CHAPTER
8
Piezometers for Groundwater
Measurement and Monitoring
he piezometer and the observation well are the fun-
T damental tools for measuring hydraulic head in an
aquifer and evaluating the performance of dewatering
systems. While the terms piezometer and observation well
are commonly interchanged, the term piezometer is more
precisely defined as a device that measures the pressure in a
confined isolated zone, while an observation well is a device
that measures the water level in an unconfined or unisolated
zone. In this chapter, as in common practice, they will be
used interchangeably to describe any device for determining
water head. The piezometer seems a simple tool but it can
be subtly complex, and misinterpretation of piezometer data
has resulted in serious difficulties with performance of de-
watering systems.
Most of the discussion of this chapter, unless indicated
otherwise, is specific to open standpipe piezometers.
8.1 SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS
To interpret piezometric data correctly it is essential to have
an accurate picture of the subsurface conditions in which the
piezometer is installed. The plan location, depth, design,
and construction details of piezometers cannot be properly
selected until adequate geologic and geotechnical informa-
tion has been obtained and analyzed. Specific information
should include geologic history (knowing the depositional
history will alert one to the potential for specific phenomena,
such as the fine sand interbeds in a lacustrine layer), stratig-
raphy (e.g., depth and thickness of all layers), soil types in-
cluding grain size, plasticity, and degree of anisotropy
(ground water flow is particularly influenced by the ratio
between the horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity).
Construction Dewatering and Groundwater Control: New Methods and Applications, Third Edition. J. P. Powers, A. B. Corwin,
Paul C. Schmall and W. E. Kaeck Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-47943-7
Even with this advance information, it is good practice to
log the soil conditions carefully as the piezometer is drilled
or jetted into place. For example, an unexpected clay layer
or sand seam can substantially alter groundwater flow pat-
terns and distort the data compared with that expected for
more homogeneous conditions.
8.2 ORDINARY PIEZOMETERS AND
TRUE PIEZOMETERS
The ordinary piezometer or observation well, such as a well-
point placed in a jetted hole that has been backfilled with
clean sand (Fig. 8.1), is open to the entire aquifer. The true
piezometer (Fig. 8.2) is isolated within a specific zone of the
aquifer.
In a uniform isotropic water table aquifer, as in Fig. 8.1,
the ordinary piezometer yields the correct information re-
garding the hydraulic head in the formation. However, if
there are discrete and multiple pressure zones within the
aquifer, or vertical gradients, then the ordinary piezometer
will indicate an average of the hydraulic head over the entire
interval of sand backfill. This average result may be mis-
leading when it is considered to be the water level at a dis-
crete elevation. When two discrete aquifers are penetrated,
as in Fig. 8.3, the average hydraulic head indicated by an
ordinary piezometer is representative of neither aquifer. In
this case, two piezometers, screened separately in each aq-
uifer, are required to obtain an accurate representation of
the actual hydraulic head conditions in each layer. In prac-
tice, and with proper quality control during installation, the
two piezometers can be placed in the same drilled hole, with
an impermeable seal placed between the piezometers to hy-
111
112 THEORY
Figure 8.1 An ordinary piezometer in a
homogeneous isotropic water table aquifer will give
a true reading under static conditions. When
pumping, vertical gradients may complicate
interpretation of the data.
Figure 8.2 A true piezometer to measure pressure
in a confined aquifer.
draulically isolate them within their respective aquifers. The
authors have observed many instances where poorly con-
structed seals between the piezometers have allowed vertical
leakage and rendered the water level data from the piezom-
eters erroneous. Where possible, the installation of individ-
ual piezometers in separate boreholes is recommended.
The water level measured in a piezometer will reflect the
installation method and soils through which it screened. An
understanding of the soil conditions, piezometer construc-
tion details, and aquifer characteristics is imperative to the
interpretation of piezometer data. Some common examples
illustrate the point:
• When a dewatering system only partially penetrates an
aquifer, vertical gradients occur which are further am-
Figure 8.3 Piezometers in two different aquifers. Note that the ordinary
piezometer on the left averages the two aquifers and its reading does not
accurately reflect the water level in either stratum.
plified by the presence of anisotropic soils. The flow net
in Fig. 6.9 shows how an ordinary piezometer can yield
inaccurate and thus misleading results, but a series of
true piezometers staggered vertically will give an accu-
rate picture of the hydraulic head conditions. Dangerous
boils have been observed in an excavation even when the
surrounding piezometers indicate water levels below su-
bgrade. In such cases, analysis usually reveals vertical
gradients that were not detected because true piezome-
ters were not used (Fig. 5.1a).
• Another dewatering situation where a piezometer may
provide inaccurate information is when a piezometer is
socketed in clay underlying a water-bearing stratum such
as sand (Fig. 8.4). In this case, the piezometer will al-
ways indicate a water level slightly higher than the top
Figure 8.4 Ordinary piezometer socketed
into clay. Water will never decline to lower
than a few centimeters above the clay. Filling
the piezometer with water may not reveal the
situation. Pumping the piezometer is
preferred; slow recovery will suggest the
possibility illustrated.
 PIEZOMETERS FOR GROUNDWATER MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING 113

