Human Histology Lec 2 28/02/2018

Lec. 2 Lymphatic System

Lymphatic System (figure 1)

- The lymphatic system is vital to the defense mechanism against infectious agents.
- The cells which deal with these agents arose, developed, matured, and/or stored
in lymphatic tissues.
- The lymphatic vessels and lymphoid organs are closely associated with the
cardiovascular system.
- Lymph itself is a clear and slightly yellowish fluid derived from blood, and
contains white blood cells (mainly lymphocytes).
- Lymph starts as blood fluid that passes through the tissue spaces and drained
back by thin vein-like lymphatic vessels, and then re-enter the venous circulation.
- There are lymphoid cells in most tissues of the body arranged either loosely as
aggregations, formed into encapsulated structures such as lymph nodes, or freely
mobile as individual cells.

Figure 1:Lymphatic system

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Types of lymphoid tissues:
1- Lymphoid tissue can be divided according to their relation to lymphocytes, into
primary and secondary:

- Primary (or central) lymphoid tissues: the tissues in which lymphocytes are
generated and differentiated as a mature lymphocytes: bone marrow in which B-
lymphocytes get maturity; and thymus in which T-lymphocytes get maturity.
Lymphocytes migrate from central lymphoid tissues to blood stream then to
peripheral lymphoid tissues

- Secondary(or peripheral) lymphoid tissues: the tissues in which immune

responses are initiated, i.e. they are brings antigen together with lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes transmitted from primary lymphatic organs by blood vessels to
secondary lymphatic organs then to lymphatic vessels, which in turn connect them
to the tissues and the bloodstream and thus to the sites of infection.

2- Lymphoid tissue can be divided according to presence or absence of connective

tissue capsule into diffuse (unencapsulated) and nodular(encapsulated
lymphatic tissues): (figure 2)
:
- Diffuse lymphatic tissue: lymphoid tissues (lymphoid follicles) aggregated in
loose connective tissue of several organs, mainly in the lamina propria of the
digestive tract, upper respiratory tract, and urinary passages. E.g.: tonsils, appendix,
and Peyer's patches of the ileum.

- Localized or Nodular lymphatic tissue: it is much more organized. The typical

nodular lymphatic tissue almost contain germinal centers, a highly ordered
collection of B-lymphocytes. On the other hands, not all lymphatic organs will
contain germinal centers. E.g.: lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland.

Figure 2:diffuse and nodular

lymphatic structures

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 Nodular lymphatic tissue

Lymph nodes: (figure 3) The lymph nodes are the most organized lymphatic
organs, and are found along larger lymphatic vessels, like that of neck, axilla&groin,
thorax and abdomen, especially in mesenteries.
Lymph nodes are bean shaped structures, that have a depression on one side (hilum).
Blood vessels enter and leave the lymph node at the hilum, whereas lymphatic
vessels enter at the periphery, and exit at the hilum. The lymph nodes act as "filters"
for lymph as it passes through. Lymph is pushed through from the periphery of the
node to its center, and then continues on its way back to join the venous circulation.

Structure of lymph nodes:

- Each lymph nodes surrounded by a connective tissue capsule, which sends
trabeculae deep into the volume of the node. Between the trabeculae, there is a
network of reticular fibers and reticular cells. Each lymph node consist of outer
cortex, inner cortex and medulla.

* The outer cortex: sub adjusent connective tissue capsule, there are sub capsular
sinuses. These sinuses consists of loose network of macrophages, reticular cells
and reticular fibers. Sub capsular sinuses communicates with medullary sinuses
through intermediate sinuses. Cortical lymphoid tissue contain:

- Primary lymphoid nodules which contain B-lymphocytes

- Secondary lymphoid nodules which contain germinal center.
- Internodal lymphoid tissue formed of diffuse lymphoid tissue.

* The inner or deep cortex which is formed of diffuse lymphoid tissue that extend
towered the medulla to join medullary cords. The inner cortex is the site in which T-
lymphocytes is located, for this it is called thymus dependent zone.

