Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jurnal 5 Baru
Jurnal 5 Baru
doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-50.9.07
Ó by the National Athletic Trainers’ Association, Inc position statement
www.natajournals.org
Objective: To present best-practice recommendations for proper recognition and treatment can be accomplished in order
the prevention, recognition, and treatment of exertional heat to maximize the safety and performance of athletes.
illnesses (EHIs) and to describe the relevant physiology of Recommendations: Athletic trainers and other allied health
thermoregulation. care professionals should use these recommendations to
Background: Certified athletic trainers recognize and treat establish onsite emergency action plans for their venues and
athletes with EHIs, often in high-risk environments. Although the athletes. The primary goal of athlete safety is addressed through
proper recognition and successful treatment strategies are well the appropriate prevention strategies, proper recognition tactics,
documented, EHIs continue to plague athletes, and exertional and effective treatment plans for EHIs. Athletic trainers and
heat stroke remains one of the leading causes of sudden death other allied health care professionals must be properly educated
during sport. The recommendations presented in this document and prepared to respond in an expedient manner to alleviate
provide athletic trainers and allied health providers with an symptoms and minimize the morbidity and mortality associated
integrated scientific and clinically applicable approach to the with these illnesses.
prevention, recognition, treatment of, and return-to-activity Key Words: heat cramps, heat syncope, heat exhaustion,
guidelines for EHIs. These recommendations are given so that heat injury, heat stroke, dehydration
T
he prevention, recognition, and treatment of exer- Association (NATA) and replaces the document that was
tional heat illnesses (EHIs) are core components of published in 2002.1
sports medicine services at all levels of sport. The The care of exertional heat-stroke (EHS) patients has
risk of EHI is ever present during exercise in the heat but come a long way in the past millennia. We now possess the
knowledge to nearly assure survival from this potentially
can also occur in ‘‘normal’’ environmental conditions. Our
fatal injury if EHS is quickly and appropriately recognized
current knowledge base has allowed us to greatly enhance and treated at the time of collapse.2,3 Additionally, our
the level of care that can be provided for athletes with these knowledge base and proven management protocols allow
medical conditions. This document serves as the current us to establish effective prevention and management
position statement for the National Athletic Trainers’ strategies to minimize the risk of and improve the outcome
applicable). If heat acclimatization is not maintained, the appropriate sodium-containing fluids and foods to help
physiologic benefits provided by this process will decay replace sodium losses in sweat and urine and to enhance
within 3 weeks.24–26 The first 2–3 weeks of preseason hydration (ie, water retention and distribution). The aims
practice typically present the greatest risk of EHI, of fluid consumption or replacement are to prevent a body
particularly in equipment-intensive sports.26,27–29 All mass loss of more than 2% (as measured before and after
possible preventive measures should be used during this the practice or game) and to keep morning urine light in
time to address this high-risk period (Figure 1). Strength color.31,32 These strategies may reduce the risk of acute
of recommendation: B and chronic significant dehydration and decrease the risk
3. Athletes who are currently sick with a viral infection (eg, of EHI.27,31–34 Strength of recommendation: B
upper respiratory tract infection or gastroenteritis) or 5. The sports medicine staff must educate relevant personnel
other illness or have a fever or serious skin rash should (ie, coaches, administrators, security guards, emergency
not participate until the condition is resolved.16,27,30 Even medical services [EMS] staff, athletes) on preventing and
after symptoms resolve, the athlete may still be recognizing EHI and, in particular, EHS.35,36 Signs and
susceptible to heat illness and should be observed symptoms of a medical emergency should be reviewed,
carefully upon return to exercising in the heat. Strength and every institution should have and personnel should
of recommendation: B practice an emergency action plan specific to each
4. Individuals should maintain euhydration and appropriate- practice and game site. Review and rehearsal of the
ly replace fluids lost through sweat during and after emergency action plan should include all relevant
members of the sports medicine team (ie, coaches,
games and practices (see the NATA position statement on
athletic trainers, EMS). Strength of recommendation: C
fluid replacement in athletes31). Players should have free
6. Appropriate medical care must be available, and all
access to readily available fluids at all times, not just
personnel must be familiar with EHI prevention,
during designated breaks. Instruct them to eat or drink
recognition, and treatment.35–37 Certified athletic trainers
and other health care providers covering practices or
Table 2. Sample Preparticipation Physical Examination Questions events are the primary providers of medical care for
Related to Exertional Heat Stroke69
athletes who display signs or symptoms of EHI and have
1. Have you ever previously been diagnosed with exertional heat the authority to restrict an athlete from participating if
stroke? If yes EHI is suspected or to refer the athlete for a significant
a. How long ago?