seals can be placed properly, and that the hole makes unob-
structed contact with the zone of the aquifer that is to be
observed. As is the case with all construction, rotary drilling
will provide a better installation than augers, which tend to
smear the borehole wall with fines as they are advanced,
particularly in stratified soils. Drilling mud, if used, should
be biodegradable and the borehole should be flushed ade-
quately with clean water prior to installation of the screen
and filter pack.
To allow for the inflow of water and proper communi-
cation with the formation, piezometer screens are con-
structed as slotted wellscreens or as wellpoints. The
openings should be sized in relationship to the filter sand
that is placed in the annulus between the formation and the
screened interval. An ample open area, at least 5 to 10% of
the screen surface, is advisable so that the piezometer can
be pumped or surged during initial developing and subse-
Figure 8.5 Ordinary piezometer under perched quent maintenance. The diameter of the piezometer screen
conditions. The piezometer will read slightly above
the true dewatered level in the lower aquifer, but it is
and riser pipe is preferably 1 to 2 in. (25 to 50 mm). Smaller
unlikely that the perched condition can be detected diameters are sometimes employed, particularly in soil dif-
from the water level data. ficult to drill or where multiple piezometers are to be in-
stalled in the same hole. Piezometers smaller than –34 in. (20
mm) are not recommended, because of difficulties in taking
of the clay. Thus, unless the elevation of the sand/clay
interface is accurately known, the head of water remain-
ing in the aquifer can be grossly overestimated.
• A third example where an ordinary piezometer may pro-
vide an incorrect water level is when the screen pene-
trates two partially dewatered aquifers (Fig. 8.5). This
may be in the presence of a perched water table. An
ordinary piezometer will not reveal the perched water
condition in the upper aquifer and may actually drain
some water from the upper aquifer into the lower aq-
uifer. Perched water, if not predrained, can present se-
rious problems in the slopes of an excavation or with
the installation of lagging boards and therefore it is im-
portant that the piezometers reveal its presence or ab-
sence. Dewatering the perched water with shallow
wellpoints or sand drains is more costly in time and
money if the perched water is not discovered until after
the excavation is underway.
The above discussion illustrates only some of the poten-
tial difficulties in interpretation of piezometer data. The
need for thorough understanding of the soil conditions and
their relationship to groundwater flow cannot be overstated.

8.3 PIEZOMETER CONSTRUCTION

Piezometers can be installed by various techniques, such as

jetting (with or without a casing), driving, or drilling (mud
rotary, hollow stem auger, wash boring). Hollow stem auger
and mud rotary drilling techniques are the most common.
The primary considerations are that the hole is stable during Figure 8.6 A drive point piezometer can be driven by hand to shallow
the installation of the piezometer so that screen, filter, and depths.
114 THEORY

