tools for concretes less than
M 15 in grade. Aggregates in the concrete may not hold together and blades or core drills or
diamond wire tends to get stuck.
24.6 Concrete Demolition Methods
24.6.1 Implosion:
In the controlled demolition industry, building implosion is
the strategic placing of explosive material and timing of its
detonation so that a structure collapses on itself in a matter
of seconds, minimizing the physical damage to its immediate
surroundings. Despite its terminology, building implosion
also includes the controlled demolition of other structures,
such as bridges, smokestacks, towers, and tunnels. Building
implosion (which reduces to seconds a process which could
take months or years to achieve by other methods) typically
occurs in urban areas and often involves large landmark
structures.
The actual use of the term “implosion” to refer to the

destruction of a building is a misnomer. “What happens is,
you use explosive materials in critical structural connections
to allow gravity to bring it down.”

516
24.6.2 Ball and Chain Method
A wrecking ball is a heavy steel ball, usually hung from a crane, that is
used for demolishing large buildings. It was most common during the
1950s and 1960s. To demolish roofs and other horizontal spans, the
ball is typically suspended by a length of steel chain attached to the
lifting hook of a crane boom above the structure, the rope drum clutch is
released and the ball is allowed to free-fall onto the structure. To demolish
walls the ball is suspended at the desired height from a crane boom and
a secondary steel rope pulls the ball toward the crane cab. The lateral
rope drum clutch is then
released and the ball
swings as a pendulum
to strike the structure.
Another method for
lateral demolition is to
pivot the crane boom to accelerate the ball toward the
target. This is repeated as needed until the structure is
broken down into debris that can easily be loaded and
hauled away. The demolition action is carried out entirely
through the kinetic energy of the ball.
24.6.3 Concrete Burster

Hydraulic concrete burster is a vibration-free machine of removing
redundant reinforced concrete structures, foundation, pillars,
concrete machine beds and plinths, concrete walls, mass filled
concrete etc. The hydraulic burster is favoured in instances where
vibration and noise must be limited due to other surrounding working
environments (offices, Hospitals etc), and is more effective than hand
held pneumatic tools. This machine can also be used very effectively
in restricted areas as their hydraulic power pack can be powered by
petrol, diesel or electric motors.
Bursters are hydraulically

expanded in pre drilled holes causing the material to split and
break apart, making removal of further breaking significantly
more easy. Bursting uses hydraulic burster head is then
inserted into the holes and then pressurised so that the head
expands within the hole causing the concrete to fracture into
manageable pieces, ready for easy site removal. Using 112 and
200 millimetre diameter heads, producing 120 and 230 tons of
pressure respectively.
Advantages: 1,Very low noise. 2, Vey low dust. 3, Light weight 4, Easy handling 5, No water. 6, Vibration
free (no white finger).

517
24.6.4 Nonexplosive Demolition Agents
Non-explosive demolition agents are commercial
products that are an alternative to explosives and
gas pressure blasting products in demolition, mining,
and quarrying. To use non-explosive demolition
agents in demolition or quarrying, holes are drilled
in the base rock like they would be drilled for use
with conventional explosives. A slurry mixture of the
nonexplosive demolition agent and water is poured
into the drill holes. Over the next few hours the slurry
expands, cracking the rock in a pattern some what
like the cracking that would occur from conventional
explosives.
Non-explosive demolition agents offer many advantages including that they are silent and do not produce
vibration the way a conventional explosive would. In some applications conventional explosives are more
economical than non-explosive demolition agents. In many countries these are available without restriction
unlike explosives which are highly regulated.
These agents are much safer than explosives, but it is important to follow directions closely in order to
avoid steam explosions during the first few hours after these materials are placed.
24.6.5 Pulse Plasma Blasting of Rock

This is one of the latest methods of breaking rock very quickly and without explosives developed by
a Korean company.The Plasma system uses the copper-oxide/aluminum thermite reaction to generate
energy to break rocks. The reaction is initiated by a powerful electrical charge generated by a proprietary
pulse generator. The energy is fed to cylindrical thermite cells inserted into the rock. The plasma method
produces much less noise, gas and fly rock than conventional blasting, and is much more time and labor-
efficient than hydraulic ram.
The plasma system uses a proprietary Electro-Power Impactor (EPI) developed by KAPRA. The unit is charged
by a conventional electric source (either utility or generator power). The EPI releases up to 134,000 kW in
a fraction of a second, initiating the thermite reaction in the cells.
24.7 Concrete Dismantling Methods

24.7.1 Electrical Chippers
These are electrical handheld chippers (sometimes
also called breakers) which can break concrete slowly
but effectively. They cause minimum vibration and are
widely used to break slabs, beams and columns which
are generally upto 200-250 mm thick in section. The
commonly available chippers vary in weight from 10
kg to 27 kg.

518
24.7.2 Thermic Lance
Thermic lances can be used to cut concrete in areas where fire does not cause any problem. A thermal
lance, thermic lance, oxygen lance, or burning bar is a tool that burns iron in the presence of pressurized
oxygen to create very high temperatures for cutting. It consists of a long iron tube packed with iron rods,
sometimes mixed with aluminium or magnesium rods to increase the heat output. One end of the tube is
placed in a holder and oxygen is fed through the tube.
The far end of the tube is pre-heated and lit by an oxyacetylene torch. An intense stream of burning iron is
produced at the lit end and can be used to cut rapidly through thick materials including steel and concrete.
The tube is consumed, so every few minutes the operator shuts off the oxygen, discards the remaining
stub of a lance tube and starts using a new one.
The temperature at which a thermal lance burns varies depending on the environment. Kosanke gives the
maximum temperature to be 4,770K (8,130 °F), while Haorong calculates it to be 3,000K (4,940 °F).
24.7.3 Robotic Machines (Brokk or equivalent)

Robotic Machines are special purpose built machines which are
operated by remote control. These are especially useful in confined
area demolition or where a building collapse has occurred since the
operator can stay far away from the site and still operate the machine
effectively. The pioneer of this kind of machine has been a company
called Brokk.
24.7.4 Hydraulic Splitters

The hydraulic splitter also known as rock splitter and darda splitter, is a type of
portable hydraulic tool that is used in demolition jobs which involve breaking
large blocks of concrete and rocks.
Hydraulic rock splitters consist of two wedges which are inserted in a pre-
drilled hole and a hydraulic cylinder is pushing out a center wedge between
the two side wedges forcing them to separate.
24.7.5 Hydraulic Cruncher

Hydraulic crunching is an all-round efficient concrete crushing
method, for use in all general demolition contracts. Hydraulic
crunching demolition is virtually emission free, i.e. they do not
produce any noise, water, dust or vibration. The jaws are positioned
onto the edge of the concrete structure to be removed. Hydraulic
power forces the jaws shut crushing the concrete. This process is
repeated until the structure is removed.

519
Structural integrity is not compromised by the hydraulic crunching method of demolition as this is a non
percussive method. Hand held crunchers have an effective jaw capacity of 300mm.
24.8 Concrete Surgery

Different Techniques of Diamond Cutting for Concrete Structures are presented in this section.
24.8.1 Diamond Floor Sawing:
This is also known as Flat Sawing or Slab Sawing. A Diamond Floor saw
is used to cut horizontal surfaces like slabs, bridge decks, podiums etc.
Some applications are: making floor trenches in factory floors to lay
pipes, trenching in airport runways, Cutting edges in runways or factory
floors to make quick repairs, making openings in slabs (in malls) to insert
elevators, cutting expansion joints etc. Floor saws can be electrical or
diesel powered. Depth of cut can range from 150 mm to 500 mm. Deeper
cuts are generally done in two or more passes sometimes.
24.8.2 Concrete Wall Sawing:

Concrete wall saws have a circular diamond blade protected with a hood
which runs on tracks. Generally aluminium tracks are mounted on a wall
and the blade moves up or down while rotating and cutting the concrete
wall. Wall saws can also be used horizontally. Depths of cuts can vary from
200 mm to 1000 mm. Applications include making openings for doors or
windows in concrete wall or removal of concrete retaining wall.
24.8.3 Hand Sawing

Handheld sawing techniques are generally used for smaller jobs where it is
faster and more cost effective than using other cutting methods. The hand
saw can be used to cut on walls or floors and can cut up to 250 mm deep.
They are highly portable and can access small, tight areas where cutting
is needed. Typical applications include HVAC openings in brick and cinder
block, beam pockets, and small opening in slabs and walls.

520
24.8.4 Hydraulic Chain Sawing
Hydraulic Chain Sawing is usually a special application. When
overcuts on concrete are not allowed, the chain saw can cut the
corners without any over cuts, saving the integrity of the slab
or wall. The chain saw can cut up to 450 mm in depth and is
powered by hydraulics or gas.
24.8.5 Ring Saw

Ring Sawing is a hydraulic or electric powered hand held saw
where its blade is driven from its periphery, not its center, it
can cut 260 mm deep with just a 360 mm blade! To achieve
a cutting depth of 260 mm on a conventional power cutter
you would need a blade diameter of 700 mm approx., which
would be simply unmanageable on a hand-held cutter. A 260
mm cutting depth is enough to cut right through a normal
wall, and if cuts can be made from both sides of a structure,
this cutting depth can naturally be doubled.
Sometimes the ring saw can be a cost eff ecti ve alternative

to wall saws and diamond chain saws, and is the ideal power cutter for a whole range of cutting jobs,
particularly in work on refurbishment or extension projects. Common uses for this Concrete Ring Saw are
when cutting openings for doors and windows, cutting ventilation shafts, stairwells, piles and foundations,
plus countless other applications. The Ring Saw can cut through concrete, brick and similar materials, and
can cope with reinforcement steel.
24.8.6 Diamond Wire Sawing

Wire Sawing involves threading a diamond wire through a hole
drilled at the top and bottom of the structure or wrapping the wire
around the structural member to be cut. The wire is then rotated
by attaching it to a motor and pulled to one side by guiding it via
a series of pulleys. The pulled wire acts like a saw and cuts the
member.
The process itself eliminates vibrations, does not weaken

surrounding structures, produces no dust or flying debris and yields
a smooth exposed surface without overcut corners to minimize re-
work in new pours. The motor can be electrical, hydraulic, or diesel
operated.
For a video of diamond wire sawing please watch
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1FG6AdL1Ywk&feature=relat
ed

521
24.8.7 Hand Held Diamond Grinder
This involves attaching a diamond cup wheel to a regular angle grinder. Such a hand held machine can
be used to grind concrete surfaces which have bulged because of formwork failure. For example beams
and columns.
24.8.8 Diamond Core Drilling

Core drilling consists of a steel tube with diamond segments welded
to the tip which is rotated using a hydraulic or electric motor.
Diamond core drilling is generally done for diameters ranging
from 35 mm to 2000 mm and depths upto 4 m or more. Core
drilling applications include drilling holes for bathroom pipes, air
conditioning pipes, electrical conduits, bolt holes for foundations,
taking samples for concrete testing and many more applications.
For a video of diamond core drilling, please watch
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yej3SZ8tIcc&feature=related
24.8.9 Water Jet Cutting

Waterjet Cutting is a proven technology that can cut a wide variety of materials and can cut steel as thick
as 200 mm. It is the ideal choice for cutting:
• Areas that have a risk of explosion or fire

• Thick materials
• Cutting of mixed materials, concrete and rebar, steel with rubber lining, laminates, steel and
refractory
• Cutting without hardened edges or slag
For a video of water jet cutti ng, please watch
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b9dWr-DAo_Y
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kgxqkX_7E3Y&feature=related

522
24.8.10 Hydrodemolition
Hydrodemolition is the process of using
high pressure water, typically from 11N/
mm2 (15,000 psi) to 22N/mm2 (30,000 psi),
to remove a specific depth from a concrete
surface. Hydrodemolition is very effective for
use in areas of deteriorated, delaminated
or contaminated concrete but is also
commonly used for traditional overlay work
when a specific depth of concrete removal is
required and the structural steel will be re-
used. For example, weakened bridge deck
overlay to be removed without damaging
the steel. The term hydroscarification or
hydro-scarification is another term referring
to the same process but is normally used
when depths of less than 25mm are required and the steel reinforcing will not be exposed. A surface
prepared using hydro-demolition and hydro scarification provides the best possible bond for all types of
repair material.
Hydrodemolition and Hydroscarification have many benefits and advantages over traditional methods
including:
• Hydrodemolition increases the speed of concrete removal over traditional methods.