EHI condition. Strength of recommendation: C
b. Have you had any complications since then?
c. How long did it take you to return to full participation?
7. When environmental conditions warrant, a cold-water or
d. Did you have any complications upon your return to play? ice tub and ice towels should be available to immerse or
e. Was an exercise heat tolerance test conducted to assess your soak a patient with a suspected heat illness. 33,37
thermoregulatory capacity? Immediate whole-body cooling is essential for treating
2. Have you ever been diagnosed with heat exhaustion? If yes EHI and EHS in particular. Onsite facilities are needed
a. When? for immediate treatment. Strength of recommendation: B
b. How many times? 8. The assessment of rectal temperature is the clinical gold
3. Have you ever had trouble or complications from exercising in the standard for obtaining core body temperature of patients
heat (eg, feeling sick, throwing up, dizzy, lack of energy, decreased with EHS38 and the medical standard of practice and
performance, muscle cramps)?
4. How much training have you been doing recently (in the past 2
accepted protocol. No other field-expedient methods of
weeks)? Has this been performed in warm or humid weather? obtaining core body temperature (eg, oral, axillary,
5. Have you been training during the last 2 months? Would you say tympanic, forehead sticker, temporal) are valid or reliable
you are in poor, good, or excellent condition? after intense exercise in the heat, and they may lead to
6. Describe your drinking habits. (Are you conscious of how much you inadequate or inappropriate treatment, thereby endanger-
consume? Is your urine consistently dark?) ing a patient’s health.38–41 Parents, administrators,
7. Would you consider yourself a heavy or a salty sweater? coaches, and student-athletes should be educated ahead
8. How many hours of sleep do you get per night? Do you sleep in an of time that this procedure will be used for heat-illness
air-conditioned room? emergencies, especially in patients suspected of having
9. Do you take any supplements or ergogenic aids?
heat exhaustion or EHS. Esophageal and gastrointestinal
(via ingestible thermistor) measurements may be appro- 12. Rest breaks should be planned and the work-to-rest ratio
priate alternatives for temperature assessment but require modified to match the environmental conditions and the
advanced training for the former and careful planning for intensity of the activity.45–47 Breaks should be in the
the latter. Under all circumstances in which EHS is shade or in a predetermined cooling zone and should
possible, a rectal temperature assessment should be able allow enough time for all athletes to consume fluids.
to be obtained. Strength of recommendation: A Additionally, players should be permitted to remove
9. Because the effects of heat are cumulative, athletes equipment (eg, helmets) during rest periods. Strength of
should be encouraged to sleep at least 7 hours per night in recommendation: B
a cool environment; eat a balanced diet; and properly 13. The use of dietary supplements and other substances that
hydrate before, during, and after exercise.16 Individuals have a dehydrating effect, increase metabolism, or affect
should also be advised to rest in a cool environment body temperature and thermoregulation is discouraged.48
during periods of inactivity (eg, off days, between Because supplements may increase the risk of EHI, their
sessions on double-practice days) to maximize recovery. use should be carefully monitored. Strength of recom-
Rest periods should incorporate meal times and allow 2 to mendation: C
3 hours for food, fluids, electrolytes (primarily sodium 14. Minimal experimental evidence exists regarding the most
and chloride), and other nutrients to be digested and effective method of preventing EAMCs due to the variety
absorbed before the next practice or competition. Strength of causes. Supplemental sodium ingestion and fluid
of recommendation: C monitoring9 or neuromuscular reeducation49 may help to
10. To anticipate potential problems, a preseason heat- prevent EAMC recurrences. Clinicians should identify the
acclimatization policy should be developed for organized patient’s unique intrinsic (eg, hydration, acclimatization,
sports and event guidelines formulated for hot, humid biomechanics, training status) and extrinsic (eg, climate
weather conditions based on the type of activity and wet- conditions, exercise intensity) risk factors that preceded
bulb globe temperature (WBGT).23,26 In stressful envi- EAMCs before implementing a prevention strategy.
ronmental conditions, particularly during the first 2–3 Strength of recommendation: C
weeks of preseason practice, activity should be delayed or
rescheduled or the practice session shortened to reduce
the risk to participants. Special attention should be given Recognition
to practice drills that involve high-intensity activity and Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps.