water level measurements within the piezometer using con- pellets for sealing longer lengths of borehole. The high shear
ventional measuring equipment, and in developing and strength of the grout may be advisable for sealing high-
cleaning. Sizes larger than 2 in. (50 mm) are not recom- pressure zones.
mended in finer-grained soils because the volume of water Unless the piezometer is not communicating with the
needed to flow into or out of the piezometer will affect the aquifer (Section 8.4), development of piezometers is typi-
accuracy of readings during rapid changes in drawdown. cally required only when borehole permeability tests will be
Plastic riser pipes and screens and steel riser pipes with performed or the piezometers will also serve as environmen-
stainless steel screens are commonly used. On projects of tal sampling wells and turbidity in the sample may skew the
short duration, galvanized screens may be suitable. water quality analyses.
Piezometer screens are typically 5 or 10 ft (1.5 or 3 m) Figure 8.7 illustrates a piezometer detail that has proven
in length, but longer screens may be desirable, depending effective. The piezometer top should be threaded and
on soil stratification. In highly stratified soils, discrete pi- capped to prevent entry of foreign objects. It is advisable to
ezometers at different depths are better than one longer, and put a small vent hole in the cap to allow atmospheric air to
averaging, piezometer. The filter column surrounding the enter or leave the piezometer as the water level within the
screen should be only slightly longer than the length of the piezometer rises and falls. Where added security is needed,
piezometer screen to provide proper isolation of the screen. such as in public areas, a prefabricated, flush-mounted steel
Filter sands (sometimes called the filter pack) for pi- or cast iron covered box set in concrete is frequently em-
ezometers should be selected generally in accordance with ployed to protect the piezometer. An appropriately con-
the criteria for well filters (Chapter 18), although a precise structed piezometer can have a long service life, extending
match between the formation, filter material and well screen from the initial geotechnical investigation through use in
is not imperative since the piezometer is not used to pump evaluating the performance of the dewatering system during
water from the formation. In deep, small-diameter holes, a construction.
very uniform filter with rounded to semirounded grains is
recommended, since these materials can be placed rapidly,
without segregation or bridging. If locally available sand is
not sufficiently uniform or rounded, the ‘‘Ottawa sand’’ used
in sand-cone testing and available from drilling supply com-
panies is effective. In deep piezometer holes, ample time
should be allowed for the sand to settle before sounding to
see if it has reached the proper elevation. Sometimes several
minutes or more is necessary for a uniform fine to medium
sand to reach the desired depth. To ensure adequate filter
thickness, most states will require that the drilled borehole
diameter is a minimum of 4 in. (100 mm) larger than the
screen diameter, i.e., with a minimum filter pack thickness
of 2 in. (50 mm).
Low hydraulic conductivity seals, usually of bentonite,
are necessary for the installation of a true piezometer. The
bentonite may be installed differently depending on the
form of the bentonite, i.e., chips, pellets, coated pellets.
Coated bentonite pellets, available from various material
suppliers, are the most convenient to use and are believed
to form the most reliable seal. As the bentonite continues
to absorb water, it tends to swell and form a tight seal be-
tween the pipe and the wall of the hole. Once the bentonite
pellets are installed, the annular space should be backfilled
at least partially so that the bentonite swells out toward the
borehole walls and creates a good seal rather than expanding
freely up the unconfined annular space of the borehole.
In addition to the bentonite seal at the top of the
screened interval, a bentonite seal should be placed at the
top of the ground, which is then graded for runoff, so that
surface water cannot enter the hole and distort the readings.
Cement-bentonite grout is sometimes used instead of
Figure 8.7 Typical piezometer construction. Note smaller diameters
bentonite for seals. Grout placement requires special tech- for the hole and piezometers are frequently selected to reduce cost.
niques and equipment, but is more practical than bentonite The minimum recommended piezometer size is 0.75 in (20 mm).
 PIEZOMETERS FOR GROUNDWATER MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING 115

Where observation wells will also serve as environmental 150 48.8

monitoring wells, well materials should be compatible with 145
the anticipated chemical environment, be of sufficient di- 46.8
140
ameter to accommodate sampling and development tools, 44.8
135
and be properly developed so that the contaminant concen-

Elevation (m)
Elevation (ft)
tration is not skewed by turbidity and contaminants that 130 42.8