• Hydrodemolition produces a rough, irregular surface that gives repair material an excellent
mechanical bond.
• With hydrodemolition concrete is removed to a depth of specification.
• Reinforcement is also cleaned and prepared to bond with the repair material. This saves time and
additional steps.
• Reinforcements are undamaged and generally can be reused, saving money.
• Hydrodemolition does not damage the exposed aggregate.
• Surface micro-fracturing typically caused by traditional methods are eliminated.
• Vibration and potential damage to the surrounding structure is eliminated.
• Reducing transmitted sound through the structure.
• Hydrodemolition minimizes the dust produced using traditional mnethods.
• Robotic hydrodemolition units minimize fatigue and injuries compared to traditional methods.
For more information visit www.mmwaterjet.com
For a video of hydrodemolition, please watch
htt p://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_GEe6hvFEw&feature=related

523
24.9 Safety
It is extremely important to work safely when using diamond tools. It shall be ensured that
• all workers have adequate sleep before reporting for duty and are fully alert
• the work areas and/or work platform are suitable and safe
• workers are using safety harnesses, safety shoes and helmet
• workers are using safety goggles to protect their eyes
• electrical and water lines are disconnected before the job starts
• the exact location of the cut or drilling is clearly marked
• the blade/core bit is tightened properly and the machine is anchored strongly
• Entire area is barricaded and warning signs are erected
• the work area is adequately ventilated
• adequate lighting is provided during night time
• specific site hazards have been marked and phone numbers of nearest hospital and doctor is with
the foreman who is managing the cutting operation
• there is a method of collecting residue from the operation to prevent surfaces becoming slippery
when water is being used for cutting
• there is a method for safe removal or support of cut
pieces or cores.
• the element which has been cut has to be safely held
with a sling and a crane which has been certified to lift
the weight of the element
• crane has to be operated by a certified operator
• steel wire rope which is being used should be checked
before use every time for any fraying
• all electrical wires have proper three point plugs and are
earthed
• no wires run along aisles or walkways (to prevent tripping
hazard)
Safe Handling of Concrete elements

cut by Diamond wire saw
Still Photo Credits: Abcon Tech and Build Aids Pvt Ltd, Bangalore
Appropriate credits for other photos and videos are menti oned at the end of each section.

524
Resource Persons
RESOURCE PERSONS
Members of Task Force for Quality Assurance in Public Constructions
Dr. C S Viswanatha
Chairman- Task Force Advisor & Reviewer
C S Viswanatha, Graduated in Civil Engineering with distinction from Mysore University
(1960), Obtained Master’s & Doctorate Degree in Structural Engineering from Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore. He has served as a Member of Faculty at Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore (1963-1980) and subsequently joined Torsteel Research Foundation in India. His
Fields of specialization include Concrete Technology, Concrete and Steel Structures, Hydraulic
Structures, Precast Constructions and Renovation / Restoration / Rehabilitation of structures. He
has Published about 80 technical papers in National and International Journals, Edited Torsteel
Technical Bulletins (1981- 93) and Co-authored Torsteel Design Handbook published by Tata
McGraw- Hill (1988).
Dr. C S Viswanatha has served Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (India) as “President” (1988-1990) and Indian
Concrete Institute as “President” (1999-2001).
At present, he is the Chairman of Task Force on “Quality Assurance in Public Constructions” set up by Government
of Karnataka and has been accorded “Minister of State” status. He is also the Chief Executive, Torsteel Research
Foundation in India and Chairman, Civil-aid Technoclinic Pvt Ltd., Bangalore.
Dr. CSV is a source of inspiration for many in the profession. Considering his vast experience and contributions to
the profession, he got many Honours & Awards. Some of them are listed below.
• “ACCE Gaurav Award – 2000” by Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (India) for significant
contribution to Civil Engineering Consultancy.
• Honoured by India Chapter of American Concrete Institute (June 2003) for dedicated contributions
in the field of “Reinforcements”.
• “ICI (KBC)-Birla Super Endowment Award” for being the “Outstanding Concrete Technologist” of
Karnataka for the year 2003 by the Indian Concrete Institute, Karnataka-Bangalore Centre.
• Honoured with “Vishveshavariya Construction Excellence Award – 2004” in March 2005 by M/s
Construction and Business Records, Navi Mumbai for being an “Outstanding Engineer’
• The structure “Sabhabhavana at Kudalasangama (North Karnataka)” designed by his organization
under his guidance was awarded “ACCE Simplex Award” (September 2005) for being an
“Outstanding Structure”.
• “National Design Award 2005” by Institution of Engineers (India) for outstanding contribution in
the field of “Engineering Designs”.
• He was awarded “ICI-L&T Lifetime Achievement Award” by Indian Concrete Institute (September
2006) for his dedicated contribution in the fields of “Concrete Technology” and Concrete
Structures” for the past three decades.
• He was awarded ‘Bharatha Rathna Sir M Visvesvaraya Memorial Award’ for the year 2006 by
Builders’ Association of India, Karnataka Centre (October 2006)

ii
Prof. C E G Justo
Member- Task Force
C E G Justo is former Professor and Dean-Faculty of Engineering and Emeritus Fellow, Bangalore
University.
He has over five decades of rich experience in Teaching, Research, Consultancy and an eminent
think tank in the field of Highway, Traffic and Transportation Engg in the country.
He has served / serving as an expert in various technical committees both at state and national
levels. He was also coordinator/ principal investigator for various research projects of national
importance taken up by MoRTH, MHRD, AICTE etc.,
He has published several research papers and authored two textbooks in the field of Highway
Engineering and is actively involved in the technology up gradation for Road building industry in the nation.
Er. V B Bellad
Member- Task Force
Reviewer
V B Bellad, born on 15th Jan 1938 at Hubli graduated in B.E. (Civil Engg.) in 1960 from B.V.B.
College of Engg, Hubli (Karnataka University, Dharwad). He commenced the professional career
as Junior Engineer (Present Assistant Engineer) in Karnataka P.W.D. (1960). He has served
in the Irrigation Department for 37 years and retired as Chief Engineer (Designs) in Upper
Krishna Project; Bheemarayanagudi (1966). Re appointed as Chief Engineer (Designs), U.K.P.,
Bheemarayanagudi for one more year on contract basis.
He has got vast experience in various aspects of civil engineering. Some are listed below.
• Carried out survey, investigation, design and construction of hydraulic structures, canal systems,
lift irrigation projects, canal structures of various types for irrigation projects viz Malaprabha,
Ghataprabha and Upper Krishna projects.
• Headed the Quality Control Organisations as Superintending Engineer and Chief Engineer
(Designs).
• Worked as Executive Engineer, Karnataka State Po9lice Housing Corporation Division, Belgaum for
more than three years and constructed about 2000 tenements for the police personnel in eight
districts of Karnataka.
• Has co-authored a Technical Paper on “Foundation of Bennihalla aqueduct on varying foundation
strata.
• After retirement served a Member of “Technical Advisory Committee” for Government of
Karnataka for Five Years.
• Served as a Member in the Committee Constituted by the Government of Karnataka for “Allocation
of Water in Krishna Valley Projects”.
• Has worked as a Technical Expert in the Committee for studying “The adverse effects of formation
of Almatti and Narayanpur Reservoirs in Upper Krishna Projects and to suggest Remedial measures
for the same”
• Worked as a Chairman for the Committee for “Providing Remedial measures for the damages
in K.M.60 of Narayanpur Left Bank Canal. The problem was solved in a short period of Two
Months.
RESOURCE PERSONS
iii
• Worked as a Chairman for the Committee constituted by the Karnataka University, Dharwad for
“Finding out the Malpractices that took place in the Construction of a Multipurpose stadium in
the campus of Karnataka University, Dharwad.
• Was felicitated by M/s Torsteel Research Foundation in India, Bangalore during the year 2003 for
the significant contribution in the field of Irrigation in Karnataka.
• Served as a “Member, Executive Council, V.T.U., Belgaum” and “Member, Estate Board, V.T.U.,
Belgaum for 6 years.
• Served as a Chairman, Entrepreneurship Development Cell, V.T.U., Belgaum.
• Headed the Consultancy Wing of K.L.E.S. College of Engineering and Tech, Belgaum and
successfully completed two irrigation works entrusted by Karnataka Neeravari Nigaum timely.
• At present working as a Member, Technical Advisory Committee, Karnataka Sugar Institute,
Belgaum.
• At present working as a Member of the “Task Force” for Quality Assurance Constituted by
Government of Karnataka.
• Also working as a member of the Committee constituted by the Government of Karnataka for
“Preparing a Master Plan for optimum utilization of water in Mahadayi River”.
Prof. P Mahadevappa
Member- Task Force
Reviewer
P Mahadevappa, born on 04th May, 1939. He graduated in B.E.(Civil Engg.) from Mysore
University in 1962, M.Sc.(Engg.) in Structures from Madras University in 1968. He obtained his
Ph.D. from I.I.T. Madras in 1981.
A brief summary of his experience:

• Professional: Worked in Design & Execution of Structural Steel Works in Ranchi, Foundry Forge
Plant, Heavy Engg. Corporation. From Aug. 1962 to Dec. 1963.
• Teaching: Worked as Lecturer in Dept. of Applied Mechanics from 1964 Jan. -1972 Aug.1972
Aug. -1974 Oct. as Asst. Professor; (Technical Teachers Trainee at College of Engg. Guindy Madras
-25 during 1965 – 1968); Worked as Asst. Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg. K.R.E.C. Surathkal, since
Aug. 75 and Worked as Professor and H.O.D. from 1st Sept. 1987.
• Administration: Worked as Dean (Administration), KREC, from April 1995 to July 1998.
Presently working as professor, organizing the industrially oriented M.Tech Course in Industrial
Structures. Activity engaged in Research activities, consultancy works of investigations and designs
of Structural Engg. works such as Steel Industrial Sheds, R.C.C buildings, Fertilizer units etc.,
He has keen interest in Research and published & presented at Symposia more than 12 papers in National & International
journals. Dr. P Mahadevappa has authored a Book on ‘Strength of Materials’
Dr. P Mahadevappa has visited Ethiopia as Visiting Professor in Structural Engineering at Arbaminch Water Technology
Institute (1989-1990)
He retired from K.R.E.C Service on 31.05.2001 and presently working as Director VVIET, Mysore.

iv
Prof. B R Srinivasamurthy
Member- Task Force
Author & Reviewer
B R Srinivasa Murthy born on 06th May 1943. He graduated in BE (Civil Engg) from Mysore
University in 1966, M Tech (Soil Engg) from Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay in 1968 and
he obtained Ph D from the prestigious Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in 1983.
Professor (Retd.), Civil Engineering Department, Member, Project Management Group, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore and Consulting Civil Engineer. Before joining the Institute served
in other organizations like Bangalore University, MECON, PWD, SIT Tumkur and IIT Delhi for a
period of 16 years involving Teaching, Research and Design.
Prof. BRS is a member of many Professional Bodies Viz., Fellow, Institution of Engineers, INDIA (FIE), Fellow, Indian
Geotechnical Society (FIGS), Member, International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Member,
Indian Society for Technical Education and Chairman, Karnataka Geotechnical Centre of Indian Geotechnical Society
Industrial consultancy work: (Contributions to the profession)
He has handled more than 250 consultancy projects of varied nature, involving different types of problems in civil
engineering. A few of the major challenging problems handled have been listed. These projects have been considered
to be innovative by the Centre for Scientific and Industrial Consultancy, IISc.
• Restoration of a multi-storey building under differential settlement condition in Madras
• Pipeline design for water supply project, IPCL Ghandhar Project Evaluation of FRG pipe for its
application in water supply mains - Graphite India.
• Pipeline design for water supply project, Jindal Vijayanagar Steel Project.
• Stability of slopes for deep cuts in Hemavathy canal systems
• Stability analysis for Uduthorehalla dam project in Mysore district.
• Restoration of a number of Digester Domes (36 meter dia.) in treatment plants in Bangalore.
• Restoration measures for a steep natural slope failure on a High Way in West coast area
• Rehabilitation of shell roof of an industrial structure in Bangalore
• Analysis of failure of PSC water supply pipe line in Gulburga
• Design of reinforced earth wall for M/s.Umesh B Rao, Bangalore.
• Design of soil nailing walls for approach road retaining walls at IISc, NIMHANS and Air force
Station at Yelahanka.
• Design of Soil Nailed walls for deep excavations: More than 50 projects throughout India
• Rehabilitation of Container Yard at Chennai
• Rehabilitation of Failed RE walls and vertical cuts along National Highways
• Design and Rehabilitation of Pile Foundations for Multi-storey buildings
• Design of Under-passes with BOX-JACKING technique
• Rehabilitation of water storage reservoirs
• Design of foundation for 18 m diameter ANTENNA for ISRO at Bhatinda
• Design of deep excavation protection scheme IGCAR Kalpakam
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v
Awards and Fellowships:
• Distinguished Engineer of the year 2006 Institution of Engineers (INDIA)
• IGS-Afcons KUECKLEMAN award 2004
• 1984 Dec. Prof. G A Leonards Award of IGS for the best Geotechnical Engineering thesis submitted
to five IITs, IISc, Roorkee and Bangalore Universities during 1983.
• Prof. P S Narayana Medal for the best Ph D thesis amongst those awarded from the division of
Mechanical Sciences of IISc during 1983-84.
• CBIP Award of Merit for the best paper 1991.
• JSPS Fellowship during 1991 for three months to visit Gifu University, Japan.
• JSPS - INSA Fellowship in 1992 for six months to visit Gifu University, Japan.
• Visiting Faculty at Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok in 2002.
• Prof. B K Ramiah Memeorial Lecturer (1998) under auspicious of KGC
Prof. S S Bhavikatti
Member- Task Force
Author & Reviewer
S.S. Bhavikatti, born on 3rd March 1943. He graduated in BE (Civil Engg) from BVBCET,
Hubli, Karnataka University in 1963, ME (Structural) from IIT Roorkee in 1967. He
obtained his PhD from IIT Delhi in 1977. Presently he is a member of Task Force for
Quality Assurance in Public Constructions and Emeritus fellow (AICTE), Dept. of Civil
Engg., BVBCET, Hubli.
• Has worked as an Assistant Lecturer, Lecturer, Assistant Professor, Professor, Chairman (Centre for
continuing Education), HOD (Civil Department) and Dean in NITK Surathkal.
• Has worked as a Professor, HOD (Civil), Dean and Vice Principal in SDMCET, Dharwad.
• Has worked as a Principal in RYMEC, Bellary.
• Has published 61 technical papers in national/international journals and seminars.
• Has published 28 books in Civil Engineering dealing with subjects like Engineering Mechanics,
Structural Analysis, Strength of Materials, Finite Element Analysis and Design of RCC Structural
Elements and so on.
• Edited a book on Teaching Techniques in Technical Education.
• Member of organizing committee of International Association of Shells and Spatial Structures held
at Teague (1990), Tokyo(1993) and Taipei(1997)
Achievements
• Intake committee member appointed by GOK 1989.