full protective equipment worn by players, as these 15. A patient experiencing EAMCs will likely show 1 or
factors may exacerbate the amount of heat stress on the more of the following signs and symptoms: visible
body. Strength of recommendation: B cramping in part or all of the muscle or muscle groups,
11. Individuals who may be particularly susceptible to EHI localized pain, dehydration, thirst, sweating, or fa-
must be identified.42–45 They should be closely monitored tigue.4,5,50 Strength of recommendation: C
during stressful environmental conditions, and preventive 16. A thorough medical history should be obtained to
steps should be taken.45,46 In addition, emergency distinguish muscle cramping as a result of an underlying
supplies and equipment (eg, tubs for cold-water immer- clinical condition (eg, sickle cell trait) from EAMCs.50
sion [CWI], rectal thermometer) should be onsite, easily The latter is often preceded by subtle muscle twitching,4
accessible, and in good working order to allow for whereas the former is not. Strength of recommendation: C
immediate intervention and treatment if needed. Strength 17. Most EAMCs related to overload or fatigue tend to be
of recommendation: B short in duration (less than 5 minutes) and mild in
neuromuscular conditions (eg, fatigue, hydration level, of cold water. Removing excess clothing and equipment
improper nutrition).50 Strength of recommendation: C will enhance cooling by maximizing the surface area of
the skin. However, because removing excess clothing and
Heat Syncope. equipment can be time consuming, CWI should begin
31. The clinician should move the patient to a shaded area, immediately and equipment should be removed while the
monitor vital signs, elevate the legs above the level of the patient is in the tub (or while temperature is being
heart, cool the skin, and rehydrate.12 Strength of assessed or the tub is being prepared).59 Rectal temper-
recommendation: C ature and other vital signs should be monitored during
Exertional Heat Exhaustion. cooling every 5 to 10 minutes if a continuous monitoring
32. Removing any excess clothing and equipment increases device is not available.20,60 Strength of recommendation:
the evaporative surface of the skin and facilitates cooling. B
Strength of recommendation: C 38. Cold-water immersion up to the neck is the most effective
33. The patient should be moved to a cool or shaded area. cooling modality for patients with EHS.57 The water
Further body cooling should be accomplished via fans or should be approximately 1.78C (358F) to 158C (598F) and
ice towels if necessary. Strength of recommendation: C stirred continuously to maximize cooling. The patient
34. While monitoring vital signs, the clinician should place should be removed when core body temperature reaches
the patient in the supine position with legs elevated above 38.98C (1028F) to prevent overcooling (Table 4).60
the level of the heart to promote venous return.15,16,56 Strength of recommendation: A
Strength of recommendation: C 39. Although cooling rates may vary, the cooling rate for CWI
35. If intravenous fluids are needed or if recovery is not rapid will be approximately 0.28C/min (0.378F/min) or about 18C
(within 30 minutes of initiation of treatment) and every 5 minutes (or 18F every 3 minutes) when considering
uneventful, fluid replacement should begin and the the entire immersion period from postcollapse to 38.98C
patient’s care transferred to a physician. If the condition (1028F).20,57,58 Strength of recommendation: B
worsens during or after treatment, EMS should be 40. If full-body CWI is not available, partial-body immersion
activated.15,16 Additionally, rectal temperature should be (ie, torso) with a small pool or tub and other modalities,
obtained; if .40.58C (1058F), the patient should be such as wet ice towels rotated and placed over the entire
treated for EHS. Strength of recommendation: C body or cold-water dousing with or without fanning, may
be used but are not as effective as CWI.61,62 Strength of
Exertional Heat Stroke. recommendation: B
36. For any EHS patient, the goal is to lower core body 41. If a physician is onsite (as in a mass medical tent
temperature to less than 38.98C (1028F) within 30 minutes situation) and can manage the EHS, then transportation to
of collapse.20 Body cooling serves 2 purposes: returning a medical facility may not be necessary if cooling
blood flow from the skin to the heart and lowering core occurred immediately (ie, if the duration above 408C
body temperature by reducing the hypermetabolic state of [1048F] was less than 30 minutes) and the patient is
the organs. The length of time the core body (and asymptomatic 1 hour postcooling. If a physician is not
particularly the brain) is above the critical temperature present but other medical staff (eg, AT, EMS, nurse) are
threshold (40.58C [1058F]) dictates morbidity and the risk onsite, aggressive cooling should continue until the
of death from EHS (Figure 2).57,58 Strength of recom- patient’s temperature is 398C (102.88F). When medical
mendation: B staff is onsite, all patients with EHS should be cooled first
37. When EHS is suspected, the patient’s body (trunk and and transported second. However, when medical staff is
extremities) should be quickly immersed in a pool or tub not present and EHS is suspected, then the coaching
to high intensity and increasing duration in a temperate significance of a normal test result and its relationship
environment, with equipment added gradually where with clearance to return to play still need to be refined and