* Medulla: aggregation of lymphoid tissues that branch and anastomose to form

medullary cords. Medullary cords are separated by capillary-like structures; the
medullary lymphoid sinuses; which contain small lymphocytes, plasma cells, and
macrophages.

Function of lymph nodes:

- Filtration of lymph
- Lymph nodes are the sites of antigen recognition.

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Figure 3: Structure of lymph node showing the cortex and medulla, as well as afferent and efferent
lymphatic and blood vessels.

Thymus gland: (figure 4) is a lymphoepithelial organ that located in the superior

mediastinum. Thymus gland reaches maturity during childhood and become
rudimentary later on at puberty. Although the thymus is packed with lymphocytes,
it does not filter lymph.

Structure of thymus gland: Thymus gland is formed of two lobes. It is covered

with thick connective tissue capsule that sends septa into the two lobes which
dividing them into incomplete lobules. Each lobule is divided into peripheral dark
stained cortex and central pale stained medulla.

- Cortex:

It is much darker than medulla because of the presence of large number of T-

lymphocytes or thymocytes. It is contains also macrophages, and reticuloepithelial
cells.
. Cortex is the site of T-lymphocytes maturation, most of lymphocytes die by
apoptosis and removed by macrophages. A small numbers of lymphocytes migrate
to the medulla and enter blood stream through the wall of venules. These

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lymphocytes, then reach the non-thymic lymphoid organs and accumulate in
specific sites as T-lymphocytes.
Reticuloepithelium are stellate cells with pale nuclei and long cytoplasmic
processes that join together with desmosomes, and completely isolate the cortex
from medulla.

- Medulla

It is much lighter than the cortex because of lymphocytes are lass abundant than
the cortex, and contain large number of reticuloepithelial cells. Medulla contains
spherical acidophilic structure called thymic or Hassell`s corpuscles (figure 5),
which are the characteristic structures of medulla. Hassell’s corpuscles arranged
concentrically, flattened epithelial reticular cells become filled with keratin
filaments, then degenerated and sometimes calcified. Medulla contains also non-
fenestrated blood capillaries that form the thymic barriers.

The reticuloepithelial cells are responsible for the secretion of factors which
promote the maturation of the T cells. As the cells mature they are pushed in
towards the medulla, where they enter the blood vessels.

Function of the thymus gland:

- Thymus gland is essential for T-lymphocyte maturation.
- Reticuloepithelial cells act as endocrine gland that secret different hormones
required for T-cell maturation such as; thymosin, thymopoietin, thymolin, and
thymic humoral factor.

Figure 4: Structure of the Thymus gland showing incomplete lobule composed of the cortex and
medulla. Medulla looked lighter than the cortex and contain thymic or Hassell`s corpuscles

Figure 5: Hassell`s corpuscles

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Spleen: (figure 6)Is a complex organ that found in the abdominal cavity. It
represent the largest accumulation of lymphoid tissues in the body. Spleen is
carrying out filtration of particles and aged red cells from the blood, and
responding to the presence of antigens. It is really part of the circulatory system,
but it is always described with the lymphatic organs because of the very large
population of lymphocytes found in it. Further more,it is serves as a storage site for
blood.

Structure of spleen: (figure 7) Spleen is a network of reticular tissues that contain

lymphoid cells and macrophages. Spleen is surrounded by a capsule of dense
connective tissue which sends septa or trabeculae deep into the volume of the
organ. Between the trabeculae, fibers and reticular cells form a framework of the
spleen. The meshes of this network hold cells of splenic parenchyma.

- Parenchyma of spleen is formed of splenic pulps (red pulps and white pulps).

* Red pulp consists of splenic cords separated by blood sinusoids.

A- Splenic cords (Cords of Billroth): Formed of loose meshwork of reticular

fibers and reticular cells. The meshwork holds cellular elements of the parenchyma
such as T- and B-lymphocytes, plasma cells, and blood cells.

B-Splenic sinusoids: Vary in shape and size, and are lined by elongated
endothelial cells.