• Committee member to suggest for strengthening of KERS appointed by GOK 2000

vi
• Member of Technical committee on Cauvery Water Disputes appointed by GOK
• Member of Karnataka Rural Board Development Agency.
• Planning Board Member IGNOU-1998, 1999, 2000.
Prof. S N Kiran Shankar

Member- Task Force
Author & Reviewer
S N Kiran Shankar, born on 19th November 1945. He Obtained his Bachelor’s Degree in
Civil Engineering from Bangalore University in 1969 and Masters Degree in Architecture
from YALE UNIVERSITY (USA), in 1973.
He is a Fellow of Indian Institute of Architects and Institution of Engineers. He is

registered in the Council of Architecture as Architect (CA/79/5131)
Prof. S N Kiran Shankar’s academic experience: Lecturer (1976-1982) in the Department of Architecture
(BU), Professor since 1992, HOD (2002-2004) and Principal (2004-2005) UVCE, BU.
Professional Experience: Proprietor of “KIRAN SHANKAR & ASSOCIATES”,-Practicing Architects & Structural
Engineers since 1973 (Did not practice from 1994-2002)
Prof. Kiran Shankar was the Chief Architect to Government of Karnataka for 8 years (31st Jan 1994 to
31st Jan 2002)
Er. G C Tallur
Member- Task Force
Reviewer
G. C. Tallur, born on 31st July 1945. He graduated in BE: First class with 10th Rank from
Karnataka University (1968). He got two Diplomas in French language from Karnataka
University, Dharwad both in first class distinction. He has First class distinction in two
Diplomas in French from Government of France. He also has a First class distinction in
BA in French from Karnataka University, Dharwad.
His Memberships in professional bodies include; Fellow, Institution of Engineers
(India)(FIE), Life Member, Indian Roads Congress(IRC),Life Member, Indian Society for
Technical Education(MISTE) and Donor life member, Karnataka Rajya Vigyana Parishath (KRVP)
Worked as the advisor to the Government of Karnataka, PWD in Institutional Development Strategy
to bring about reforms in the entire field of roads sector as part of a World Bank assisted major road
improvement project.
He worked as a member in Karnataka State Environment Appellate Authority.
He has got 35 years of work experience in the following Departments of the Government of Karnataka.
• Communications & Building Department.
• Water and Land Management Institution
• Public Health Engineering Department
RESOURCE PERSONS
vii
• Command Area Development Authority
• Major Irrigation Department
He has worked as Deputy Chief Engineer and later Chief Engineer, Communication & Buildings PWD
(North Zone) at Dharwad.
He Worked as Superintending Engineer, Communication & Buildings (C&B) Circle, Dharwad, GOK and
also he was Engineer-in-Chief and Secretary, PWD, GOK
Er. D Raghavendra
Member- Task Force
D. Raghavendra Rao has got Global transportation engineering experience with projects
involved in both private and public sector clients in UK, Cyprus, Singapore and India.
Expertise on Intelligent Transport system, Transport planning, modeling and transport
economics majorly to unfold.
Mr.Raghavendra completed his Bachelor of Engineering in Civil-Transportation from

Bangalore University, Post Graduate Program in Management from Indian Institute
of Management, Kozikhode. He also got Post-Graduation in Management and
Implementation of Development Projects from University of Manchester, United Kingdom he is a
professional member of Institute of Engineers- India, The Institution of Highways & Transportation- ,UK,
The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport- UK, The Road traffic Injuries Research Network-Mexico,
Institute of Rail Transport- India
His Present Assignments include; as a Member of Task Force --Involved in preparation of report on
Karnataka State Traffic Data Centre and Management; Introduction to engineers on Intelligent Transport
products through systemic change; Building of Interactive Information Box for driver behavior and road
design analysis device.
As Transport planner he worked in the UK at reputed consultancy companies like Mott Macdonald,
Gifford, Mouchel Parkman. As Transport Planner was second in line in-charge for the entire NDR and
NATS simulation testing and model updates were major projects of NCC (Norfolk County Council) UK.
Transport Economic studies were major area of work.
Participated in Cyprus (East Europe) on e-governance and PPP model on infrastructure development
projects and he also participated in Developmental activities at Ashford (U.K) along with council.
Er. Sadashivareddy B Patil

Member- Task Force
Sadashivareddy B.Patil, born on 16th June1958. He obtained his B.E. (Civil Engg) from
Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan and in K.E.S. he Secured 3rd Rank in K.P.S.C
exam in the year 1990-9.
Er. Shivanandreddy B Patil has worked in various departments with diversified roles. He
served in various capacities such as Assistant Engineer, Assistant Executive Engineer,
Executive Engineer, Superintending Engineer and Chief Engineer.
The brief summary of his experience is listed below:

viii
• M.I.: Asst. Egnr. (World Bank Assistance);84 - 92
• P.W.D: Asst. Exe. Engr. Probationary Training; 92 - 93
• P.R.E.D: Asst. Exe. Engr. Z.P. Eng. Sub-Divn., Jewargi;93-96
• P.W.D: Asst. Exe. Engr. Sub-Divn. No.1, Gulbarga; 96-99
• P.W.D.: Exe. Engr., PWD Divn. Gulbarga; 99 -02
• KSHIP: Exe.Engr. KSHIP Divn. Raichur; 02-03
• KSHIP: Superintending Engr., KSHIP Raichur; 03 -06
• M.I: Superintending Engr. M.I. Circle Gulbarga; 06-07
• W.R.D: Chief Engineer, UKP KBJNL, Canal Zone, Kembhavi;07-08
• W.R.D: Chief Engineer, UKP KBJNL, Canal Zone No.1. Bheemarayanagudi;08-09
• W.R.D: Chief Engineer, KNNL, I.P.Zone Gulbarga ;09-2011
• C & B (South): Bangalore, Chief Engineer,;C & B (South), Bangalore;2011-2012
• Karnataka Police Housing Corporation Ltd.: Chief Engineer;2012
He is P.W.D. Secretary to Govt. of Karnataka, Public Works, Ports and Inland Water Transport Dept.; since
18.8.2012
Er. I Ravindranath
Member Secretary-Task Force
Author & Reviewer
I. Ravindranath is presently the Member-Secretary, Task Force for Quality Assurance in Public
Constructions, Government of Karnataka. He Completed B.E., (Civil Engg.) in First class with
distinction from Mysore University in 1984. In 1985, he performed a Project for Mysore University
“Degree of development of districts in Karnataka State”.
• 1998-99: Nominated as Drafting Committee Chairman by Legislature Council Member,

Karnataka in respect of “Preservation, Conservation and Development of Tanks and Lakes in
Karnataka- Private Member bill”.
• 2000–2004: Worked as Irrigation Consultant to GOK.
• 2006-2008: Worked as Special Officer to Minister for Planning, Statistics, Science and Technology,
Sericulture.
• 2008-till date: Working as Member-Secretary to the Task Force for Quality Assurance in Public Constructions
constituted by Chief Minister of Karnataka.
• Article written: Demanding for constitution of technical tribunals to solve interstate water disputes
• As Member Secretary, organized Technical Workshops cum Exhibitions for updating the knowledge of
Engineers serving under the State Government in all districts of the state and also undertook many R&D
activities w.r.t. civil engineering works.
• Participated as State representative in the panel discussion regarding the development of Construction
chapter of 12th Five Year Plan held at New Delhi (December 2011). In the light of the above, an interactive
session for the stake holders of the state Construction Industry was organized at Bangalore (January 2012) in
presence of Honorable Chief Minister.
RESOURCE PERSONS
ix
Dr. R.V. Ranganath
Permanent Invitee
Author & Reviewer
R.V. Ranganath obtained B.E.,(Civil Engineering) degree from National Institute of
Engineering, Mysore University and M.Tech, Ph.D.in IIT Delhi. Presently, he is working
as Professor and Head, Dept. of Civil Engineering and Dean (Academics) in BMS College
of Engineering, Bangalore.
He is a member of Indian Society for Technical Education, Indian Concrete Institute and
Association of Consulting Civil Engineers. He serves as Member, Board of Examiners,
Visvesvaraya Technological Univ. (2000-01), Member, Board of Examiners/BOS,
Bangalore University (2002- Till date), and Member, Board of Studies, Kuvempu Univ. (2005-07)
His research interests include Fly ash/pond ash Concrete, Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC), Geopolymer
Concrete using Fly Ash, Slag and other industrial by-products.
The R&D Projects he has undertaken/completed include; ‘Development of basic concrete mixture using
fly ash for field applications’, ‘Economic roller compacted concrete using fly ash’, and ‘Rheology of Self
Compacting Concrete’ all sponsored by AICTE.
The essences of his research have been documented in about 40 research publications in various
international, national journals and conferences/seminars. He has delivered more than 50 invited lectures
and chaired several Technical sessions some with keynote addresses.
He has been active in Professional organizations like Indian Concrete Institute and has taken initiatives in
organizing several Seminars, Conferences and exhibitions. He was the Honorary Secretary for ICI-Karnataka
Centre during 2004-2006 and is currently its Chairman. He is a recipient of AICTE Career Award for Young
Teachers in 1998 and “ICI-FOSROC Award for Outstanding Concrete Technologist for the year 2011” by
Indian Concrete Institute.
Er. Shivakumar Hampali

Special officer-Task Force
Shivakumar Hampali was born on 20th July 1959 and Graduated from Mysore University
in 1982. He served as a lecturer in Sri Taralabalu Jagadguru Institute of Technology,
Ranebennur during the period 1982-84.
He joined the State Public Works department as Assistant Engineer in 1984 and
responsible for execution of several works pertaining to Irrigation, Buildings and Roads.
He got his promotion as Assistant Executive Engineer in 2008 and served in State Police
Housing Corporation as Quality Assurance Officer on deputation till 2010.
Further, he has been deputed to Taskforce for Quality Assurance as Special Officer till 2012.
Presently, He is working as Assistant Executive Engineer, Quality Assurance in state PWD with additional
charge as special officer to Task Force for Quality Assurance.