indicated. Also, a graded progression of heat acclimati- evaluated. In either circumstance, monitoring the physi-
zation, while monitoring for signs and symptoms of EHI, ologic response to series of challenging exercise heat
should be completed. The ability to progress depends exposures is a large step forward in our delivery of health
largely on the treatment provided, and in some rare cases, care to the EHS patient who is recovering and working
full recovery may not be possible. Rectal temperature and toward a return to physical activity as a laborer, soldier, or
heart rate should be monitored during these activities, and athlete. This method has proved effective within the
if the patient experiences any side effects or negative Israeli military68 and the US military and at the Korey
symptoms with training, the progression should be Stringer Institute, and it supports many of the consider-
slowed, delayed, or stopped.65,66 Strength of recommen- ations put forth by the American College of Sports
dation: C Medicine and US military.65,67,69 Strength of recommen-
48. Although structured guidelines for return to play after dation: C
EHS in athletics are lacking, the US military has adopted
effective recommendations for the proper progression of
return to duty after an episode of EHS. The main BACKGROUND AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
considerations are treating any associated sequelae and, if
possible, identifying the cause of EHS, so that future Thermoregulation
episodes can be prevented.65–67 As evidence-based
medicine research has advanced, the role of exercise Thermoregulation is a complex interaction of the CNS,
heat-tolerance testing has gained favor as a common- the cardiovascular system, and the skin to maintain a core
sense approach: a patient who has a poor test result should body temperature of approximately 378C (98.68F).17,34,70,71
not increase activity at that point. However, the The CNS temperature-regulation center, located in the
EHS patients in athletics and military settings. Other forms teams and schools across the United States, the WBGT
of cooling (eg, cold-water dousing with fans, ice-water index may not be the most appropriate tool in determining a
towels) may be used if CWI is not available, but these universal policy for activity modifications and cancella-
methods decrease core body temperature at a slower rate tions.84 Therefore, caution is necessary when setting
than does CWI.61,62,69 protocols based solely on climate due to differences among
the various regions of the country. It should be noted that an
Environmental Risk Factors EHI could occur in seemingly ‘‘normal’’ environmental
Environmental Conditions. Hot and humid environ- conditions and, therefore, all appropriate precautions
mental conditions can more readily predispose an should be taken, especially in the first week of practice
individual to EHS.* When the environmental temperature (Table 6).
is higher than the body’s skin temperature, individuals Barriers to Evaporative Heat Loss. Athletic equipment
absorb heat from the environment, and their heat loss and rubber or plastic suits used for weight loss do not allow
depends entirely on evaporation. 17,30,71,72 Yet when water vapor to pass from the skin to the environment and,
humidity is also high, evaporative heat loss is severely as a result, inhibit evaporative, convective, and radiant heat
diminished, which can lead to a rapid rise in core body loss.27,42,86,87 Participants who wear equipment that does
temperature and an extreme risk for EHS (Table 5). not allow for heat dissipation are at an increased risk for
The environmental factors that influence the risk of heat heat illness. Wearing a helmet is also a risk factor because a
illness include the ambient temperature, relative humidity significant amount of heat is dissipated through the head.
(amount of water vapor in the air), air motion (wind speed),
Individuals are most susceptible to EHI during the first
and amount of radiant heat from the sun. The relative risk
of heat illness can be calculated using the WBGT equation: week of preseason practices.29,88,89 Thus, it is important to
include a phase-in of equipment as part of the heat-
WBGT ¼ ðwet-bulb temperature 3 0:7Þ acclimatization period.
þ ðblack-globe temperature 3 0:2Þ Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature the Previous Day and
þ ðdry-bulb temperature 3 0:1Þ: ð2Þ Night. When individuals compete in high WBGT
conditions, the risk of EHI increases the following day.91
This equation is used to estimate the risk associated with This factor appears to be one of the best predictors of EHI
exercise based on environmental conditions and can be and should be considered when planning successive
useful for setting local policies regarding environmental practice sessions. Additionally, individuals who sleep in
heat. The WBGT index has long been used in athletics and warm or non–air-conditioned quarters are also at greater
by the US military. Using the WBGT index to modify
risk due to the cumulative effects of heat exposure.
activity in high-risk settings has greatly diminished the
occurrence of EHS cases in US Marine Corps recruits. Excessive Clothing or Equipment. Excessive clothing
However, due to geographical differences among athletic or equipment decreases the body’s ability to thermoregulate
and may cause greater absorption of radiant heat from the
* References 17, 22, 23, 30, 33, 71, 72, 83, 85 environment.