may be fixated to particulate matter. The joints on environ- 125 40.8

mental monitoring wells should not be solvent welded, since 120
this could introduce solvents to the water samples. 38.8
115
36.8
110
8.4 VERIFICATION OF 105 34.8
PIEZOMETER PERFORMANCE 100 32.8
0 2 4 6 8 10
Every piezometer should be proven (tested) after construc-
Time (min)
tion to ensure that it is functioning properly. On projects of
long duration the piezometers may be re-tested periodically, Figure 8.8 A water level recovery plot that suggests that the screen
particularly those that continue to show a static condition is fully saturated and in direct communication with the aquifer.
or behave erratically. A piezometer can be tested by adding
or removing water. Note that when testing a piezometer by
adding water, only clear, sediment-free water should be
used. For a typical aquifer, the water should return to the
same level in a few minutes, demonstrating the proper func-
tioning of the piezometer. Pumping water out of the pi-
ezometer is preferable to adding water, since this tends to
help clean the piezometer of any accumulated fine silts and
clays. If the water level in the piezometer is within 20 ft (6
m) of the surface, a suction pump can be used. If the water
column height in the piezometer is equal to 60% of the total
depth of the piezometer, water can be removed by air lifting
(Chapter 12). If the water column height is less than 60%
of the total depth of the piezometer, some water can still be
blown out with intermittent surges of compressed air. Oc-
casionally, clogged piezometers can be cleared in this man-
ner.
Sometimes the validity and significance of piezometer
readings can be evaluated by pumping or air lifting and ob-
serving the subsequent recovery. For example, if the water Figure 8.9 A water level recovery plot that may be indicative of a
level recovers very quickly, this indicates that the soils are piezometer socketed in a soil stratum of low hydraulic conductivity or a
relatively permeable, with the potential for rapid ground wa- well being recharged by an upper stratum of higher hydraulic
conductivity or perched layer.
ter flow and ground loss in the excavation if not properly
addressed. In contrast, if the level takes many hours to re-
cover, this information may indicate soils of relatively low
hydraulic conductivity, limited continuity of the water- performed on pumping wells (or other devices) in addition
bearing pocket, or a minor perched condition, as shown in to the piezometers.
Figs. 8.4 and 8.5. The shape of the recovery plot, i.e., linear
or parabolic, can sometimes suggest a condition such as a 8.6 OBTAINING DATA FROM PIEZOMETERS
piezometer socketed into clay or a perched water source
feeding the piezometer. A parabolic recovery curve (Fig. 8.8) A number of devices have been developed to determine the
generally reflects a piezometer in direct connection with an level of the water surface within the piezometer.
aquifer, and a linear recovery curve (Fig. 8.9) generally re- The battery-operated electric probe (Fig. 8.10) with a ca-
flects a source of water above the piezometer screen such as ble marked off in feet or meters is perhaps the most popular.
a perched layer. The ability to perform these in situ tests Various manufacturers produce these instruments which
and verify water levels can be very beneficial in evaluating utilize a neon lamp, a buzzer, or an ammeter as the signaling
the performance of a dewatering system. These tests can be device. The instrument should be ruggedly built, since some
116 THEORY
Figure 8.10 Electric probe for measuring water
levels.
degree of rough handling can be expected. The distance
markings must be securely fastened to the cable. Some mod-
els are available where the cable itself is manufactured as a
measuring tape. The sensing probe should be shielded to
prevent shorting out against metal risers. When the water is
highly conductive, false positive readings can occur due to
the sensitivity of the probe in the moist air above the actual
water level. Careful attention to the consistency of the read-
ing, intensity of the neon lamp, pitch of the horn, or the
strength of the ammeter reading is required to distinguish
between these false positive readings and the readings that
occur when the probe actually contacts the water. A sensi-
tivity adjustment on the instrument can be useful. Note that
oil or iron sludge accumulated in the piezometer will result
in the electric probe giving unreliable readings.
Data loggers coupled to pore pressure transducers (Fig.
8.11) are proving useful for monitoring piezometric levels.
They are invaluable for collecting data during a pumping
test because of the required frequency of data acquisition.
Once the data are acquired, the use of a laptop or hand-
held computer can be utilized in the field for plotting and
analyzing the data. Data loggers record signals from a pres-
sure transducer located near the bottom of the piezometer,
which responds to changes in water level and resulting
changes in pressure.
In the absence of previously discussed measuring tools,
rudimentary devices can be used to determine water levels
on a construction site. A surveyor’s tape with a chalked sur-
face will wash clean below the water when lowered into a
piezometer. A flat-bottomed or cupped weight affixed to the