x
Editorial Board, Reviewers and Authors
Dr.Aswath M U
Editor -in-Chief,
Author & Reviewer
Aswath M U is presently Professor and Head, PG and Research Studies, Civil Engineering
and Training & Placement officer at Bangalore Institute of Technology, Bangalore. He
obtained his Ph.D. in Structural Engineering, specializing in concrete structures (2001),
Masters Degree in Structural Engineering (1990) and Bachelor Degree in Civil Engineering
(1988) from Bangalore University.
As Training & Placement officer-BIT, Responsible for starting the Centre during 1994 and
placed more than 10,000 students so far from all disciplines of engineering in various
national and multinational companies.
Actively involved with the ISTE, ACCE (I), ACI- (India Chapter), ICI, INSTRUCT, ACHMM (India Chapter), INSDAG,
IIBE and Institution of Engineers (India). Initiated various extracurricular (cultural & Technical) activities for the
overall development of the students and faculty and organised many interactive programmes in association with
the industry. He has organinised more than 250 workshops/seminars for professionals, faculty and students for
knowledge dissemination as part of Industry- Institute Interaction. He has published more than 60 papers at
national and international journals/conferences, guiding five students for their PhD and guided more than 30
students for their M.Tech program. He is also having more than 20 years of Professional experience as structural
consultant.
His Professional Activity Initiatives include, Institutional chapters for ACCE (I), INSTRUCT, IIBE, Activities of ICI etc,
Rotaract club, for creating social responsibility in students, Xkalibre for technical and personality development,
Computer Interface Club, for software and hardware skills, IEEE student chapter, Western Musical group-“The
ROCK BAND”, Indian Musical Group “UTKARSH”, The Theatrical Society-“NIVEDAN”, and NufACE-Nursery for
Action, creativity and excellence.
Dr. Aswath was also the All India Secretary General of Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (India)-2009-
2011, organised 25 silver jubilee technical lectures and has delivered many talks on several current and emerging
topics related to Civil Engineering. Initiated Build Forum, the public query column in the national news paper THE
HINDU inviting questions related to technical/structural/civil aspects of buildings. The questions were answered
by professionals connected to the Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (I) and personally contributed more
than 20 articles. His articles on buildings and structures, published in: Inside Out Side, A+D, I A & B, Times of
India, New Indian Express, Vijay Times, Bangalore Mirror, Deccan Herald, and The Hindu. He has presented
T.V. Shows on buildings, Telecast in Udaya T.V., E-T.V, Samaya, etc.
Prof. Aswath is in the committees of various professional bodies and as Technical Advisor, Ready Mixed
Concrete Manufacturers Association, started BIT-RMCMA Quality Circle Technical Lectures for promoting the
best practices in construction industry.
His flair for technical journalism made him to start ‘BITANNICA’ (1994), ‘DRISTHI’ (1998) and currently he is the
Editor-in-Chief for Bulletin of ACCE (I), Bangalore Bureau Head: SME WORLD, New Delhi and consultant editor
for Built Expressions.
Convener & Founder for ‘READ’ (Rural Education And Development which assists rural children in education)
and as President of Rotary Bangalore South East (2012-13) organised many socially relevant programs. He is
also a Freemason
His work is recognized by ACCE(I) Bangalore Centre during the Engineers Day Celebration, September 2011 as
Eminent Engineer and as Best Rotarian by Rotary Bangalore South East.
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xi
Capt. R.R.Doddihal
Member- Editorial Board,
Author & Reviewer
R.R.Doddihal, obtained BE (Civil Engg.) from Karnataka University, Commissioned from
OTA Madras 1976. He has done YOs course from College of Military Engineering, Pune in
1977 and Commando course from JLW Belgaum. He has Served as Commissioned Officer,
Indian Army and later joined as Class-I Officer Karnataka Engineering Services, 1992 to
2012. He also served for Cloud Seeding Operations first time in Karnataka, Chief Engineer,
National Highways, and Project Director –Karnataka State Highway Improvement Project
(World Bank Assisted projects). He has travelled on Official Visits to European & Asian
countries. Capt. Doddihal is presently Chief Engineer, BMRCL.
Capt. R.R.Doddihal has delivered lectures at NITs, Bangalore University, Volvo Institute on Highway Construction
and Metro Construction.
Er. Ajit Sabnis

Author & Reviewer
Ajit Sabnis, after completing his Post Graduation from IIT Madras in 1981, joined Gammon
India Ltd and continued to work till 1989. During this period, while in Gammons, he worked
on many prestigious projects in India and Abroad and these projects gave him an insight
into many advance construction technologies. He also had an opportunity to work with
many multinational giants during these years.
In 1989, he joined K. Raheja Group in Bangalore just to set a stage for a big venture-
starting his own enterprise in 1991-InCiCon AG, an innovative Civil engineering Conclave,
head quartered in Bangalore. Since then not looking back, he has many projects worth
mentioning into his kitty. Between 1991 and 2011, InCiCon AG have executed more than 400 projects of
different nature. He is the Founder Partner of InCiCon-AG.
In 2009, Inci-Retrofit – division was added to the company. InCi-Retrofit takes up Rehabilitation and Retrofitting
works.
His passion towards journalism, recently made him to come out with a national level reference magazine,
dedicated to Civil Engineers and Architects, called ‘Built Expressions’, which has been received by the industry and
the academia with overwhelming response. He is the Editor-in-Chief and the Publisher of Built Expressions.
Er. Ajit Sabnis is also the All India Secretary General, of Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (I) and has
delivered many talks on several current and emerging topics related to Civil Engineering.
Prof. Aravind Galagali

Author
Aravind Galagali is currently Professor of Civil Engineering at BVB College of Engineering &
Technology,HUBLI.Professor Aravind Galagali has been in teaching and Consultancy for last
24 years. He has held many administrative positions in the college and presently he is the
Chairman, Indian Concrete Institute Karnataka Hubli-Dharwad Center.
He has conducted many training programmes for the students, practicing engineers and
Govt Engineers. He has delivered more than 25 invited guest lectures at various places.
His area of interests is Analysis & Design of Structures and Computer Applications in Civil
Engineering.
He has designed many Multistoried structures, Tall towers, Bridges and Industrial
structures.
Prof Galagali is a active member of many professional bodies such as; Life Member, American Society of Civil
Engineers-ASCE(IS);Life Fellow, Institution of Engineers, India, Kolkatta; Life Fellow, Indian Association of Bridge
Engineers, New Delhi; Life Fellow, Indian Concrete Institute, India,Life Member, Indian Society for Technical
Education, India, New Delhi, Life Fellow, Indian Geotechnical Society,Chartered Engineer [India], Institution of

xii
Engineers, India and Life Member, INSDAG, Institute for Steel Development & Growth, Kolkatta.
He has travelled abroad including Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong & China.
Er. N.R. Ashok

Author
N R Ashok completed B.E. in Civil Engineering from the National Institute of Engineering,
Mysore in 1983. He has a Master’s degree in Construction Management from the University
of New Brunswick, Canada. He worked with Tata Consultancy Services as Head of Project
Management and was involved in the Kakrapar Atomic Power Project. In 1988, he started
Ace Technologies and is presently its Chief Consultant and Senior Advisor on New and
Innovative Construction Technologies to leading Builders
Ashok has 24 years experience in Concrete Surgery, Structural Rehabilitation, Waterproofing
and Construction Processes in projects across many countries. N R Ashok has worked in
various countries including the USA, Canada, Europe, and Africa.
Immediately after the earthquake in Gujarat in 2001, Ashok and his team of 15 people went there to assist the
Army in specialized rescue and relief operations for 15 days.
Ashok is a regularly invited speaker at seminars and workshops conducted by ACCE, INSTRUCT, ICI and Builders
Association of India.
Er. Ashok is a member of the Indian Concrete Institute ICI, Fellow of the Association of Consulting Civil Engineers
ACCE, Member of the Builders Association of India , and Past Board member of INSTRUCT (Institute for Research
Development and Training of Construction Trades and Management) since the year 2000 and Past Honorary
Secretary. He is also founder member of the BMS-SMRC Structural Masonry Resource Center based at the BMS
College of Engineering.
His latest venture includes setting up a training center for vocational trades for Gammon India in Mysore.
Presently, he is a senior advisor to various companies in New Technologies for construction.
Er. Gururaj.S.Thali
Author
T.S. Gururaj, born on february1948, graduated in B.E. from Bangalore University-1967.
M.E. Indian Institute of Science-1969 and he is a Life Member of ACCE, Instruct, Institute
of Engineers, INSDAG, ICI and ACI. Presently he is the Chairman & Managing Director at
Innotech Engineering Consult. Pvt. Ltd.
He was former Founder President –Potential Service Consultants Pvt Ltd (1987-2010).
Some of his initiatives are: Pioneer in use of waffle slab structural systems for multi-storeyed
commercial structures and Podiums, partial precast slabs for low costing housing projects,
Usage of M60 to M70 grade concrete in buildings and usage of commercial RMC for the
first time in Bangalore for major commercial project, Usage of concrete with various slab systems like voided
slab system and waffle slabs for spans ranging from 12m to 22m, Designed many challenging multi-storeyed
structures in Middle East (Kuwait) with white coloured fair faced concrete, bush hammered concrete, Fluted
concrete wall panels, precast pre-stressed elements, car park structures, etc., Instrumental in the usage of
welded wire structural steel fabrics as reinforcement in 1972 for various projects. He was Pioneer in usage of
light weigh siporex slab as roofing for industrial structures in 1972.
Some of the outstanding structures designed and executed includes IT campus for TCS, Siruseri, Chennai,5million
sft of built up area with central spine structure 400mt long space structure resembling two moths back to back.,
(The campus received the BEST office building, International award 2010 by International property awards in
association with Bloomberg TV. It was also listed as a landmark structure in India.), IT campus for Microsoft at
Hyderabad, Mixed use development including residential, commercial spaces totaling to 16 million sft of built
up area executed in single phase at white field, Bangalore, for Prestige developers, won many international
awards, IT campus at Golf link business park, Bangalore, Manyatha Campus, Bangalore and Mind space campus,
RESOURCE PERSONS
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Hyderabad, ITC Royal Gardenia hotel, Bangalore, BITS Pilani campus ,Goa,IT campus for Oracle, Hyderabad and
HP campus, Bangalore.
Considering his enormous contribution to the construction industry, Civil-Aid / Bureau Veritas on Feb 2012
felicitated him for his life time achievement.
Er. V.H. Jadhav

Author
Vithal Hanumantrao Jadhav, graduated in B.E. (Civil Engg.) from B.V.B.College, Vidyanagar
Hubli -1982. He has served as lecturer in B.V.B.College of Engineering and Technology during
1982 to 1984. Joined KPWD and has worked as Assistant Engineer at Upper Krishna Project
(1984 1986) He was in charge of Scrutiny of Designs and Estimates of Bridges pertaining
to Belgaum District from 1984 to 1991. Since 1991, working as an Assistant Engineer in
Karnataka Public Works, Ports and Inland Water Transport Department Dharwad Circle
Dharwad. Since 1986, he has designed several Regular deck slab Bridges, Pipe Culverts and
Causeways, Slab Culverts, Buildings, Roads of Dharwad, Gadag, Haveri, Karwar Districts and
other structures Pertaining to Irrigatio Departments, Zilla Panchayat Engineering Department. He has undergone
several trainings in Computer Applications, Design of Bridges, Concrete Technology, Design of Rigid Pavements,
Flexible Pavements and Design of Buildings etc.
Er. Jadav was selected as a member of Disaster Management Authority of India and also as a trainer to trainees for
e-procurement by “hp” Company under e-governance, Government of Karnataka Public Works Department.
He has written a book in Kannada named “Kattada Nirmana Margadarshi” and presented papers on Maintanance
of building and Bridges in State Level Seminars organized by Govt., of Karnataka and on “Total Quality
Management for Bridges” in National Level Workshop organized by IIBE (Indian Institution of Bridge Engineers).
He was also involved in the renovation of Old Brick Arch Bridge constructed during 1944 by strengthening the
existing sub structure and laying of new Deck slab, for Hubli Dharwad Muncipal Carporation.
Prof. K.S.Jagadish
Author & Reviewer
K.S.Jagadish graduated in B.E. (Civil Engg.) from Mysore University-1961, M.Sc (Engg) from
IISc-1964 and Ph.D (Engg) from I.I.Sc- 1969. Post Doctoral Fellow-1972-73 from Karlsruhe
University, Germany.
Prof. K.S.Jagadish actively involved in Teaching and Research at the prestigious Indian
Institute of Science: Lecturer in Civil Engg -I.I.Sc – (1967-74), Professor of Civil Engg.-I.I.Sc-
(1984-2002), Emeritus Scientist-I.I.Sc-(2002-06). He is currently Professor.PG-Studies at
RVCE from 2006-todate
Prof. Jagadish has worked extensively in the areas of Structural Mechanics/Dynamics,
Earthquake Engg., Theory of Shells, Alternative Building Materials & Technologies, Energy & Buildings, Rural
Energy Systems and Structural Masonry.
He founded Gramavidya in the year 1988 in association with some of his colleagues to reach out to rural
masses with appropriate technologies. Some of its achievements are Successful dissemination of Stabilised
mud block technology all over the country; Dissemination of energy efficient wood burning stoves and related
technologies; Dissemination of biogas technologies; Facilitation of an innovative model of entrepreneurship
in Housing delivery; Training and capacity building of victims of natural disasters in Marathawada, Orissa and
Kutch; Publication of booklets on stabilised soil block technologies.
He is known for Creation of sustainable livelihoods through environment friendly appropriate technologies.
Many recognise him for his contributions to Centre for ASTRA (Application of Science and Technology for Rural

xiv
Areas) presently known as The Centre for Sustainable Technologies (CST).He has published more than 100
papers and Four Books.
Er. Jagannath Halinge