Nonenvironmental Risk Factors Increased Body Mass Index. Obese people are at
Heat Acclimatization. Heat acclimatization is a increased risk for EHI because they are less efficient in
physiologic response to repeated heat exposure during dissipating heat and produce more metabolic heat during
exercise over the course of 10 to 14 days.24,25,92 This exercise. Conversely, those who are muscle bound produce
response enables the body to cope more effectively with increased metabolic heat and have a lower ratio of surface
thermal stressors and consists of increases in stroke volume area to mass, contributing to a decreased ability to dissipate
and sweat rate and decreases in heart rate, core body heat.42,100
temperature, skin temperature, and sweat salt losses.17,93,94 Dehydration. Excess sweat loss, inadequate fluid intake,
Athletes should be allowed to acclimatize to the heat vomiting, diarrhea, certain medications, and alcohol can
sufficiently before stressful conditions such as full lead to a measureable fluid deficit. Proper hydration can
equipment, multiple practices within a day, or help to reduce exercise heart rate,15,34,101–103 fatigue,12,104
performance trials are implemented.16,23,26,27,88 Individual and core body temperature, 105,106 while improving
differences affect the onset and decay of heat performance105–107 and cognitive functioning.81,108–111
acclimatization.24,25 The rate of acclimatization is related Dehydration of as little as 2% of body weight can
to aerobic conditioning and fitness; in general, a better negatively affect performance and thermoregulation.32,34
conditioned athlete will acclimatize to the heat more Caution should be taken to ensure that athletes arrive at
quickly. practice euhydrated (ie, having reestablished their weight
Exercise Intensity. The rate of metabolic heat production since the last practice) and replace body water that is lost
is clearly a function of the intensity of physical exertion. during practice. Measuring body-weight change before,
The relative intensity of exercise, which is based in part on during, and after a practice or an event and across
individual physical fitness, has the greatest influence on the successive days is the preferred method for monitoring
rate of increase in core body temperature.94 From a dehydration in the field. Using a clinical refractometer is
physiologic standpoint, high-intensity exercise results in a another effective method of estimating hydration status:
substantial amount of metabolic heat production, which then specific gravity should be no more than 1.020 at the start of
produces a rapid rise in core body temperature.95–97 This the activity.16,31,32,42 Hydration status can also be identified
rapid rise in temperature often exceeds the ability of the by monitoring the first-void morning urine color via a urine
body to dissipate heat, ultimately overwhelming the color chart (urine color should be no more than 4).31,42
thermoregulatory system. From a behavioral standpoint, Water loss that is not sufficiently regained by the next
individuals will often use an anticipatory defense practice increases the risk for EHI.11,27,31,32 Cumulative
mechanism and behavioral modifications (eg, slowing dehydration develops insidiously over several days and is
their pace) to protect themselves against dangerous levels typically observed during the first few days of preseason
of hyperthermia.98,99 However, during competition, the will practices112 and in tournament competition. Cumulative
to win or to accomplish a personal best may trump this dehydration can be detected by monitoring daily preprac-
internal cue. In addition, external pressure from coaches or tice and postpractice body weights and morning urine color.
teammates may force athletes to ignore this protective During intense exercise in the heat, sweat rates can be as
instinct.54,88 high as 2 L/h; if the fluid is not replaced, large deficits will
Overzealousness. Overzealous athletes are at higher risk result.27 Therefore, the rehydration rate may have to be
for EHI because they tend to override the normal behavioral increased during exercise periods of this nature in order to
adaptations to heat and ignore early warning signs of minimize fluid deficits.
EHI.42,88 Illness. Individuals who are currently or were recently ill
Poor Physical Condition. Untrained individuals are may be at increased risk for EHI because of fever,
more susceptible to EHI than trained individuals because, dehydration, or medications (eg, decongestants or
as aerobic power (V̇O2max) improves, the ability to antidiarrheal agents).27,42
withstand heat stress generally also improves.42,44–46 History of Exertional Heat Illness. Athletes with a
High-intensity exercise can readily produce 1000 kcal/h history of heat illness are often at greater risk for recurrent
and elevate the core temperature of at-risk athletes (those heat illness during strenuous physical activity due to the
who are unfit, overweight, or unacclimatized) to a potential for widespread debilitation involving the
dangerous level in less than 30 minutes.94 thermoregulatory, central nervous, cardiovascular,
Address correspondence to Douglas J. Casa, PhD, ATC, FNATA, FACSM, Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, 2095
Hillside Road, Box U-1110, Storrs, CT 06269-1110. Address e-mail to douglas.casa@uconn.edu.