bottom of a tape will generate an audible splash when the
weight strikes the water. Similarly, a heavy whistle, open at
the bottom and mounted on a tape will generate a sound as
the whistle sinks into the water.
Data loggers are more than labor-saving devices; early
time data can be recorded at a frequency not possible even
with numerous personnel to manually record water levels at
each location in a typical piezometer array. The water level
data obtained with the data logger at early times during a
pumping test are particularly useful in a Boulton analysis
(Section 9.13). Anomalies in the plots can be better iden-
tified, and the departures from ideal aquifer conditions are
more readily identified and interpreted. As a result, the bet-
ter test data, in the hands of an experienced analyst, makes
more reliable interpretations and conclusions possible.
Figure 8.12 shows a Jacob time plot from a pump test
in a large water table aquifer. The data logger was pro-
grammed to record water levels on a logarithmic time fre-
quency to provide points evenly spaced on the plot. From
time equal to zero to about 0.4 min, the points describe a
curve until minimum tse for the Jacob modification has been
satisfied (Section 9.5). From 0.4 to about 1 min, 15 con-
secutive points clearly define a straight line with a slope rep-
resentative of the transmissivity of the aquifer. After 1 min,
the curve flattens as delayed storage release, as described in
Section 9.8, distorts the plot. After 120 min, the curve be-
gins to steepen again as the temporary recharge from delayed
storage becomes depleted. The analysis above would not
have been possible with manual techniques to determine the
water level in each piezometer. With manual methods, it
may be feasible to collect enough data to produce a plot
similar to that shown in Fig. 8.12 provided the piezometer
had been given very high priority and both a technician and
recorder were assigned to it in the first 10 min. If the pi-
 PIEZOMETERS
ezometer had second or lower priority, the earliest points
recorded would fall on the misleading flat portion of the
curve. This phenomenon explains why transmissivity is often
overestimated from manually obtained time plots. If only
one piezometer is available, a situation that sometimes oc-
curs, and a distance-drawdown plot cannot be generated, the
analysis has resulted in overdesign of dewatering systems in
large water table aquifers.
In addition to producing high-quality, high-frequency
data, a data logger can eliminate the need for the on-site,
24-hour presence of a technician during an extended pump-
ing test. Further, there is a very significant saving in analyst’s
time back at the office. Not only do data loggers record the
water level readings but the data can be downloaded into a
computer and, with appropriate software, can be quickly an-
alyzed and plotted to arithmetic, semi-log, and/or logarith-
mic scales.
Data loggers with pressure transducers are also useful in
providing data for tidal corrections (Section 9.8) before and
during pumping tests performed near the waterfront. To
accurately record the critical early time data during a slug
test described in Section 11.6, the data logger and pore pres-
sure transducer are preferred.
8.6 PORE PRESSURE PIEZOMETERS IN FINE-
GRAINED SOILS
For measuring pore pressures in fine-grained soils, conven-
tional piezometers are not recommended. A piezometer re-
quires water volume that must flow into or out of the
stratum to cause a change in water level in the piezometer.
FOR GROUNDWATER MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING 117
Figure 8.11 A self-contained, individual data
logger for installation in a piezometer.
The flow may require a very long time to equalize and may
reduce the pore pressure in the monitored stratum such that
the indicated reading will be low. While pore water pres-
sures are not significant to dewatering in the normal sense,
they can have a major effect on the stability of the slopes
and bottom of an excavation or of embankments.
Pore water pressures can be measured by various devices
(Fig. 8.13). The pneumatic piezometer uses a porous stone
element sealed in the zone to be observed. A pressure cell
consisting of a stainless steel diaphragm is mounted im-
mediately at the top of the element and connected to two
tubes leading to the surface. Air pressure is admitted to one
tube until it precisely balances the water pressure on the
other side of the diaphragm, at which point a ball valve
opens and the excess air escapes through the second tube.
The air pressure indicates the pore pressure in the piezom-
eter, with negligible water displacement.
Electronic transducers, as mentioned above, and data
loggers are effective for the measurement and recording of
water levels and pore pressures [8-1]. Transducers are es-
sential for automatic and remote readout, and when using
data loggers (Section 8.5). While there are various types, the
vibrating wire type is reportedly more reliable for underwater
service than the resistance-type pore water pressure trans-
ducer.
Water levels cannot be verified in pore pressure piezom-
eters by in situ methods such as pumping and recovery tests,
as discussed in Section 8.4, and except for the situation
where the site activities are not amenable to the presence of