Author
Jagannath Halinge obtained B.E. Degree from Rural Engineering College, Bhalki, Bidar
Dist., during the year 1988. Joined the service in Public Works Department, Government
of Karnatka through KPSC Selection as a Gazetted Probationer on 7.7.1995 in the capacity
of Assistant Executive Engineer. He has executed upteem number of civil works during
the year 1997 to 2003 at Chincholi Sub-Division, Gulbarga. At his beheast 200 kms of
reconstruction of roads, in the form of metaling and black topping. During this tenure
good quality of works were turned out. After promoting to the cadre of Executive Engineer,
KBJNL, MLI Division, No.2, Mathihal and further from 2003 to 2007 he worked in KNNL
at Gandori Nala Project, Mahagaon, Gulbarga Tq. and Dist. During this tennure he was
successfully carriedout Left Bank Canal works upto 90 Kms. And other Dam works without any infractions.
During the year 2007 he was promoted to the cadre/post of Superintending Engineer and obtained further
reposting in MI Circle, Gulbarga and also worked in the office of the Chief Engineer, MI (North) Zone, Bijapur.
Where, as a Superintending Engineer in MI Circle, Gulbarga, good numbers of works were carried out at his
beheast and requisite targets were achieved in creating irrigation potential under AIBP and other schemes.
In the year 2012 further he was given posting and placed at the disposal of PWD and serving as Superintending
Engineer, Quality Assurance Circle at Bangalore. Inspection of works and fact finding and furnishing guidance
and technical support to construction engineers in terms of suggestions etc., was successfully carried out in
the zone of Chief Engineer, Communication & Buildings (South), Bangalore. His services have been very well
received by the profession.
Er. L.R.Manjunatha
Author
L.R.Manjunatha obtained his BE (Civil Engg.) from UVCE, MBA from Allianz Business School,
Post Graduate Program in Concrete Technology-CGLI (U.K) and also he has done PGDFM &
PGDM(Lean Operations). Presently he is perusing his PhD in management from Bharatiyar
University, Coimbatore. He is a Life Member of ICI, AIMA, IOV, ISTD, ACCE (I), and BMA.
Honorary Secretary –Indian Concrete Institute –Bangalore centre.
L.R.Manjunatha is a senior level techno commercial executive and branding expert with over
20 years of rich and valuable experience in product sales, concept selling, marketing and
branding of building materials - cement, ready -mixed concrete , Construction Chemicals
& special concrete products in the construction industry gained from having worked with leading, Fortune 500
MNC and Indian Companies working pan India. He is presently working as Sr. Manager and head marketing,
RMC Readymix (India) (A Division of prism cement limited) on pan India basis.
He is a certified management trainer from All India Management Association and has conducted numerous
training programs for various bodies across India.
Honorary Editor: Asia pacific journal of management and Entrepreneurship development.
He is a member of various trade and professional bodies like, ICI, ACCE (I), ISTD, and AIMA.
He has attended workshops and training program on public policy and management from –Indian Institute of
Management-Bangalore. Mr. L.R.Manjunatha is also a member of Board of Studies (BOS) for Civil Engineering
at R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore as an Industry Expert. Mr. L.R. Manjunatha is in the committees of
various professional bodies like, ICI(KBC),IOV,ACCE(I), INSTRUCT and ISTD and has organized and participated
in more than 50 National , and International Seminars ,training programs ,technical lectures and workshops
across the country.
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xv
Dr. R. Nagendra
Author & Reviewer
R.Nagendra, graduated in Civil Engineering from Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan,
Mysore University in the year 1984 and M.Tech (Structures) from Walchand College
of Engineering, Sangli, Shivaji University – 1990, Ph.D in Civil Engineering on the topic
“Investigations on effect of different types of aggregates on optimum mix proportioning
andbehavior of self-compacting concrete” from Bangalore Univeristy- 2012.
Er. Nagendra is presently working as “Technical Director” at M/s Civil-Aid Technoclinic Pvt.
Ltd, (A Bureau Veritas Group Company) Bangalore and is in charge of Materials testing
laboratory Accredited by NABL, DST, New Delhi, as per ISO 17025-2005.
He is a Professional Member of Indian Concrete Institute, Association of Consulting Civil Engineers, Indian
Institution of Engineers, and Indian Society for Technical Education.
He is also a Chartered Engineer, NABL Technical Assessor and Ready-mixed concrete plants- Technical Auditor.
His fields of interest includes Testing of Building & Highway materials as per BIS/ASTM/BS/EN and MORT&H
standards., Special tests on new construction materials and structural systems, Tests on repair materials, Design
of Normal Concrete mixes, High Performance Concrete, High Volume Fly Ash Concrete and Self-Compacting
Concrete, Ready-Mixed Concrete, Non-Destructive Testing, Precast concrete products and Green Building
Materials and systems
Er. Nagesh Rammurthy

Author
Nagesh Rammurthy, a Civil Engineer from Bangalore University has nearly 28 years of practical
experience in managing projects in residential, commercial, IT, hospitality, institutions and
other projects, both in the areas of project management and contracts management. He
has obtained certification as a Project Management Professional (PMP®) from Project
Management Institute (PMI®), in 2010. He is currently Chief Knowledge Officer and heads
the ‘School of Construction Management Excellence (S-CME)’, an academic extension of A
N Prakash Construction Project Management Consultants Pvt Ltd (ANP CPMC). A trained
teacher from Academy of Creative Teaching (ACT), Bangalore, he has trained over 700
Engineers from different organisations on various branches of Construction and Project
Management.
While at ANP CPMC, he has been instrumental in successfully leading project teams on various mission critical
projects of many National & multinational organizations, namely, L&T, SAB labs, Symphony Services, Intel,
Oracle, Honeywell, Accor hotels, Prestige Group, Brigade Group, Adarsh, Salarpuria, Mantri Developers, Arun
Excello and others. Apart from many Indian firms, he has also worked along with International architectural
firms like RSP, HoK, CPG, PIA designs, and NACO’ on a variety of projects including luxury hotels, retail,
industrial, residential & commercial complexes, IT office spaces & Special Economic Zones (SEZs), data centres
and educational institutions.
He is a member of Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors–UK, Project Management Institute®–USA, Association
of Project Management–UK, American Society of Civil Engineers–USA, Construction Specification Institute–USA,
Association of Consulting Civil Engineers–India, AIMA–India, INSTRUCT–India.
He has been teaching construction and project management in various engineering colleges academies and
organisations. He gives guest lectures in areas related to management in various forums. He has guided 18
undergraduate and post graduate engineering students to complete their thesis / dissertation work and is
currently guiding 12 of them.

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He has authored and presented many construction management related papers in National and International
conferences. He successfully juggles between academics, research and professional practice in discharging the
services for his organization - ANP CPMC.
Er. M.Narayan
Author & Reviewer
M.Narayan was born on 01-05-1961. He completed his B.E. in Civil Engineering in 1984
and subsequently his post graduation in Water Resources Engineering discipline. Initially
he rendered his service as a lecturer for about 10 years at a private engineering college in
Maharastra. Later he was appointed as Assistant Executive Engineer by KPSC in 1995 in
PWD. He served as a Technical Assistant at the Minor Irrigation Department in Belgaum for
a period of three years. Further, he worked as an Assistant Executive Engineer from 2000-
2003 in the PWD Quality Control Sub-Division of Dharwad. In 2003 he was promoted as
an Executive Engineer in the Quality Control Division and continued in the same position till
2007. He was again promoted in July 2007 as Superintending Engineer and was placed at
Hubli-Dharwad Municipal Corporation and there he established a Quality Control Cell and two Quality Control
Laboratories as part of it. He served there upto September 2008. Presently he is working as Superintending
Engineer at PWD, Quality Assurance Circle, Dharwad since September 2008.
He is also a resource person to the Government Training Institutes, like the Administrative Training Institute
and State Institute of Urban Development in Mysore. He is sincerely striving to conduct technical lectures and
training in a different way to bring about a total awareness about the quality of construction works.
Recently he has been honoured with the “Engineer of the Year” award by the Task Force for Quality Assurance
in Public Construction, Government of Karnataka.
Er. A.N.Prakash
Author & Reviewer
A.N.Prakash, Born in the year 1946, Mr.A.N.Prakash graduated with a degree in Civil
Engineering from National Institute of Engineering in the year 1969 and later obtained
a Post Graduate degree in Industrial Structures with distinction from Karnataka Regional
Engineering College (now called National Institute of Engineering).
He has over 40 years of experience in construction projects in India and abroad across a
wide spectrum of projects ranging from Industrial structures, multi-storyed residential and
commercial buildings and luxury hotels.
He has worked for some of the leading Architectural and Engineering consulting firms in India and abroad.
Mr.Prakash pioneered the concept of Construction Project Management and commenced his practice as an
individual in the year 1986 in Bangalore. Today, the company, A.N.Prakash Construction Project Management
Consultants Private Limited is a well-known construction Management consulting firm in India. The company
offers Construction Project Management Consulting services to the building industry for projects ranging from
Residential Apartments, Industrial Structures, Information Technology facilities, Shopping Malls, Health and
Hospitality structures, R&D facilities, and many more.
Passionately interested in sharing knowledge and training engineering professional at all levels in his specialized
field of Construction Management, he founded the School of Construction Management Excellence in 2011.
The school undertakes training of fresh and experienced engineers. Mr.Prakash is constantly in touch with the
student community and the professionals in his field by delivering technical lectures in colleges, seminars and
in several public and private institutions. He also mentors and undertakes training of senior professional in his
chosen field of Construction Project Management.
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xvii
Mr.Prakash is widely traveled, has visited many countries such as the United States of America, Europe, Dubai,
Muscat, Singapore, Mauritius, East Africa, Sri Lanka etc.,
His professional affiliations include; Life member: Association of Consulting Civil Engineers, India, Life member:
Indian Concrete Institute, India, Fellow: Chartered Management Institute, United Kingdom, Fellow: Royal
Institute of Chartered Engineers, United Kingdome, Member: Project Management Institute, USA. And Member:
American Society of Civil Engineers, USA.
Felicitations and Awards
• In 1996, Lions Club of Bangalore South for his “Significant contribution to the innovation and
excellence in Industrial structures”.
• Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (India) Bangalore Chapter, on the Engineers’ day in 2009
for his contribution the Civil Engineering field.
• Bangalore Institute of Technology on the Engineers day in 2011 for his Contribution to the Civil
Engineering field.
• Civil-Aid Technoclinic Private Limited as an ‘Eminent Personality from the Civil Engineered Fraternity’
in February 2012.
• Technical Papers and Publications
• Co-authored following technical papers along with Dr. Arkalgud Ramprasad.
• Emergent Project Management: how foreign managers can leverage local knowledge”. International
Journal of Project Management.
• “Fostering Culture of knowledge sharing in Project Management” Proceedings of the 42nd Hawaii
International conference on system sciences January 2009.
• “Construction Project Management System(CPMS) An Ontological framework”.
Er. Raghavendra Y B
Author
Raghavendra Y.B, presently working as a Plant Head at KR Puram unit, Ultratech
Cement Limited, Unit: Ultratech Ready Mix Concrete, Bangalore. Has an experience of
more than 7 years in Ready Mix Concrete division in the Quality Control department.
Member of Indian Concrete Institute, Bangalore. Subcommittee member of Ready Mix
Concrete Manufactures Association (RMCMA).
Er. U.M. Raghavendra

Author
U.M. Raghavendra born on20th July 1960, graduated in B.E. (Civil Engg) from S.J.
College of Engineering, Mysore (1978 – 1983), M. Tech (Geotech) from IIT, Madras
(1984 – 1985). His Experience include; Lecturer at Dayanand Sagar College of
Engineering, Bangalore(1983 – 1984), Engineer at M/s. Afcons Ltd., Mumbai(1985-
1989), Engineer at M/s.Tor Steel Research Foundation in India, Bangalore(1989- 1991)
and from 1991 Onwards he started his own Consultancy with soil Lab under name
M/s.Land & Offshore Foundation.

xviii
Er. U.M. Raghavendra has got vast experience in Planning & Conducting Geo-technical investigation
for Hydro electric, thermal power stations, Bridges, Flyovers, Dams, Roads, etc. Civil Engineering Pile
foundation, Soil improvements, etc. and Assessment of Concrete Strength in R.C. Structural members
using Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, Rebound Hammer & Coring etc.
Dr. S Raghunath
Author
S Raghunath obtained his B. E (Civil Engg.)-1985 and M. E (Construction Technology)
-1989 from UVCE, Bangalore University. He obtained his Ph.D. in “Static and Dynamic
Behaviour of Brick Masonry with Containment Reinforcement” from Indian Institute
of Science-Bangalore.
Dr. S Raghunath, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, BMS College of

Engineering, Bengaluru 19, has been a teacher since 1988. His subject interests
include Structural Masonry, Alternative Building Materials and Technologies, Energy
and buildings, Masonry Domes and Vaults, Structural Dynamics, Earthquake Resistant
Design of Structures, Repair and Rehabilitation of Masonry Structures and Restoration and Structural
Strengthening of Heritage Buildings.
The Sponsored projects successfully completed along with other co investigators include; Development of
Load Bearing Earthquake Resistant Reinforced Masonry; Development of Integrated Masonry Fenestration
Systems; and Earthquake Resistant Buildings with Reinforced Masonry – Studies on Improvement of
Ductility.
He has guided more than 40 PG dissertations. One candidate has completed Ph.D under his supervision
and four candidates are in their final stage of submission. The project work titled, “Seismic Evaluation of
Corner and Containment Reinforcement for Masonry Buildings”, was adjudged the Project of the Year
Award by the Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology, September 2002. The dissertation
work titled, “Experimental and Analytical Investigation of High Strength Concrete Shear Walls Subjected
to Shock Loading”, guided by him, was awarded the ACCE-Sundaram Merit award- 2007 for “Best
Dissertation” by ME/M.Tech (Structures).
He has delivered more than 40 Guest lectures, published technical papers in 16 International journals, 25
National Conferences and 5 International Conferences. Initiated BMS-SMRC
Er. Raj Kumar Pillai