* White pulp: Splenic artery penetrates the hillum, branched to give trabecular
arteries that leave the trabeculae and enter parenchyma of spleen, which is their
called central arteries. Central arteries then surrounded by a sheath of lymphocytes
called peri-arterial lymphatic sheath (PALS). The sheath contains mainly T-
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lymphocytes (thymus dependent zone), whereas the lymphoid follicles contain B-
lymphocyts.
-Many of pulp arterioles derived from the central artery, extended out and away
from the white pulp and then return back and drain into sinuses of the marginal
zone that encircled the nodules.
-Activated B-lymphocytes migrate to the center of white pulp nodules, then give
rise to plasma cells and memory B-cells. Plasma cells migrate to the splenic cords
and release antibodies into the blood in the sinuses.

Function of spleen:
- Filtration of blood from foreign materials.
- Disposal of defective blood cells.
- Involved in recycling of iron in the body.
- Acts as a reservoir of red blood cells.
- Acts as a hemopoietic organ during embryonic life.
- Spleen has an immunological response; which contain large number of B- and T-
lymphocytes that play an important role in defense mechanism.

Figure 6: Structure of splenic parenchyma, showing the capsule, trabeculae, white and red pulps.

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Figure 7:Structure of splenic parenchyma, showing the capsule, trabeculae, white and red pulps.

Diffuse (unencapsulated) lymphoid tissues:

In this type of lymphatic tissues, the lymphoid follicles are aggregated in the
loose connective tissue of several organs mainly in the lamina propria of the
digestive tract, upper respiratory tract, and urinary passages.
Diffuse lymphatic tissues composed of densely packed lymphocytes (mainly B-
lymphocytes), that differentiated into plasma cells. In this type of lymphoid tissues
there are two types of lymphatic nodules:
1-Primary lymphatic nodules: which are ovoided and have no clear central region.
2-Secondary lymphatic nodules: which have a clear zone with anterior germinal
center.
Note:
-Lymphoid nodules in the mucosa of several organs is called mucosa associated
lymphoid tissue (MALT).
-Lymphoid nodules in the mucosa of gastro intestinal tract is called gut associated
lymphoid tissue (GALT).
-Lymphoid nodules in the mucosa of bronchial duct is called broncheal associated
lymphoid tissue (BALT).

Tonsils: (figure 8) are found in association with the oral cavity, and are usually
well encapsulated by connective tissue on the side away from the oral cavity;
germinal centers are normally present in the lymphoid follicles. Each tonsil contain
lymphocytes, macrophages and plasma cells.
Tonsils can be divided according to their location into: palatine, pharyngeal and
lingual tonsils.

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-Palatine tonsils: Located in the lateral walls of the oral part of the pharynx, under
the stratified squamous epithelium. lymphoid tissues formed a band that contain
lymphoid nodules with germinal center. Each tonsil has 10-20 crypts (epithelial
invagination that penetrate deeply). Lumen of each crypt contain desquamated
epithelial cells, live and died lymphocytes and bacteria.
Palatine tonsil is a band of dense connective tissue. Its capsule act as a barrier
against spreading of tonsiller infection.

-Pharyngeal tonsil: is a single tonsil that is situated in the superior posterior

portion of the pharynx. It is covered by ciliated pseudostratified columnar
epithelium (the typical epithelium of respiratory tract).
Pharyngeal tonsil composed of nodules and diffuse lymphoid tissues. It has no
crypts. Pharyngeal tonsil capsule is thinner than that of palatine tonsils.
Hypertrophy of pharyngeal tonsil is resulted from chronic inflammation and
called adenoids.

-Lingual tonsils: smaller and more numerous. They are situated at the base of the
tongue and covered by stratified squamous epithelium. Each lingual tonsil has a
single crypt.

Figure 8:Structure of the tonsils

Aggregated Lymphatic Nodules of the Ileum and Appendix: These structures

are large enough to be visible with the naked eye as whitish areas on that side of

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the intestine opposite to its mesenteric attachment. These lymphoid follicles have
germinal centers (the site of maturation and development of the B-lymphocytes).

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