standpipes, they are not recommended for typical dewater-
ing purposes.
118 THEORY
Figure 8.12 Jacob time plot from a data logger.
Figure 8.13 Various pore pressure piezometers. Courtesy Slope Indicator.
8.7 DIRECT PUSH TECHNOLOGIES FOR
PIEZOMETER INSTALLATION
While installation and monitoring of piezometers is a tried
and proven method of ascertaining ground water conditions,
the techniques are also costly and time-consuming. More
recently, direct push technologies have been effective in
measuring groundwater levels and the hydraulic conductivity
in situ. The direct push technique utilizes tools and sensors
that are pushed into the ground with static force and per-
cussion rather than conventional rotary drilling techniques.
Direct push does not create drill spoils and waste drilling
fluids, and is advantageous for environmental applications to
obtain detailed water quality and groundwater information.
Proprietary direct push systems utilize various tools to
perform such tasks as obtaining soil samples (continuous or
discrete), groundwater and vapor samples, and measuring
hydraulic conductivity. The reusable tools known as ground-
water samplers are advanced to collect groundwater samples
and acquire other data at multiple depths during drilling,
but are not meant for long-term monitoring. With these
tools, a water sample can be collected and an in situ hy-
draulic conductivity test may be conducted. Direct push
technologies have also been developed to install permanent
small-diameter monitoring wells.
The cone penetrometer test (CPT) has been used for
many years to investigate geotechnical conditions and has
more recently been adapted to investigations of groundwater
conditions, including pore pressures, at multiple elevations
within a single borehole. In tests where the cone (a piezo-
cone) also includes a porous stone and pore pressure trans-
ducer, pore water pressures are also measured. The pore
pressure response can be also indicative of the hydraulic con-
ductivity of the formation. The CPT is also useful in de-
tecting stratigraphic changes that might otherwise be missed
by traditional sampling at fixed intervals.
Monitoring wells or piezometers installed with direct
push methods are typically less than 2 in. (50 mm) in inside
diameter and utilize retrievable, prepacked screens with an
outer stainless steel mesh. The screen is a high-quality, high
open area screen, but with a very small effective opening
 PIEZOMETERS
Figure 8.14 A direct push groundwater sampler used to obtain samples
through a screen. This type of sample device provides the ability to obtain
multiple water levels and samples in one borehole. (a) Advance device to
desired depth. (b) Activate the sampler by retracting the casing and
exposing the screen. (c) Obtain the reading and / or groundwater sample
from the set depth. (d) Withdraw the casing and screen. Courtesy
Geoprobe
systems.
size that makes well development difficult and typically
highly ineffective, a consideration when evaluating in situ
hydraulic conductivity data. Installation involves driving
drilling pipe with a large enough inside diameter to allow
for the installation of the preassembled well screen and riser
pipe (Fig. 8.16). The prepacked piezometer screen can be
reused at multiple elevations to provide a detailed water level
and hydraulic conductivity profile, or it can be installed per-
manently at one location. When the screens are reinstalled
temporarily at multiple intervals, the method is rapid. How-
ever, the data are a ‘‘snapshot in time’’ and the method does
not allow for observations of changes over time. Addition-
ally, the data acquired from direct push piezometer instal-
lation may be influenced by borehole smear during
FOR GROUNDWATER MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING 119
Figure 8.15 A direct push tool groundwater sampler utilized for
obtaining water levels and samples at various depths. Courtesy
Geoprobe
Systems.
installation, the lack of a proper borehole seal above the
screen to conclusively isolate the piezometer screen in a dis-
crete zone, and in low hydraulic conductivity formations the
water levels may not equilibrate in the timeframe available.
For the installation of a permanent monitoring well or
piezometer, as in conventional monitoring well installation
with the use of a casing, the drilling pipe is withdrawn suf-
ficiently to permit the installation of a sand above the screen
prior to the placement of a bentonite seal and grout.
While direct push technologies may be useful supple-
ments to more conventional monitoring well installations,
they should not serve as a substitute for more traditional
methods. The direct push methods are not as reliable as
traditional methods. Groundwater profiling with temporary
installations provides data at a single point in time but not
as a function of time. For design of dewatering systems,
120 THEORY

particularly where groundwater levels may vary seasonally or

with the levels of a nearby open water body, instantaneous
groundwater information may be insufficient as compared to
that obtainable from conventional observation wells.

Reference

8-1 Dunnicliff, J., and Green, G. (1988). Geotechnical Instrumen-

tation for Monitoring Field Performance. Wiley, New York, NY.

Figure 8.16 A prepacked direct push piezometer screen. Courtesy

Geoprobe
Systems.