Author & Reviewer
Raj Pillai, 48, is presently Executive Director –Concrete Products Division of Sobha
Developers LTD, a Bangalore based leading real estate company. A graduate in Civil
Engineering from Bangalore University with over 25 years of experience, Raj has also
undertaken his two year managerial course in Concrete and Quarrying applications
from Doncaster, UK.
Raj has been associated with commercial Ready Mixed Concrete business for the last
17 years and has pioneered the concept of READYMIXED CONCRETE in India .He was
instrumental in setting up one of the first commercial Ready Mixed Concrete plants in
India way back in 1995. Raj was also responsible for taking the concept of Ready Mixed concrete into tier
two and three cities across the length and breadth of the country. Raj Pillai can be aptly called as ‘father
of Ready Mixed Concrete ‘in India.
For his outstanding work in promoting quality commercial Ready Mixed concrete in India, Raj was awarded
RESOURCE PERSONS
xix
‘CHANGE MASTER’ award by Tasmac University and Business Gyan Magazine way back in the year
2006.
Raj Pillai was also Chairman of ‘Indian Concrete Institute –Bangalore Centre’ during the year 2008-11
and was responsible for various path breaking activities including DEMINAR 2009 and 2010 [International
Seminar cum Live technical Demonstration]. Currently Raj Pillai is elected ‘Vice President (South) of Indian
Concrete Institute’ for the period 2011-13.
Raj has presented various technical papers on concrete in national and international seminars, the most
notable ones being ‘ICCEX BERLIN 2006’ and ‘OWIC SINGAPORE-2010. Raj is also an active member of
Institute of Concrete Technology {U.K.} and Institute of Quarrying {U.K.}.
Raj is also on his second term of ‘Executive Council Member of Karnataka Employers Association’, a body
comprising more than 650 companies, engaged in the betterment of industrial relationship management
at work place.
Raj Pillai is also a member of “American society of school counsellors” and is involved in guiding and
counselling children as a hobby.
Very recently, Raj has been conferred with ‘VISHWAKARMA AWARD 2012’ by CIDC- a body of Planning
Commission-‘Govt of India’, for his contribution to the Indian construction industry.
Raj Pillai lives in Bangalore with his wife Valsala and daughters Tanvi and Rhea.
Mr. M N Ramesh
Author
M. N Ramesh was born on 30th Jan 1956 and Graduated from Mysore University
in 1976. He has worked with HSCL, EIL, Metca US Inc, Reich Turbo GmbH, TRFI and
Fosroc in senior positions both in India and abroad. Before joining Savcor India he was
director in the board of BBR India Pvt. Limited which is a part of a Swiss multinational
– BBR
Presently, Mr Ramesh is working as CEO of Savcor India Pvt. Ltd. -A fully owned Indian
subsidiary of Savcor Group Ltd of Australia / Finland which he established in India. He
is Past Chairman of ICI-KBC, VP (South) of ICI, was a member of editorial board of
ICI Journal. He has over 35 years of professional experience. His areas of interest: -Concrete technology,
Construction Chemicals, Geo technical Engineering, Remedial Engineering, Pre-stressed concrete, Structural
Health Monitoring, and Electro Chemical Repairs.
Mr. Ramesh was Member of CED 41 Committee of BIS and has Over 50 technical publications. He is Life
Member of Indian Concrete Institute, American Concrete Institute, Non-destructive testing society of India,
Fellow of Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (India). He is Rotarian with Paul Harris fellowship.
Er. Ravi Kumar K

Author
Ravi Kumar, Sr.Manager –Sobha Developers Limited , Unit: Concrete Products Division is
a result oriented professional with over 20 years experience in operation, maintenance
and safety management of construction and concrete Equipments.
Started career as service engineer in hydraulic drilling equipment manufacturing
company and was responsible for service and commissioning of water well, Blast Hole
Rigs, Screw Compressors and pneumatic Tools.

xx
Further Continued with a short 2 year stint in Saudi Arabia in concrete equipment, batching Plant, boom
pumps, transit Mixer, dumpers, excavators, loaders etc
Moved to Fletcher Pioneer and later RMC Ready Mix India Ltd and served more than 10 years in various
capacities.
Education qualification comprises of Diploma in Mechanical Engineering and Bachelor’s Degree in Business
Administration.
Er. Ravishankar JB
Author
Ravishankar JB is the founder president of GRIPSINDIA, a company presently engaged in
setting up of many precast industries. His vision could bring the very first precast plant
to India five years back. GRIPSINDIA is associated with Dywidag System of Pre stressing/
Geotechnical Engineering & Sumitomo Corporation for Materials. GRIPSINDIA also
manages business requirement of Supply Chain Management, Industry Partnerships &
marketing strategies.
Prior to GRIPSINDIA, Ravishankar worked in a leading pre stressing company associating
with Kaiga Nuclear Plant, Panvel Viaduct Bridge & Konkan Rail Bridges. He was
instrumental in bringing BARGRIP technology to India from concept to common practice.
A civil engineer from National Institute of Engineering, Mysore University he has received Best Bridge
Award from IIBE for Khargar Cable Stay Bridge in Mumbai. Widely travelled all over the world, he has the
in depth knowledge of technology, marketing & finance required for setting up a new business venture
with a vision..
Prof. Anand V. Shivapur

Author & Reviewer
Anand V. Shivapur is BE (Civil Engineering), ME (Hydraulics), Ph.D. (Civil Engg.) &
Professor in Civil Engineering Department of SDM College of Engineering and
Technology. He is in academics since 1986. He has presented and also published
more than 60 papers in various International and National Journals / Conferences,
Seminars etc. He has chaired many sessions in several conferences and seminars. He
has guided two research scholars for their Ph. D. He has successfully completed R & D
project sponsored by AICTE, New Delhi and conducted several continuing education
programmes. He has delivered lectures on various topics as a resource person on
different occasions. He is a reviewer for three International Journals and two National
Journal. He is also an editorial board member for an International Journal. He is a member of BoS (UG
& PG)- Civil Engg. Board, Davanagere University. He is a member of various professional bodies such
as IEI, ISH, AHI, AIH, IGS, ICI, ASCE-IS, etc. In recognition of his contribution to the field of Education,
Engineering and Society, he has been bestowed with Bharat Vikas Award and Achievers of India Award. He
has received best teacher award by SDMCET in the year 2009. He has worked as Honorary Secretary of the
Institution of Engineers (India), Dharwad local centre, Dharwad for biennial period 2000-02 and Chairman
for the biennial period 2010-2012, The Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata. He was a council member
of Institution of Engineers (India) and Member of (i) Board of Civil Engineering Division (ii) Regional Co-
ordination Committee and (iii) Examination Disciplinary Committee of The Institution of Engineers, Kolkata
during the period 2010-12. He is also Executive Committee Member of Indian Concrete Institute, Hubli-
Dharwad Centre and Indian Geotechnical Society, Hubli.
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xxi
Er. Subramanya.A.M
Author
Subramanya. A.M is the founder Director of the Innotech Engineering Consult Pvt Ltd,
A professional structural engineering consulting firm based at Bengaluru in India. He
brings with him 22 years of professional experience in the field of construction, Design
Management, Water proofing, Project management and Valuation.Mr. Subramanya
is a Civil Engineer specialized in project and construction management. A passionate
civil engineer with in depth knowledge of construction industry, water proofing works,
effective planning and organizational skills, proven capacity to approach problems
effectively and creatively, offers innovative and practical solutions with complete back
ground of cost management, contract administration, execution and quality control.
He has worked in leadership role in Potential + Semac Ltd (Formerly Potential Service consultants Pvt. Ltd.),
leading Consulting Engineering Firm in India, for over Eighteen year as an Associate Director (Customer
management), credited a number of I T Campuses, industrial structures, Multi- storied /High rise towers
for residential, commercial buildings, hospital, hotels, corporate institutional projects.
He is instrumental in construction Management, planning, co- ordinating with various engineering

disciplines, Co-ordinating with clients and architects, Quantification, Tender process, Value engineering
and resolving execution related problems. His ability to visualize and presenting the technical and practical
detailing especially related to water proofing works makes smooth flow of information to execute the
projects properly. Interacted with international firms like HOK, Hadi teharani, Andy fisher workshop,
Carlos, Colliers, Trammel Crow Meghraj, Bovis International, RSP Architects, Gherzi Eastern, W.S.Atkins,
Jones Lang Laselle, Jurong Consultants, and RTKL to name few.Mr. Subramanya is also the Life member of
Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (India) (ACCE), Instruct and other reputed organisations.
Er. M.S.Sudarshan
Author & Reviewer
M.S.Sudarshan is a Senior Director in CivilAid Technoclinic Pvt Ltd, Bangalore.( A

Bureau Veritas Group Company). He obtained in B.E. from Mysore University in 1982
and M.Tech from I.I.T. Madras in 1984. He has 28 years of experience in design, Non
destructive testing, Restoration of structures, Geotechnical Investigations and Quality
Assurance in constructions. He has served as Deputy Chief Consulting Engineer in
Torsteel Research Foundation in India and Managing Director, CivilAid Technoclinic
Pvt Ltd, before merger with Bureau Veritas. He has a number of Successful challenging
assignments to his credit and visited a number of countries on assignments. He is a
member of ICI, ACCE,IGS and IIBE. He has delivered a number of lectures in Conferences and workshops
and has published more than 40 papers in journals and conferences.
S Sudarshan
Author
S Sudarshan has obtained his B.Sc. (1980) and MSc (1982) from Bangalore University.
He is a member of Indian Concrete Institute. His Fields of Specialization include
Investigations of distressed structures and Designing of facilities for carrying out
performance test on various materials. He joined TRFI as quality control officer in
1980, worked in various capacities from 1982-1998 and presently he is the technical
director, civil-aid Technoclinic Pvt Ltd., He has handled many major projects in the
areas of investigation, structural evaluation, testing and supervision.

xxii
Er. Sunil George
Author
Sunil George is the Co- Founder of Green Readymade Steel Products Pvt.Ltd which is in
the business of Rebar Processing for the Construction Industry. The Factory is located
at Mallur in Kolar District.
A astute & result oriented Professional with over 14 years of extensive techno
commercial experience in general management, business development , Product
management , sales & marketing functions.
Sunil’s prior industrial Experience includes a three year stint with IJM steel Product
Private Limited, Hyderabad as General Manager .During his tenure at IJM, Sunil was responsible for setting
up the new business division for Prefabricated Reinforcing Steel. Sunil started his career as a trainee
sales engineer with Fletcher Challenge- Bangalore, a ready –Mix Concrete Company. He further went
on to work with RMC- Ready Mix Concrete , Bangalore and Neptune Ready –Mix Concrete, cochin (Now
acquired by RDC Concrete Products Ltd, Mumbai).While making the move to IJM, Sunil Was the Head-
Business Development (India) for RDC Concrete Products, Mumbai.
He has over eight years of exposure to the Bangalore Construction market and has excellent relationships
with major stakeholders of the construction fraternity in Bangalore.
Sunil’s educational qualification comprises of a bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering and a post graduate
Diploma in business Administration.
He is presently the Executive Director & COO of Green Readymade Steel Products India Pvt Ltd
Er. Sunil V Sonnad

Author
Sunil V Sonnad, graduated in B.E. (Civil Engg.), from Mysore University – 1985, and
M.Tech (Industrial Structure), from Mysore University – 1990. He is a Professional
Member of Indian Concrete Institute and Indian Road Congress. His Fields of
Specialization include, Non-destructive testing of concrete, Investigation, Restoration
and Rehabilitation of structures, Assessment of structural soundness of buildings and
Special Field and laboratory tests as per customers requirements. He has worked in
various capacities from 1986 to 1998 in Torsteel Research Foundation in India and
since 1998 to 2010, Technical Director- Civil-Aid Technoclinic Pvt Ltd.
He is presently working as a Senior Director jointly Heading NDT and Restoration & Rehabilitation Division
at M/s Civil-Aid Technoclinic Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore a unit of Bureau Veritas Group Co. He has published
more than 15 technical papers in National and International Journals. The Major Projects he has handled
include Quality Assurance in Construction through Non-Destructive Tests, Investigation and Restoration of
distressed R.C. structures, Restoration of Overhead Water Tank & Ground Level Reservoirs, Restoration and
Rehabilitation of Aqueducts and Bridges, Structural Evaluation of Major buildings, multistory buildings
and hangars, Feasibility Study for additional floors and structural modifications and Field & Laboratory
Tests / Studies.
RESOURCE PERSONS
xxiii
UMESH B. RAO
Reviewer
A] Obtained B.E. (CIVIL) degree from V.J.T.I., Bombay University

Obtained M.Tech. (Marine Structures) degree from Mysore University
B] After B.E., he worked with Builders Associates, Bombay - an Architectural and
Structural Engineering Firm until June, 1970. He designed 19, 21, & 27 storied
buildings, RCC frame structures, in 1969.
C] Since Marine Structure Post Graduate Course was offered for the first time in
India, he then joined K.R.E.C., Surathkal, for M.Tech.(Marine Structure) Course.
D] Worked with Tata Consulting Engineers at Bombay and Bangalore between 1972
& 1980.
• During the tenure with TCE, he worked on different type of projects such as Nuclear Power Plants,
Thermal Power Plants, Hydro electric Power plants, Slipway for Ship building, Paper Plants,
Sewage Treatment Plants, Heavy Industries, Department of Space project, etc. for projects in
India and abroad.
• As a team member, he was involved in Hydraulic Model Studies to study the effect of inlet velocity
on pisiculture and inlet of sediments due to littoral drift and effect of rise in temperature of hot
water outlet (Seal Well) on marine environment. Designed Morning Glory (Intake Structure in
RCC) located 500M away from shore. Dewatered in the sea to place cast-in-situ concrete in the
sea. Designed on shore pump house, CW tunnels, etc.
• As a team member, used steel piles for CW system in strait and used anode and cathode protection
system for protection of steel.
• As a team member, designed Slipway which had loading of 69T per Sqm on the slab.
• As a team member, designed chip silos, paper machine beams which are very sensitive to
differential deflections.
• Conducted Optimization study of Thermal Power Plant Circulatory Water System, tunnel, pump
house and implemented.
E] Started Umesh B Rao and Co at Bangalore - Consulting Civil Engineering firm in 1980.
Has been involved in designing different types of projects: Power Plants, Infrastructure Projects
such Mass Rapid Transportation, Water treatment plants, Sewage treatment plants, Industrial
and Aquaculture Projects, Software Parks, Educational Institutions, etc.
F] Trained in Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete Structure in 1975 at CRI
• Designed using steel concrete composite material for construction of Distilleries in 1982.
• Using nailing of old concrete and new concrete increase thickness of slab to take higher load in
1982.
• Using timber, steel and concrete as composite material designed slab in 1996.
• He designed grade slab to carry heavy machineries.
• Designed 15m tall Reinforced Earth Retaining Structure in 1997.
• Using pre-cast concrete, cast-in situ concrete and structural steel designed composite multistoried
structure in 2000.
• He designed multistoried building having 30m X 30m grid spacing of columns with waffle slab to
suit interior design.

xxiv
G] Has been on Expert Committee of Department of Space, Bangalore Municipal Corporation, as well
as Royal Government of Bhutan.
H] Has been founder member of Association Of Consulting Civil Engineers (ACCE) and Institute For
Research, Development & Training of Construction Trades & Management (INSTRUCT).
He has been involved in training civil engineering fraternity through various programs.
He has delivered lectures and presentations to Civil Engineering Students, Staff members of
Engineering Colleges and Universities.
I] He is well-known for innovative concepts, pioneering technology usage and holistic approach to
engineering and construction.
J] Extensive experience in a wide variety of successful projects across several domain areas.
K] He has been HONOURED AS “EMINENT ENGINEER” in Bangalore by Civil Aid Technoclinic Pvt
Ltd. in the year 2012 and ACCE in the year 2010, “GLOBALMAN” AWARD in Abudhabi, U.A.E
in the year 2004 and NATIONAL AWARD FOR PROFESSIONALS on Structural Steel Design and
Construction – 2004 in Mumbai
Prof. H V Venkata Krishna

Author
H V Venkata Krishna obtained his BE (Civil Engg.) degree from Mysore University in
1964 and ME (Structural Engg.) degree from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
during 1966.Teaching Experience: Served as a faculty member in Civil Engineering
department of National Institute of Technology, Karnataka (formerly known as
Karnataka Regional Engineering College), Surathkal. 1966- 1979-Lecturer, 1980-
1991-Asst. Professor and 1992-2005-Professor/ H O D, Dept of Civil Engineering/
Technical Asst. to the Principal to oversee the construction activities of the college.
Research Experience: Research work was carried out under various Research schemes
in the field of Reinforced concrete, Concrete Technology, Ferro Cement and Fibre Reinforced Concrete,
published 12 technical papers in Journals and 25 papers in Seminars and Conferences. He has Supervised
48 M.Tech dissertations. Experience in Consultation Works: As a faculty member of the college offered
consultancy services to various agencies like State PWD, Central PWD New Mangalore Airport, New
Mangalore Port Trust, Kuderamukh Iron Works Ltd, Mangalore Refinery and Petroleum Ltd, Land Army
Corporation, Mangalore City Corporation and several private organizations. Consultation offered in the
following Areas: Design of reinforced concrete and steel structures,Concrete Mix Design, Non –destructive
testing of concrete structures, Damage/failure analysis of buildings, Rehabilitation and strengthening of
concrete structures. He is a member of various Professional bodies Viz., Fellow member of the Institution
of Engineers (India),Fellow member of the Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (India),Fellow member
of The Institution of Valuers (India),Life member of Indian Concrete Institute. He is presently, Member
of Governing Council, PES College of Engineering, Mandya since 1999 and Technical Advisor, Civil Aid
Technoclinic Pvt Ltd, Bangalore, since 2007.
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xxv
Er. Vinayak G Sugur
Author
Vinayak G Sugur obtained his B.E. (Mech. Engg.) from B.V.B College of Engg. & Tech,
Hubli (1991)
Er. Vinayak G Sugur joined the Public Works Department in 1955 as Probationary
Assistant Executive Engineer, after being selected through KPSC. Worked in various
departments; Roads, Buildings and Bridges. He has attended various training programs
and seminars.
He got promoted as Executive Engineer in 2003 and as Superintending Engineer in 2007.

He worked in various capacities as Assistant Executive Engineer, Executive Engineer and Superintending
Engineer.
As Assistant Executive Engineer he was Technical Assistant & A.E.E. Quality Control Dharwad and A.E.E.
Ankola between 1998 &2003. As Executive Engineer he was at PWD Dn. Belgaum between 2003 and
2007. He rendered his service as Superintending Engineer BTDA, Bagalkot (July 2007-August 2008) and
National Highways, Dharwad (Aug.2008-June 20100). Presently he is working as Superintending Engineer
from June 2010 at PWP & IWT Dept. Belgaum.
He is actively involved in various professional bodies and he is a member of Institution of Engineers, Indian
Concrete Institute, Indian Road Congress, Indian Building Congress and Indian Water Resources Society.
He also a member of Arbitration & Reconciliation Society- New Delhi
Er. Vinayak G. Sugur’s Hobbies are; Visiting places of Historical & Structural Importance, Reading: History,
Technology, Science, and Economics & Management and in Music; Listening to Classical, Bhajans and
Instrumentals.
Er. Sugur takes keen Interest in the areas of Sustainable Construction, Innovation in Construction
Technology & Materials and Renewable Energy Integration in to Buildings.

xxvi
RESOURCE PERSONS
xxvii
Index
A C Concrete Surgery 507, 514
Accelerators 110 Capo test 172 Concrete Wall Sawing 514
Accident 416 Carbonation test 173 Consistent Rust 335
Accident & Hazard 421 Cast-In-Place Concrete 411 Construction Aids And Chemicals 108
Accident preventive system 425 Causes of accident 416 Construction Equipments 176
Accidents Control Measures 434 Cement 26, 85 Construction/ Execution Phase 355
Accident statistics 421 Cement Concrete Flooring Tiles 405 Construction Fee Contracts 467
Acrylics 120 Cement hydration 32 Construction Management 442
Adhesives 122 Cement/lime mortars 206 Construction Planning And Control 448
admixtures 110 Cement mortars 206 Construction Products 108
Advantages of PERT and CPM 455 Cement (OPC-53 grade) 390 Construction Site 322
Air entraining plasticizers 109 Challenges 421 Containment Reinforcement 232
Aluminum Forms 133 Characteristics of Good timber 24 Contour Plan 16
Anchor Test System 164 Check list 85 Contract Administration Phase 354
Applied Loadings 128 Checklist 85 Contract and Specifications 463
Arching action 222 Check List 130 Contract Clause 469
Architectural Drawings 16 Check List During And After Dado 492 Contract Types 465
Architectural Forms 155 Check List During Concreting 487 Corrective Maintenance 382
Ashlar Masonry 242 Check List For Brick 493 Correspondence Etiquette 482
Atactic Polypropylene Polymer 360 Check List For Ceiling Plaster 495 Corrosion 110
Atactic Polypropylene Polymer Membrane Check List For Laying Ceramic 490 Cost Advantages 332
360 Check List For Lime Rendering 498 Cost Plus Contract 466
Autoclaved Cellular (Aerated) Concrete Check List For Painting 501 Coursed Rubble Masonry 241
Blocks 408 Check List Post Concreting 488 Covermeter Test 169
Check List Prior To Ceramic/ 489 Crack Repairs 123
Check List Prior To Concreting 486 Cracks 103
B Check List Prior To Dado & Skirting 491 Creep 41
Ball and Chain Method 511 Chemical Composition 32 Criteria For Mix Design 47
Basement Floor Plan 17 Chemical Composition 339 Critical Design Factors 353
Batching Plant 176 Chemicals 423 Critical Path Method 453
Bath Rooms 10 Chloride Attack 71 Crystallization method 371
Beam Clamps 139 Chloride content test 174 curing 103
Bend And Rebend Test 343 Coarse Aggregate 392 Curing 99
Bend Test 347 Coatings 359 Curing 94
Bentonite Based Membrane Systems 362 Codes and References 159 Curing compounds 111
Bill Of Quantities 475 Collapse of building 419 Curing Compounds 135
Blades 183 Columns 141 Curing Compounds 96
Block 100 Columns 100 Curing Methods 94
Block Production 211 Common Burnt Clay Bricks 402 Curing Practices 105
Blowhole Repair 151 Communicating Safety 438
Bonding Agents 114
Bond Test 344
Compaction Test 36 D
Comparison 368 Data For Mix Proportioning 50
Bore Log 189 Composite Masonry 238
Brick 100 Dead Load 250
Composite Slabs 269 Dead loads 221
Bricks 28 Compound Wall 11
Brick- Stone Masonry 245 Defects in Formwork 152
Compressive Strength 212 Defects in Timber 23
Bubble Deck 268 Computer Drawings 16
Building By-Laws 6 Deformed Steel Bars 397
Com-Shells 155 Deformed Wire 330
Building Demolition 507 Concrete 27
Building Drawings 14 De-moulding agents 112
Concrete 33 Design criteria 250
Building Formworks 126 Concrete Block 246
Building Maintenance and Repair 382 Design Factors 127
Concrete Blocks 403 Design Loadings 250
Building Materials 389 Concrete Burster 511
Building Plan 15 Design Loads 220
Concrete Canvas (CC) 157 Design of Foundations 188
Building Planning 6 Concrete Canvas Shelters 157
Buildings Components 10 Design phase 353
Concrete Compression Tester 164 Designs 254
Built Up Membranes 367 Concrete Demolition Methods 510
Bureau Of Indian Standards 376 Design Stage 190
Concrete Dismantling Methods 512 Determination of pH 174
Butyls 120 Concrete Pressure 129
By-Laws 8 Development Length 320
Concrete Pumps 178 Diamond Core Drilling 516
Concrete Repairs 148 Diamond Floor Sawing 514
Concrete Strength 97 Diamond Wire Sawing 515
Dimensions and Mass 347 Folded Plate 270 Imposed load 250
Dimensions and Tolerances 211 Footings 140 Incentive Contracts 467
Dismantling and Demolition 506 Foot Protection 430 Index Properties 189
Documentation 460 Form Economics 129 Indian standard codes 246
Domes 272 Form Ties 134 Induction 426
Dozers 183 Formwork 136 Inflated Forms 157
Drawing Phase 354 Formwork Components 138 Infrared Wave Instruments 162
Drilling Core Method 38 Formwork Design 128 Installation aids 122
Dropheads 139 Formwork Function 126 Insulating Concrete Forms 154
Drycasting 284 Formwork Materials 132 Internal Curing 97
Dry Rubble Masonry 241 Foundations 191 Internal Plastering 496
Durability Of Concrete 70 Free-Standing Walls 229 IS 10262-2009 50
Durability Of Concrete 42 Frequently Asked Questions 508
Dust gases, fumes 418 Fresh Concrete 83
Fresh Concrete 33
J
Joints 194
Fresh State Of Concrete 108
Joints & Connections 284
E Front End Loader 182
Joint sealants 116
Earned Value Management 458 Furniture 12
Joint Sealants 117
Earthquake Load 251
Earthquake Resistance 195
earthquake resistant masonry 230
G K
General Aspects 334
Effective Communication 438 Key Performance Characteristics 354
Good Formwork 127
eight of building 9 Key Plan 15
Grade M1 228
Elastisity 37 Kitchen 10
Grade M2 Mortar 228
Electrical Chippers 512
Grade Of Steel 330
Electric Fusion Welding 329
Electrocution Hazard 419
Grades Of Steel 345 L
Granite 122 Laboratory Castings 49
Electronic Distance Measurement 162
Granite 238 ladders 420
Elevation 17
Ground Floor Plan 17 Lap Length 330
Emergency Plan 436
Ground Penetrating Radar 171 Lap Splices 320
Emergency Planning Procedures 436
Grouting Agents 121 Laser Tape 163
Emerging Trends 153
Guard & Fence 432 Lateral load distribution 224
Energy conservation 195
Gypsum mortar 27 lateral stability 216
Environmental loads 128
Laterite Stone Block 401
Environment Issues 118
Life And People Skills 478
Equipment Testing 184 H Lighting And Ventilation 14
Establishment of objectives 448 Half-Cell Potential Measurement test 169
Light Wave Instruments 162
Ethics And Professional Integrity 485 Hand Held Diamond Grinder 516
Lime Mortars 206
Excavation 423 Hand protection 430
Limestone 239
Excavators 182 Hand Sawing 514
Linear structures 276
Excessive Noise, Vibration 417 Hazard and Risk 416
Liquid spray applied 367
Exterior Open-Spaces: 8 HDPE Membrane 363
Live Loads and Wind Loads 221
External Plastering 499 Health and Safety Policy Document 427
Load bearing ability 194
Extraction Of Cores 171 Health, Safety and Environment 416
Load Bearing Masonry 216
Extrusion Method 284 Hearing Protection 430
Load Bearing Wall- 238
Eye Or Face Protection 430 Heat Insulation 14
Load Bearing Walls 244
Heat of Hydration 33
Load combinations 221
heavy machinery 417
F Hoist 181
Load Factors 252
Fabrication 318 Load Testing Of Structure 172
hot weather 103
Fabrication 280 Lock Off Procedure 431
House keeping 434
Fabric Form 134 Lock Your Safety 431
h. T P O Membrane 364
Fabric Forms 158 Low Carbon Steel 327
Hurdi Slab System 257
Failures And Prevention 147 Lump Sum Contract 466
Hydration of Cement 32
Falling Objects 422
Hydraulic Chain Sawing 515
Fast Construction 194
Feasibility 278
Hydraulic Cruncher 513 M
Hydraulic Splitters 513 Maintenance Policy 384
Fencing Of Machinery 424
Hydrodemolition 517 Management Basics 442
Fidic 475
Management Commitment 426
Fine Aggregate (Sand) 393
Management Information System (MIS)
Fire Preventive Measures 431 I 462
Fire Tender Load 251 Igneous Rocks 20
Management Knowledge areas 444
Flat Plate 263 Igneous Stone 238
Management Process Groups 444
Flexural Compressive Stress 227 Impact echo test 170
Manufactured Sand 25
Floor Area Ratio 9 Impact Load 251
Manufacturing Process 209
Flow Chart 328 Implication of RUST 334
Marble (Blocks, Slabs And Tiles) 400
Flying Forms 156 Implosion 510
Marbles 238 Overhead Electrical Line 425 Quality 388
Marine Plywood 409 Quality Aspects of Construction 388
Masonry Constuction 194 Quality Aspects of Materials 388
Masonry Materials 204
P Quality Assurance Plan 389
Parapet 11
Masonry mortars 206 Quality Checklists 442
Partial Precast Slab 258
Masonry reinforcement 209 Quality Check Lists 486
Penetrative System 371
Material fall 418 Quality Policy 388
Performance Index 365
Material Saving 194
Permissible Stresses 221
Matrix 443
Matrix of Knowledge areas 445
Permit To Work 429 R
Permit To Work 428 Rain Water Harvesting 18
Matti wood 22
PERT 454 Random Rubble Masonry 241
Measuring and Testing Instruments 162
Plain Wire 330 ready-mixed concrete 86
Mechanical Fastening System 366
Planning 5 Ready Mixed Concrete 76
mechanically anchored 361
Planning And Scheduling 452 Ready- Mixed Concrete 78
Mechanical Properties 340
Planning Techniques 451 Ready-Mixed Concrete 81
Meeting People 481
Planning Tools - Softwares 456 Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC) 77
Membrane curing 99
Plaster 194 Rebend Test 343
Mesh Laying 332
Plastering Work 100 Reiforcement Detailing 288
Metal Roofing 274
Plastic Forms 133 Reinforced Concrete 318
Metamorphic Rocks 21
Plastic mixture method 151 Reinforced Concrete 412
Metamorphic Stone 238
Plastic mixtures 149 Reinforcement 204
Method Of Testing 167
plastic shrinkage 103 Reinforcement Steels 338
Methods Of Demolition 506
Plywood Form 134 Reinforcing bars 334
Methods Of Maintenance 382
Polymer based coatings 359 Reinforcing Bars 318
Microwave Instruments 162
Polysulphides 120 Relaxation Test 348
Mix Proportioning 46
Polyurethane based coatings 359 Removal of Forms 130
Mix Proportions 47
polyurethane membrane 367 repair materials 149
Modularity 194
Polyurethanes 121 Repair methods 150
Modular Testing System 165
poor lighting / illumination 419 Re-roofing 372
Modulus Elasticity 40
Portland Pozzolona Cement 391 Respiratory Protection 430
Modulus Elasticity 39
Portland Slag Cement 390 Retaining walls 229
Moist curing 99
Pour-card 130 Retaining Walls 144
Moisture Detection 356
power supply 8 Retarding Plasticizers 109
mortar 204
PPE 430 Retest 345
Mortar 27
Pre-Cast Concrete Blocks For Paving 406 Ribbed Slab 258
Mortar Saving 194
Precast Concrete Elements 278 Ring Saw 515
Mould releasing Agent 135
Precast Slab 260 Risk 432
Mould Releasing Agents 112
Precautions 510 Robotic Machines 513
Mud Block Masonry 213
Preformed Foam Cellular Concrete Blocks Rocks 20
MYTHS 104
407 Role Of Admixtures 47
Preformed Membranes 360 Rose Wood 22
N Preliminary Investigations 188 Rotective Coatings 115
Nandi woods 22 Presentation Skills 480 Rubble Masonry 240
Natural materials 20 Presstressing Strands 347 rules of well behaviour 484
NDT methods 166 Preventive Maintenance 382 Rusty Mesh 335
Needs for Communication 478 Preventive measures 148
neoprene rubber modified water based Primavera 456
membrane 368 Prisms tested 225
S
Safety 518
New Proprietary trends 159 PRM 333
Safety Calendar 436
Nominal Mass 340 Process Documentation 460
Safety Harnesses 423
Nominal Sizes 320 Production Process 328
Safety Improvement Plan 427
Non Barrier Systems 371 Project Documentation 460
Safety Inspection 433
Non-Destructive Testing Instruments 166 Project execution 443
Safety Meeting 437
Non-Destructive Tests 167 project execution plans 447
Safety Propaganda 438
Non- Epoxy 114 Project Monitoring and Controlling 457
Safety Training 428
Nonexplosive Demolition Agents 512 Project Organisations 442
Sand 25
No Rust 335 Project phases 445
Sand 239
N Values 189 Project Phases 443
Sand Stone (Slabs And Tiles) 400
Project Plans 446
Sanitation 12
Prospects 11
O Pull out test 344
scaffolding 420
Objectives of Maintenance 382 Scaffolding 136
Pulse Plasma Blasting of Rock 512
One Way Slab Behaviour 256 Sealant Chemistry 119
PVC membrane 361
One Way Slab System 255 Seam Overlapping Conditions 366
Open (Public) Tendering 468 Sea sand: 25
Operators & Drivers 424 Q SECTIONS 18
Securing Co-operation 449 System Integrity Testing 356 Water and Earth Pressure 251
Sedimentary Rocks 21 water closets 10
Sedimentary Stone 239 Water Content 52
Seismic Loads 221
T Water Jet Cutting 516
Tactical plans 450
Selection Of Samples 345 Water Proofing Systems 357
Tar Felt or Bitumen Felt System 360
Selective (Closed) Tendering 468 Water Proofing Works 352
Technical Advantages 331
Self Curing Compound 97 Water Resistance 195
Telephone Etiquette 482
Semi-Destructive Tests 171 Weathering Test 212
Temperature 251
Semi Dry Mixture Method 151 Welded Wire Mesh 326
Tender Evaluation 469
Shaping Process 323 Wetcasting: Concreting 282
Tenders 468
Shear 268 Wetcasting: Inspection 283
Tensile Structural Steel 399
Shear Process 324 Wetcasting: Moulds 281
Tensile Structures 275
Sheet Width 330 Wetcasting: Reinforcement 282
Tension Test 347
Shell Structures 271 Wind Load: 251
Tension Test 340
Shoring 139 Windsor probe test 172
Terminologies 198
Shrinkage 37 Wire MESH 331
Terminology 7
Silicones 120 Wire Spacing 331
Terrace Floor Plan 18
Single And Double Tt Slab 262 Wood 22
Testing Of Reinforcing Steel 339
Site Mixed Concrete (Smc) 76 Work Place Communication 478
Testing Of Steels 338
Site Plan 15 Workplace Etiquettes 481
Testing Of Structural Steel 345
Site Plan 16 Writing Contracts 470
Testing Phase 356
Site Selection 6
The Barrier System 358
Slabs And Beams 100
Theodolite 163
Slate 238
Thermax 339
Slightly Rusty 335
Thermic Lance 513
Slipform 158
Threading and Couplers 333
Slipping 418
Three-dimensional structures 276
Slump Test 36
Tiles, Marble 122
Snow load 251
TMT 339
soil 188
Total Quality Management 389
Soil 24
Total Stations 164
Soil Compactors 184
Tower Crane 180
Soild Concrete Blocks 403
TPO Membrane Roofing System 366
Soil Investigation 188
TPO Membrane Thermal Welding System
Solid Walls 229
366
Sound Insulation 14
Transit Mixer 177
Space frame structures 274
Trial Mixes 53
Spray Type Plastering Machine 185
Tripping 418
Stabilized Mud Blocks 209
Two Way Slab System 256
Stacking of materials 419
Types of communication 478
Staircase 11
Types of plans 449
Stairs 145
Types of Project Plans 446
standard guides and practices 377
Typical Floor Plan 17
Steel Forms 132
Typical Rebar Processing Plant 323
Steps in Planning Function 448
Stone cladding 243
Stone composite Masonry 245 U
Stone –Concrete 245 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test 167
Stone Masonry 238 Unit Price Contract 466
Stones 20
Store Room 11
Straightening & Cutting 329 V
Strategic plans 450 Vaults 273
Stress 330 Vebe Test 36
Structural Concept: 250 Vehicular traffic 419
Structural design 219 vertical faces 131
Structural Elements 278 Vertical load dispersion 221
Structural Granite 401 Vibrators 179
Structural Masonry 194 Voided Slabs 267
substrate Issues 118
Sulphate determination test 174
Super Structural Systems 250
W
Waffle Slabs 267
Surface preparation 114
Wall Forms 154
Surface retarders 113
Water 26
Surface-stressed structures 276
Water 394
Surkhi mortar 27
Water Absorption 212

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GOVERNMENT OF KARNATAKA

Task Force for Quality Assurance

Dr. C. S. Vishwanatha Er. I. Ravindranath Dr. Aswath M.U.

Task Force for Quality Assurance

Dr. C. S. Vishwanatha Er. I. Ravindranath Dr. Aswath M.U.

First Draft Version for Internal Circulation

(EA. L gÀ«ÃAzÀæ£Áxï) (qÁ. ¹ J¸ï «±Àé£ÁxÀ)

Task Force Members :

1) Dr. C S Viswanatha - Chairman

2) Prof. C E G Justo - Member

3) Er. V B Bellad - Member

4) Prof. P Mahadevappa - Member

5) Prof. B R Srinivasamurthy - Member

6) Prof. S S Bhavikatti - Member

7) Prof. S N KiranShankar - Member

8) Er. G C Tallur - Member

9) Er. D Raghavendra - Member

10) Er. Sadashivareddy B Patil - Member

11) Er. I Ravindranath - Member Secretary

2. BUILIDING PLANNING AND UNDERSTANDING ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

7. CONSTRUCTION AIDS AND CHEMICALS

9. MEASURING AND TESTING INSTRUMENTS

11. SOIL INVESTIGATION & SELECTION & DESIGN OF

12. MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

14. SUPER STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

15. PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS IN BUILDINGS

18. TESTING OF STEELS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

19. WATER PROOFING WORKS

20. BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

21. Quality Aspects of Materials and Construction

22. Health, Safety and Environment

23. CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT AND QUALITY CHECKLISTS

24. DISMANTLING AND DEMOLITION

• Settlements affecting the functionality of structures

REFERENCE MANUAL FOR FIELD ENGINEERS ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Building Planning and

• Criteria for site selection

2.2 SITE SELECTION

2.3 ABOUT BUILDING BY-LAWS

• To allow orderly growth

REFERENCE MANUAL FOR FIELD ENGINEERS ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

• Aesthetic considerations in the vicinity of monumental buildings.

a) Building height: The vertical distance between

BUILDING PLANNING AND UNDERSTANDING ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

a) Distance from power supply main:

Width of street in front of the plot Minimum front open space

REFERENCE MANUAL FOR FIELD ENGINEERS ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Height of Minimum rear and side Minimum rear and

1. For buildings above 24 m height, minimum front space is 6 m.

c. Floor Area Ratio (FAR):

Table 2.4. Maximum FAR

BUILDING PLANNING AND UNDERSTANDING ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

2.6 BY-LAWS ABOUT REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDINGS COMPONENTS

Table 2.5 Minimum Requirements of Habitable rooms

Table 2.6 Minimum size Requirements of Kitchen

Type Minimum floor area Minimum width Minimum height

d) Bath Rooms and water closets:

Table 2.7 Minimum size requirements